MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
(www.mak.ac.ug)
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING CURRIED OUT AT TORORO

CEMENT LIMITED.

STUDENT NAME: MATEGE Julius

STUDENT NUMBER: 213025259
REG. NUMBER: 13/U/25604/PS
COURSE CODE: ICH3223
COURSE NAME: INDUSTRIAL TRAINING
COMPANY SUPERVISOR: ENG. OLINGA VICENT.

UNIVERSITY SUPERVISOR: ASSOC. PROF G.W. NYAKAIRU.

This Industrial Training Report Is Submitted To Makerere University In Partial

Fulfilment Of The Requirement For The Award Of A Degree Of Bachelor Of Science In
Industrial Chemistry Of At Makerere University

June-August, 2015

0
 DECLARATION

I, MATEGE Julius, declare to the best of my knowledge that this report is produced on my
own and it has never been published or duplicated from any other submitted report for any
other degree award before the undersigned date.

Signature:

.....................................................

Date:

MATEGE Julius.

BSc. In Industrial Chemistry.

1
 APPROVAL

This report has been approved by the following supervisors before submission for
examination at both Tororo Cement Limited, and Makerere University.

Signature: Signature

..................................................... ..

Date: Date

ENG. OLINGA VICENT. ASSOC. PROF G.W.

NYAKAIRU.

Process Engineer University Supervisor

Tororo Cement Limited. Makerere University.

2
 DEDICATION

I do dedicate this report to all students doing courses of chemical engineering and industrial
chemistry around the world.

Furthermore, I cant forget to dedicate it to all my old boys and old girls who are doing great
other engineering work around our motherland Uganda.

3
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First and for most, I acknowledge the only true God in heaven for the gift of life up to this
day when Ive been able to successfully complete my training! I acknowledge the great Ivory
tower, Makerere University for the golden opportunity of being part of them. In the same
sense, I acknowledge Tororo Cement Limited for the training opportunity granted me through
the human resource manager. I am so thankful to this great company.

With great thanks I acknowledge Mr. Olinga Vicent, the Process engineer of Tororo Cement
Limited for his intimate efforts in the course of my training .His being my supervisor was a
divine mission intended to enhance my understanding of process engineering! I am much
thankful for his time and continual & unfailing advice as well as guidance.

I extend my sincere gratitude to the quality control workers with more emphasis Mr. Obo,
Mabirizi Paul, Mr. Sempijja Ronald, Mr. Wandaka, Mr. Opiira, and Mr. Offumbi Lazarus for
their remarkable guidance. Nevertheless, their hospitality provided a conducive training
atmosphere in the Testing, Physical, and Chemical laboratories for the time I was there.
Always allowing me to question them and giving me prompt replies for my uncertainties in
my work.

I cant forget the friendly ancestors of Makerere University, who graduated in Industrial
Chemistry. I have many happy memories of their smart work in the computer control room
and the various stories we used to relate pertaining university life. I also extend much thanks
to them for all their assistance in my training.

I also extend bottle of thanks to all fellow trainees both from Kyambogo and Ndejje
universities for the great cooperation and team work that they always rendered treasured.
Hence creating conducive learning environment that has enabled me to achieve this training a
success to this day.

Special thanks go to my families; both my African and American families for their
immeasurable and unconditional support that is spiritual, moral, material, immaterial, and
above all, their financial support. Surely, I am proud of living in their sphere of love and
leadership. To all my parents, I extend immeasurable honor and appreciations.

In summary, I acknowledge the whole staff of Tororo Cement Limited as well as the whole
staff of Makerere university college of natural science and the department of Chemistry in
particular (Assoc. Prof. M. Ntale, youre a father, long live!)

Thanks to all in Jesus NameAmen!

4
 ABSTRACT

In this training report, a number of sections have been subdivided to suit different production
areas of interest and the overall reporting of the different activities curried out during the
internship season.

All relevant abbreviations, drawings, illustrations and flow chart diagrams have been
included in the appendix, and other areas of this report so as to enable the reader easily
comprehend the different technical terms applied, as well as easy following of the production
process.

The different training approaches for example studying by observations, literature review, and
analysis which involved activities including quality controlling, process engineering studies
among others are all described in this booklet report.

For reasons of knowledge about the training premises, the historical background, location,
and treasured safety precautions, are also illustrated in this booklet.

In summary, whole training has been presented in detailed by way of splitting the different
training sections and periods into chapters and subchapters which the reader can simply
follow up in the course of reading.

The report was composed by the internship trainee whose particulars are indicated on the top
cover of this booklet, and this was workable based on the daily activities carried out, plus the
continual consultations with the company supervisor along the path of training. Therefore, it
is a report worth trust, and it is strongly believed the report is easy to follow and understand.

So, enjoy your reading, exploring of the quality and process control at Tororo Cement
Limited.

5
 Table of Contents
DECLARATION.......................................................................................................................i

APPROVAL..............................................................................................................................ii

DEDICATION.........................................................................................................................iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT........................................................................................................iv

ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................................v

CHAPTER ONE.......................................................................................................................1

INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................1

1.1 Organizational Context.....................................................................................................1

1.2 Organizational Structure...................................................................................................4

1.3 The Scope, Criteria and Purpose of Industrial Training...................................................6

CHAPTER TWO......................................................................................................................8

CEMENT AND ITS RAW MATERIALS..............................................................................8

2.1. Definition, uses and Types of cement..........................................................................8

2.2 Raw materials...............................................................................................................9

CHAPTER THREE................................................................................................................11

RAW MATERIAL SIZING AND PRE-HOMOGENIZATION...........................................11

3.1The crusher...................................................................................................................11

3.2 The Stacker/Reclaimer yard........................................................................................12

CHAPTER FOUR..................................................................................................................14

RAW MILLING AND HOMOGENISATION.....................................................................14

4.1 The raw mill................................................................................................................14

4.2 The separator...............................................................................................................15

4.3 Homogenization..........................................................................................................16

CHAPTER FIVE....................................................................................................................17

6
 PRE-HEATING, CLINKERING AND COOLING.............................................................17

5.1 Preheating...................................................................................................................17

5.2 Clinkering...................................................................................................................21

5.3 Cooling........................................................................................................................25

CHAPTER SIX.......................................................................................................................26

CEMENT MILLING AND DESPATCH..............................................................................26

6.1 Cement Mill................................................................................................................26

6.2 Separation...................................................................................................................28

6.3 Cement Dispatch.........................................................................................................29

CHAPTER SEVEN................................................................................................................31

QUALITY CONTROL AND ASSURANCE.......................................................................31

7.1 Testing Laboratory......................................................................................................32

7.2 Physical Laboratory....................................................................................................35

7.3 Chemical Laboratory..................................................................................................43

CHAPTER EIGHT................................................................................................................53

POLLUTION CONTROL....................................................................................................53

8. 1 Air emissions..............................................................................................................53

8.2 Dust Collection...........................................................................................................54

8.3 Water, solid wastes, and noise pollution.....................................................................58

CHAPTER NINE...................................................................................................................59

CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMANDATIONS AND REFERENCES....................................59

9.1 Conclusions.................................................................................................................59

9.2 Recommendations.......................................................................................................60

9.3 References...................................................................................................................61

APENDICES...........................................................................................................................62

A) Process Flow Chart......................................................................................................62

7
B) Acronyms.....................................................................................................................63

C) ISO 9000 Quality Management & Quality Assurance Standards................................64

8
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Organizational Context

This has been purposed to discuss the location, historical background, and safety measures
taken at Tororo Cement Limited.

1.1.1 Location
Tororo cement limited is situated in the far Eastern part of Uganda about 230 kilometers from
Kampala, and 11 kilometers to Malaba boarder of Uganda-Kenya.

The factory is well established, and it has access to good infrastructure such as road and
railways through Uganda. The railway from Tororo main station serves the factorys main
areas of production of cement, iron sheets, wire products and raw materials.

The factory is using different sources of energy; to mention, hydroelectricity power (HEP),
coal which is used in the burning of the raw mill into clinker in the kiln and this coal is
imported and furnace oil is also used in the kiln. Coal however is the one which is used more
as compared to the furnace oil due to the fact that coal is cheap although it has a lower
calorific value than furnace oil.

1.1.2 Historical background

Tororo cement limited was founded in 1947 by the British since Uganda during the period of
colonialism. And their major aim was for construction of the Owen Falls Dam which required
a lot of cement and therefore importing of cement would be very expensive.

By then, factory was ran using thermal power from the generator and clinker was produced
using charcoal and furnace oil as a source of fuel. Furnace oil was imported from Mombasa.

By 1952, the construction of Owen Falls Dam was completed and it was commissioned by
Queen of England by then was Elizabeth the second (II). Power generated from the dam was
then extended to the factory to boost its production.

Around 1955, the factory production expanded to meet the increasing demand of cement by
the people for construction in various towns such as in Jinja as many factories were being

1
built due to the abundant source of hydroelectricity power which was being generated at
Owen Falls Dam. Other towns were Mbale, Tororo, Kampala, and so on.

In 1962, when Uganda got independent, the factory was given to the government of Uganda
under a body called Uganda development corporation (UDP) which headed all factories in
Uganda.

In 1965, another factory called Uganda Asbestos manufacturing company (UMA) was
constructed within the vicinity of the Tororo cement industry to meet the roofing needs of the
people. As a result yielded a lot of profits and this drove the Uganda development corporation
to put up another factory called the Hima cement factory in the western part of Uganda. All
these factories were headed by the Uganda cement industry (UCI) and their respective names
were Uganda cement industry Tororo and Uganda cement industry Hima respectively.

The two factories had a sole director but with branch managers at the respective premises.

In 1971, when IDI Amini took over power, he disorganized the Uganda development
corporation and these totally lead to the collapse of industries in Uganda since it replaced
Uganda Development Corporation with a ministry of industries.

In 1986, when Mr. Yoweri Kaguta Museveni became the president of the Uganda, he
introduced the idea of privatization which involved selling off of the government entities to
private owners.

By doing this a lot of investors were interested in Hima industry because its machinery were
still new and was bought leaving Tororo industry because it was very old as such production
was at a standstill since money was not enough to finance the production.

In 1995, bidders were shortlisted and two Indian brothers won the bid at 12.5 million dollars.
Terminal benefits were paid off to the workers and the Uganda cement industry (UCI) was
changed to Tororo cement limited in fear of the many taxes which are imposed on the
unlimited factories.

In 1996, all the machinery was repaired and manufacturing of cement started off but clinker
and pozzolana were being imported.

2
Later, besides getting limestone from the Tororo quarry, and after transportation of lime stone
from Kasese by railway stopped, another quarry from Kitale-Kenya was discovered and
limestone was then imported from Kenya but it was stopped by the Kenyan government. It
was discovered that the Kitale rock stretches up to Moroto where limestone is now being
extracted and mixed with the Tororo limestone.

During the British colony, furnace oil was the one mainly used to fire up the kiln but now it is
coal which is used in abundance in comparison with furnace oil.

The Tororo cement limited has been boosted by the good transport network that is road and
railway transport means. And the major problem being faced by Tororo cement limited now is
pollution and as such new preventative measures are being put up to reduce the emission of
carbon dioxide gas to the atmosphere.

Above all, expansion work is still going on at Tororo cement limited.

1.1.3 Safety
In order to ensure that the workers are safe, and their health maintained, a number of safety
measure are considered as emphasized by the department of safety. All through the training,
these applied to all workers irrespective of the department or sections under which they were
employed. Apart from hand gloves which were given to a few for hands protection, the rest of
the workers were availed with the following:

a) Given a protective helmet to protect the head from injuries due to falling objects.
b) Dust masks were also provided to minimize inhaling of dust.
c) Safety shoes for protecting the feet/legs from accidents.
d) Overall and other recommended wares to all workers in order to discourage loose
dressing in the factory.

3
1.2 Organizational Structure
1.2.1 Flowchart for the administration.

4
1.2.2 Key

ED= Executive Director

I.C= In Charge
HRM= Human Resource Manager
MKT= Marketing
KLA= Kampala
TRO= Tororo
MAN= Manager
SEC= Security
FIN= Finance
T= Training
S&W= Safety and Welfare
MED.CARE= Medical Care
HOD= Head of Department
ELEC= Electrical
MEC= Mechanical
INS= Instrumentation
ST. = Steel
PAC=Packing
GAR = Garage.

5
1.3 The Scope, Criteria and Purpose of Industrial Training
1.3.1 The scope of Industrial Training

During the industrial period, the theoretical knowledge was put into practice with the new
practical techniques; effected by the trainee with help from Tororo Cement Limited staff.

The sections covered as per the training schedule included Testing laboratory, Physical
laboratory, and chemical laboratory on the quality control and quality assurance.

Similarly, the sections of Stacker & Reclaimer house, raw milling & homogenization,
Nitrogen plant, Coal milling, preheating, clinkering, cooling, and Cement milling were
covered on the side of process control.

1.3.2 Criteria of Training

The training was proved successful through a number of criteria as illustrated here
below:
There was a session of orientation all through the factory, learning about the safety
cautions, and studying the flow of materials from one point to the other from the
process flow chart.
An orientation about the laboratory including the different activities carried out at the
laboratory, laboratory regulations and other departments that make up the main body.
Studies made by walking around and observing how work is done in laboratories and
relating with lecture work was also done.
Introductory briefs and demonstrations were conducted before any methodology of
analysis was carried out during which notes were taken for future reference.
Quality control concepts as described by literature review were followed and carried
out by the students under the supervision of their trainer.
After sufficient training, the students were let to carry out the analytical methods
individually, obtain results and the results were calculated by both the student and
trainer.
The introductory briefs and demonstrations were supplemented by reference reading
of manuals, pharmacopeia and protocols for the various analytical procedures during
which notes were taken for future reference.

6
1.3.3 The purpose of Industrial Training

Below are a number of objectives/ aims as well as the purposes of this training both in line
with cement production and also general production of any other products.

They include:

To develop the skills in unit operations and unit processes

To enable students understand real life situation at work place and embrace the
learning process of how knowledge acquired in lecture rooms is translated to practical
in the real world.
To expose the student to community of professional practice.
To allow students experience in real life the financial and economical factor which
must be observed in engineering and other science disciplines.
To assess how well the trainee could adapt to stimulated work environment.
To provide an opportunity of interaction between the student, stakeholders and
potential employers in order to appreciate field situation; that will also generate
information for curricula review and improvements.
To enable trainees appreciate and have a wider understanding of the problems
encountered in chemical plants, and have a unique approach for related problem
solving.
To develop the trainee in the skills of management, communication, work ethics,
employment demands, responsibilities and opportunities.
To equip students with relevant aspects and knowledge relative to the demands of the
advancing technology in the working environment.

7
 CHAPTER TWO

CEMENT AND ITS RAW MATERIALS

2.1. Definition, uses and Types of cement.

2.1.1 Definition of cement

Cement is a hydraulic binder. It is a binding substance, which sets and hardens independently
and can be used to bind other substances mostly metals and stones.

2.1.2 Uses of cement

The major importance of cement is to make mortar in masonry and concrete which form
strong materials required in building and construction.

2.1.3 Cement Types & Specifications.

Type I - General purpose

Type II - Moderate heat/moderate sulphate resistance
Type III - High early strength
Type IV - Low heat of hydration (rare)
Type V - High sulphate resistance Low alkali cement containing 15-40% pozzolana
Type P - Portland pozzolana cement containing 15-40% pozzolana but with slower strength
development than

However, cement can be generally categoried into two types; hydraulic and non-hydraulic.

Hydraulic cements (for example Portland cement) hardens in water. This is because of
hydration due to chemical reaction between the anhydrous cement powder and water. Thus
they can harden when put in contact with moisture. The chemical reaction results in hydrates
that are hardly soluble in water, so as to aid further durability in water with time.

Non hydraulic cement (for example slaked limes) does not harden in water. Rather, it hardens
with exposure to the atmosphere due to reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide.

8
2.1.4 The type of cement produced at TCL

At Tororo cement limited, hydraulic (Portland cement) is the type of cement produced and
this is of two classes; that is Pozzolana Portland Cement (PPC) and Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC). PPC is produced by milling clinker, gypsum, and pozzolana together. On the
other hand, OPC is produced by milling only clinker and gypsum together. OPC cement is
recommended for stronger constructions like dams, bridges among others, while PPC is
recommended for ordinary constructions.

2.2 Raw materials

The major raw materials used at TCL are lime stone, clay, iron ore, sand stone, and bauxite.
These are inspected of quality and chemical composition before they are fed into the process.

Therefore, the process making clinker and cement production at large begins in the quarry
with mining of raw materials, and their transport to the plant.

2.2.1 The Quarry.

At Tororo Cement Limited, Limestone (CaCO3) was the major source of lime (CaO), which
was the major raw material for clinker and cement as well.
Limestone was extracted from two different quarries that is Tororo quarry in Tororo and
Amudat quarry in Karamoja. Tororo quarry provided low grade limestone whereas Amudat
provided high grade limestone.

In both quarries, blasting of the rocks was done the rock particles were tested in the lab at the
quarry to ensure that the rocks had the appropriate calcium carbonate content before they
were brought to the factory. The target quality of the limestone was about 40% of lime.

Clay was the main source of SiO2, and other oxides of Al2O3 & Fe2O3. Just like limestone,
Clay was tested too in order to ensure desired proportions (about 13%) of silicon dioxide
(SiO2).

Additives like Bauxite, iron ore, Sand stone also provide SiO2, Al2O3 or Fe 2O3 to less than
1% each. These were also mined in Mbale.

9
Apart from chemistry, grindability was also a factor that was used in selecting raw materials.
So, the two were highly considered in the quarries of the respective raw materials for Tororo
cement. (Refer to Chapter 6, pages 34-35).

2.2.2 Clinker

Clinker is a granular solid substance produced, whose chemical composition is that of

Portland cement. Its composition can be varied depending both on cement specifications and
to the mineralogy of available materials. In clinker formation therefore, a eutectic mix is
sought which minimizes both heat input and the total cost of raw materials, while producing a
cement of acceptable performance.
An approximate analysis of a raw mix for clinker production should include:
Lime (CaO) 65-68%
Silicates (SiO2) 20-23%
Aluminates (Al2O3) 4- 6%
Iron (Fe2O3) 2- 4%
Magnesium (MgO) 1- 5%
And the rest being sulphites, potassium, sodium, tin, and manganese in appreciably
small proportions.

2.2.3 Pozzolana

Apart from the above raw material, various pozzolanic materials are required for pozzolana
Portland cement.
Pozzolana is volcanic ash that occurs as a result volcanic eruption. It has similar properties as
clicker/cement, and for this reason, it is mined and added to PPC purposely to increase
volume of the final product.

2.2.4 Gypsum

Gypsum is a natural form of calcium, which occurs as dehydrated calcium sulphate.

(CaSO4.2H2O). Addition of raw material serves a role of regulating setting time of cement.
This is possible due to its water of hydration which renders it a lower affinity for water.

10
 CHAPTER THREE

RAW MATERIAL SIZING AND PRE-HOMOGENIZATION

3.1The crusher
All quarried raw materials are transported to the crusher yard for temporal storage before they
are crushed further to the desired particle sizes.

3.1.1 Type of crusher.

The crusher machine used is of Impact type with hammer mills which is the preferred type
for limestone with up to about 12% moisture content. This allowes reduction ratios up to
80:1.

It consists of primary crusher and secondary crusher in series, a screening station, a belt
conveyor and a covered storage built underground for withdrawal of materials.

Using trucks, the limestone materials from the quarry are put into hoppers with downward
slopes and they proceed to the apron feeder which is flat to control the flow of the bolted
stones into the primary crusher. During crushing, water is added from the hydraulic breaker
that is installed in order to ease crushing, absorb dust as well as reducing the effect of
oversized rocks.

3.1.2 Primary and secondary crushers.

The Primary crusher is capable of accepting shot rock from the quarry with the minimum of
preliminary size reduction of typically less than 120cm. It reduced the raw materials to sizes
below 30 mm using the teeth against the mantle.

The secondary crusher uses a hammer mill closed circuit with a double check that reduced
the material from the primary crusher to about10 mm size. This suites the recommended ideal
size of -20mm for feed to ball type raw mills.

The sized particles are directed into the cute, then onto the belt conveyor which transfers it to
the banker piles. By means of wheel loaders and tracks the sized material is transported from
the banker piles to the Stacker feed hopper for pre-homogenization process.

11
3.1.3 Monitoring of crusher
Monitoring of crusher operation is effected by controlling the following factors:
Production rate (tones/hour)
Operating time (hours)
Involuntary downtime (hours)
Feed moisture (as a percentage)

3.2 The Stacker/Reclaimer yard.

This is a large well housed yard from where the two machines are operated. The yard is the
ground for piling and pre-mixing of raw materials before they are transferred into the hoppers
for the raw mill. Therefore, pre-homogeneity is the target role that is performed in the
stacker/Reclaimer yard.

3.2.1 The stacker machine

The feed hopper has cute and apron feeder which aid material flow from the stacker feed
hopper to Stacker Belt Conveyor-1 (BC-01). At its end, the cute aids material flow to BC-02,
and finally to BC-03, which could run along the stacker machine.

The stacker machine has a boom conveyor, which blends material as it delivers it to the pile.
The boom conveyor pours materials and makes piles to about 6000 tons of different stored
material.

This process of making piles with different composition of raw materials is what is referred
to as pre-homogenization. Different results from the quality control laboratory are
considered in determining the different proportions of high grade and low grade limestone,
fluorspar, bauxite, and iron ore that should be mixed in the pile.

At Tororo Cement Limited, the stacker machine often makes two piles; the eastern pile and
the western pile. The stacker and Reclaimer machines are operated simultaneously and
counter-currently; while the stacker works on the eastern pile, the reclaimer works on the
western pile, and vice vasa.

3.2.2 The reclaimer machine

The reclaimer machine consists of a scrapper chain with scrapper buckets and a harrow drive.
The harrow drive brought the piled material nearer to the buckets while the scrapper buckets
scoops, and poured it into BC-01 or BC-03 from either the western pile or eastern pile

12
respectively. Both BC-01 and BC-03 pours material onto BC-02, which also has a cute and it
pours onto BC-04. An electrical magnetic separator is positioned along BC-4, just slightly
above the moving material in order to remove any metallic materials that can damage the raw
mill once ignored.

Then material free of metals was continues and pours into the cute, and finally to BC-05
ready for distribution among the three hoppers of the raw mill. BC-05 is driven by reversible
motors and these alter direction between BC-06 and BC-07 in order to feed hoppers (H1, H2)
and H3 respectively.

Hoppers H1, H2 are feed with pre-homogenized material of limestone from the stacker/
reclaimer yard whereas hopper H3 is only feed with clay.

The hoppers are made of concrete having pin gates and weigh feeders at lower side.
Proportions for each weigh feeder for example pre-homogenized lime stone (85%) and Clay
(25%) are poured onto BC-08, to BC-09 and then fed to the raw mill.

13
 CHAPTER FOUR

RAW MILLING AND HOMOGENISATION

4.1 The raw mill.

Mills are of two types that are widely employed for grinding of material that is;
vertical roller press mill
Ball mill,

The vertical roller mill was an upgrade the ball mill circuits either to increase production or to
reduce specific power consumption. Roller mills can typically handle raw materials with an
aggregate moisture of up to 15%.

Ball mills however were the ones used at Tororo cement limited for all milling. Therefore, the
construction and mode of operation for the raw mill discussed in this report are based on Ball
type of the mill.

If the raw mill is adequately air swept with hot gas (2.5-3.5M/sec above the ball charge), it
can handle material with up to 8% moisture content.

4.1.1 The Ball mill and Milling process.

A ball mill is horizontal cylindrical shell designated by their inside diameter, length, and
connected drive to motor power. The shell is protected by steel liner bricks and usually
divided into two compartments of which the first is typically 30-33% of the overall length.
Hardened steel is used for balls and liners inside the mill.

At TCL, the raw ball mill has one chamber but with pseudo compartments. The first
compartment is primarily to break feed material which should be up to 30mm of size; lifting
liners and balls from 50mm up to 90mm are being employed to effect impact. Material of less
than 2-3mm moves to the second compartment with balls which range between 10 to 15mm.

Since a range of ball sizes are used in the chamber, classifying liners are employed to retain
the small balls at the discharge.

The quantity of balls, the type and condition of the shell liners, and the mill speed determine
the power draw of the mill. The mill typically operates at about 75% of critical speed (the
speed at which centrifugal force just holds charge to the shell during rotation), and 25-35%
volumetric charge loading.

At the inlet of the raw mill, there are three inlets. The first one brings hot gases from the
preheater (used to dry the materials for easy grinding), the second one brings fresh air, while

14
the third one brings the feed into the mill. Here, the feed is both raw materials from weigh
feeders and the coarse material from the separator. All feed is fed by belt conveyor 321BC370
and the feeder valve 321FV001 controls the raw materials that enters the mill.

When materials enters the raw mill, it is grinded by the balls as a result of rotation of the mill.
Due to the sanction by this fan, grinded materials are sucked out of the mill and the materials
fall to the air slide (321.AS210) which takes to the bucket elevator (321BE220) by use of the
root blowers (321.FN221), then its transported to the air slide (321.AS 230), and finally
taken to the separator by the help of air blower (321.FN232) for separation.

4.2 The separator

4.2.1 Type of separator
Like the mills, several types of separator are employed in mill circuits and there are numerous
variations of each type as they suit the different types of mills under use.
For the case of ball mill circuits, separators can be:
Grit separators. These have no moving parts and effect separation by the cyclonic air
flow induced by guide vanes.
Mechanical separators. The material is fed onto a rotating dispersion plate as it is spun
off into a rising air stream, thus centrifugation.

High efficiency cyclone separators. These work by centrifugation and were introduced
to improve on the mechanical separator's low efficiency in fines recovery.

However, the High efficiency cyclone separator is used at Tororo Cement Limited.

4.2.2 The separation process

Material from the raw mill is fed onto a rotating dispersion plate while it is dispersed into the
classifying air stream that is sucked from tangential inlet ducts through fixed guide vanes.

A horizontal vortex is formed by the rotor which classifies particles between centrifugal force
and the inward air flow. Air flow is separately controlled by the separator ID fan whereas
retention time in the separating zone is controlled by the height to diameter ratio of the rotor.

The fine fraction exits upwards with the air exhaust for subsequent dust collection while the
coarse fraction falls and it is discharged from the bottom of the vessel.

15
Fineness is increased and controlled solely by rotor speed; at increased speed, fineness is
increased. The fine materials should move to the cyclones and the coarse one passes through
the feed flow meter which measures the tonnage of the materials which are taken back to the
raw mill for grinding.

There is also separation in the cyclones where fine material enters in a swirling manner as the
gases move up and continuously brought back to the separator; these gases are controlled by
damper (321.TV490).

All fine material from the four cyclones is discharged into air slides (321.AS500 and
321.AS505), through the rotary air locks which controls the amount of the materials going
into the air slides to reduce blockages; so, it releases material at given time intervals.

The materials is then discharged into the main air slide 321.AS510 which pours it into the
bucket elevator. The bucket elevator (321.BE001) has buckets which carry material up by the
rotation of the rotor. Therefore, material is carried up into the raw mill silo for blending and
temporary storage

4.3 Homogenization
The silo design involves controlled flow, and this effects sequenced light aeration of
segments of air-pads. This caused layers of material in the silo to blend by differential rates of
descent within the raw mill silo. The silo has a capacity of more than 24 hours kiln feed.

Materials is then discharged into the silo by means of an air slide (321.AS001). Therefore,
material is being transported and agitated inside the silo there by mixing; thus blending.

The process of mixing material in the silo is called homogenization, the homogenized
material is then called the raw meal, and this is ready to be fed in the preheater of the kiln as
a raw feed.

16
 CHAPTER FIVE

PRE-HEATING, CLINKERING AND COOLING.

The burning and cooling system comprises a preheater in which feed material is prepared by
heat exchange with hot exhaust gas, a fired rotary kiln in which the clinkering reactions
occur, and a grate cooler in which the hot clinker exchanges heat with ambient combustion
air.

Kiln feed is subjected to successive reactions as its temperature increase with in the kiln.

Temperature Range Reaction involved.

100oC Evaporation of free water.

> 500oC Evolution of combined water

> 900oC CaCO3 -> CaO + CO2

> 900oC Reactions between CaO and Al2O3, Fe2O3 and SiO2

> 1200oC Liquid formation

> 1280oC Formation of C3S and complete reaction of CaO

5.1 Preheating
5.1.1 The preheater system

This is a 4-stage preheater system. The air suspension in the cyclone system greatly increases
the efficiency of heat exchange between hot gas and feed material over the temperature range
of ambient to about 900oC, and also allows significant calcination to occur before the hot
meal enters the rotary kiln.

Kiln gas is cooled from, typically, 1100oC to 350o C. The feed material is therefore preheated
by counter-current flow which is also a series of parallel flow processes in each successive
cyclone (see Figure 4.1 below).

17
 Fig 4.1
Cyclone Preheater Typical Temperature & Pressure Profile and Cyclone Efficiencies

5.1.2 The cyclones

In the pre-heater, there are four cyclones; that is cyclone 1A and 1B which are called the twin
cyclones, then 2, 3 and 4.

The cyclones consists of a steel shell. However, aluminium being a poorer conductor of heat,
it is used to paint the shells in order to reduce heat loss by conduction. Inside the shell is
made up of bricks which are temperature resistant; for all the four cyclones, different

18
materials of bricks (material science) are used for design in relation to the temperatures they
are subjected to.

The cyclones also have blasters which helped to remove materials that can block the passage
by sticking on the walls and feed pipes; blasters use compressed air from the pressure house.
After pressure accumulating in the cylinder, it purges through the nozzle to the walls to clear
off the materials at a time intervals.

Pressure detectors and thermocouples to measure draught pressures and temperatures of the
materials at each cyclone exist at the conical parts of the cyclones.

At the bottom of each cyclone is a pipe joining to the riser duct which had a single flap for
cyclones 1A, 1B, 2 and 3 but a double flap for cyclone 4. These flaps help in reducing the
over flow of materials to the riser-duct and also prevent hot gases from entering into the
cyclones through the bottom.

A draft is built up in the whole process by the main kiln fan and the suction is controlled by
use of the damper; this cannot opened until the fan is started and made to run for some time.

5.1.3 Material flow in the preheater

From the raw mill silo, raw meal is discharged through the air slides by the help of the root
air blowers into the bucket elevator which pours into the feed bin (16-18 tons).

Whenever the feed bin is full, the material is diverted by use of the use of the diverter gates
(351DG001) to an air slide which transport it back to the raw mill silo. The gates are
controlled by a sensor which closes the feed bin automatically every time it is full.

The raw feed from the feed bin has two outlets; the main stream and the bypass stream.
Whenever there is blockage of main stream, the bypass stream can be used. There are also air
slides into the solid flow meter which measure the amount of raw feed that is discharged into
the pre-heater system.

From the solid flow meter, the feed is released into the riser duct which contains a dispersion
plate and the material dispatched. It is there after carried to the twin cyclones 1A and 1B by
the hot gases coming from cyclone 2. Separation takes place where the dusty hot gasses are
sucked by the main fan while the heavier material move down the cyclone.

19
As it moves down at intervals with the help of the single flap, it is again dispatched at the
riser duct from cyclone 3 and then it met the hot gasses from cyclone 3. It is then carried to
cyclone 2 afterwards, where separation of hot gases and heavier materials occurs too; so, the
heavier goes down to the rise-duct from cyclone 4, which pushes it to cyclone 3 and finally
the material was dispatches into cyclone 4.

After it has been dispatched at the riser-duct from the kiln inlet, the material from cyclone 4
finally enters into the kiln while the hot gases move through the immersion tube. This tube
allows only small amounts of gases to pass through; in this way, it increases the residence
time for heat exchange between the feed material and the hot gases.

The main kiln fan provides suction, so, all the hot dusty gases are sucked by the fan to the
bag house while part of it is taken to the coal mill and raw mill for drying during milling
exercise.

5.1.4 Preheating processes.

Three major processes take place during preheating of the raw feed before it is fed into the
kiln. These include dehydration, Pre-heating and calcination or decarbonation of limestone.

Evaporation
The evaporation process occurs over a range of temperature from 100C up to about
450C and there is simply the evaporation and removal of the free water which is
adsorbed in the raw mix.

Equation:

Mg (OH) 2 MgO + H2O

Ca (OH) 2 CaO + H2O

Dehydration and preheating

This mainly involves evolution of combined water and formation of aluminium
oxides; it takes place at temperatures above 500oC (between 600-8000C)
Calcination or decarbonation means dissociating calcium carbonate by heating,
thereby giving rise to reactive lime and carbon dioxide gas. This occurs at
temperatures around 9000C and above, according to the following equation.

20
 CaCO3 HEAT CaO + CO2

5.2 Clinkering

5.2.1 The rotary kiln

The cyclone preheater kiln used does not have a precalciner, therefore, the feed is 20-40%
calcined at the kiln inlet, and it is also increased by riser firing. Nevertheless, calcination can
be completed in air suspension; this however should be avoided as the endothermic
dissociation of CaCO3 is followed by exothermic formation of cement compounds and
therefore uncontrolled temperatures can rise in the preheater leading to catastrophic plugging.

From cyclone 4, the kiln feed enters from the upper end of the kiln and slowly moves
downward to the hottest area at the bottom. This occurs slowly over a period of about 1.25
hours undergoing several different reactions as the temperature increased.

The slow rotation of the kiln ensures that each reaction is completed at the appropriate
temperatures since the initial reactions are endothermic. In other words, it is difficult to heat
the kiln feed to a higher temperature until a given reaction is completed.

5.2.2 Description

The kiln operates with three pseudo zones which are at different temperatures inside and
these included the following:

The calcination zone

The burning zone
The precooling cooling zone

The inside part of the kiln is made up of bricks (silica) which are resistant to melting and
deformation by the different zone temperatures.

At the kiln inlet and outlet, there are nuzzling fans which were automatically started and they
cool the inlet and outlet shell of the kiln. There are other fans placed along the kiln (around
the burning zone) purposely to cool the kiln shell at such temperature zone region.

The kiln is lighted up by introducing a flame at the inlet of the burner pipe; this is done by
first heating furnace oil at around 1100C to lower its viscosity and thus enable easy firing. The
flame is then made to first stabilize up to around 500 0C for initiation of combustion. Both
primary and secondary air are used to facilitate the combustion initiation.

21
The primary air as from a fan outside the kiln while the secondary air is from the grate cooler,
which also help in the heating up of the kiln thereby increasing the temperatures of the
burning zone.

Once the kiln feed has entered the kiln, there is calcination at over temperatures around
9000C.

CaCO3 CaO + CO2

In the burning zone, there is clinkering where kiln reactions took place over a range of
temperatures 13500C-15000C. The different reactions lead to the formation of Tetra calcium
aluminate ferrate (C4AF), Tri calcium Aluminate (C3A), Balite (C2S) and Alite (C3S).

There are changes of state in the burning zone from the solid to liquid, and finally to solid at
the kiln outlet.

5.2.3 Calcination zone

The term calcination refers to the process of decomposing a solid material to produce a gas
and a solid substance of different chemical nature. Calcination begins right from the preheater
and it takes place over a range of temperatures (500-9000C) and at about 600C the bound
water is driven out of the clays. At around 900C, the calcium carbonate is decomposed
releasing carbon dioxide.

CaCO3 CaO + CO2

By the end of the calcination zone the kiln feed constitutes of oxides of the four main
elements which are ready to undergo further reactions in order to yield clinker at the end.

Since melting isnt involved in the calcination zone, the kiln feed is still a free flowing
powder in this zone. Solid state reactions occurs between 900 to 1300C. This zone slightly
overlaps, and it can sometimes occur in calcination zone.

Lime (CaO) and reactive silica (SiO 2) combine to form small crystals of (dicalcium silicate)
C2S which is one of the four main cement minerals as well as clinker component. In addition,
intermediate calcium aluminates and calcium ferrite compounds are formed.

22
This plays an important role in the clinkering process as fluxing agents in that, they melt at a
relatively lower temperature than1300C. Therefore, this allows a significant increase in the
rate of reaction. Without these fluxing agents, the formation of the calcium silicate can be
slow and difficult.

The final aluminum and iron containing cement minerals (C3A and C4AF) in a Portland
cement contribute little to the final properties.

As the kiln feed passes through solid state reaction zone, it becomes sticky due to the
melting phases that cause a tendency for adjacent particles to fuse and form nodules.

5.2.4 Chemical equations involved

The available ferric oxides react with lime and alumina to form tricalcium alumina ferrite
according to the following equation(s).

4CaO + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3

4C + A + F 4C4AF

Since alumina is present in excess, the balance reacted with lime to form tricalcium
aluminate, (C3A)

CaO + Al2O3 CaO.Al2O3

2CaO + CaO.Al2O3 (CaO) 3.Al2O3

In the form, 2C + CA C3A

Burning zone

This is the hottest zone in which clinkering takes place between 1300 0C and 14500C. In this
zone, there is formation of the most important cement mineral, Alite (tricalcium silicate). The
reaction leading to Alite began as soon as the intermediate (calcium aluminate and ferrite)
phases melts.

23
Due to presence of the melted phases, agglomeration of the kiln mix inside the kiln occurs
and therefore formation of large nodules takes place. The nodules consisted of many small
solid particles bound together by a thin layer of the liquid phase. Inside the liquid phase, C3S
formed by reaction between belite (C2S) and lime (CaO).

Crystals of solid alite grow within the liquid while crystals of belite (formed earlier) decrease.
The clinkering process is completed when all the available silica has reacted to form C3S and
C2S crystals; by then, free lime (CaO) has been reduced to less than 1%. This renders clinker
ease of grinding.

5.2.6 Chemical equations involved

Although little lime remains uncombined as free lime, and little belite remained unconverted,
most of the belite further react with lime to form tricalcium silicate alite (alite) according to
the following equations:

CaO + S CaO.SiO2

CaO + CaO.SiO2 (CaO) 2.SiO2

(CaO) 2. SiO2 + CaO (CaO) 3.SiO2

All the above products move out of the kiln as nodules of clinker.

24
5.3 Cooling
5.3.1 The cooler

The type of system used is a grate cooler, which consists of two cooler chain grates and
cooling plates. The grates are moved by pressure from the hydraulic pressure pump in the
pressure house.

The pump is connected to an oscillator which can count the number of times the grates are
moving. There are also cooler fans which aid the cooling of the clinker.

From the kiln, clinker enters the grate cooler by free fall onto the cooling plates, and the
plates thereafter send it to the grates for further cooling.

The cooler grates are made up of plates both movable and stationary; therefore, as clinker
pours onto the movable plates, it is moves to the stationary ones. The stationary plates have
two holes, and these allow air (from blowing fans) to pass through clinker, thus cooling it.

The bigger particles of clinker are crushed at the end of the cooler by the crusher, while the
smaller ones drop down to the hoppers from which they are conveyed on pans to the clinker
silo.

5.3.2 Cooling mechanism

As the clinker moves past the bottom of the kiln the temperature drop rapidly and the liquid
phase solidifies.

In addition, alkalis (potassium, sodium) and sulphites that dissolve in the liquid combine to
form K2SO4 and Na2SO4.The nodules formed in the clinkering zone are then hard and the
resulting product is called cement clinker. The rate of cooling from the maximum temperature
down to about 1100C is important with rapid cooling giving amore reactive cement.

This occurs because the C3S can decompose back into C2S and CaO with in these
temperatures. It is thus typical to blow air onto the clinker to cool it more rapidly as it exits
the kiln.

25
26
 CHAPTER SIX

CEMENT MILLING AND DESPATCH

6.1 Cement Mill

Cement milling refers to the grinding together of clinker with some 2-3% gypsum for set
control, and other additives mostly pozzolana, as appropriate for performance and permitted
by specification. Finish grinding involves the largest unit consumption of power in cement
manufacture and it needs to be optimized.

The process and equipment circuits are similar to those employed for dry raw milling.

Two-compartment (chambers) ball mills in closed circuit with separators are used. The
diaphragm separating the mill chambers allow the first to be charged with large media
appropriate to raw clinker while the second contains small balls which more efficiently
achieve fine grinding. Typically, the first chamber covers 30-33% of the overall length of the
mills.

The first compartment is primarily to break feed clinker nodules which are up to 30mm;
lifting liners and balls from 45mm up to 90mm are employed to effect impact. Clinker which
passed into the second compartment is typically less than 2-3mm; second compartment balls
range from 15 to 40mm.

Like in raw milling, the quantity of balls, the type and condition of the shell liners, and the
mill speed determine the power draw of the mill. Ball mills typically operate at about 75% of
critical speed and about 30% of volumetric charge loading.

6.1.2 Factors for grindability

Clinker grindability is largely governed by clinker chemistry and burning conditions so that
kiln and finish mill are to be considered together. The principal cause of hard grinding is the
presence of excessive belite (C2S) in clinker; conversion of belite to alite (C 3S) would
maximized if silica is not present in raw mix as coarse quartz, if the lime saturation factor is
high (97-99%), if the liquid phase is relatively high (>24%), and if the silica ratio is relatively
low (<2.5).

It should also be noted that higher K2O (>0.5%) are associated with ease of grinding though
this might be due to the incidental correlation between alkalis and clay; clay being of fine
particle size, it is a desirable raw material.

For purposes of milling cement, it is important to avoid variable or hard burning of raw mix
as these could result into large alite and, worse, large belite crystals which cause poor
grindability.

27
These large crystals, have a tendency of causing dusty clinker unlike normal clinker which
must contain less than 2% -1mm size particles. The dusty clinker in turn causes a high
recirculating load between cooler and kiln, which could in turn overload the cooler dust
collector.

The final major factor is the rate of reaction in the kiln. After complete calcination, transition
to melt formation should be as rapid as possible to minimize growth of belite and free lime
(CaO) crystals. This transition needs to be delayed by a long, lazy flame which can be due to
poor mixing, coarse coal, or insufficient burner tip momentum.
Higher clinker SO3 also resulted in harder grinding and higher free lime gives easier grinding.

6.1.3 Raw material storage and feeding

As discussed in chapter two, the materials in process used in cement production are Gypsum,
clinker and pozzolana (strictly for PPC). Each of these is stored in specific storage areas
which are named after the particular raw material; that is gypsum yard, clinker yard, and
pozzolana yard respectively.

6.1.4 Feeding

The feeding of the raw materials are mainly done by means of conveyor belts just as in raw
mill feeding, and cranes.

From the clinker yard, clinker is fed into hopper from where it is transported to clinker
hoppers I and II. Clinker is fed into the hopper and then to the belt controlled by pins which
can open and close the nozzles of the hopper. Similarly, pozzolana and Gypsum are fed into
the hoppers.

The hoppers has weigh feeders at the bottom with sensors to defect the weights of the
respective raw materials.

Since these materials can agglomerate, a grinding media at the way feeder to reduce the effect
before it reaches the mill. From the weigh feeders, materials are fed onto BC070, and since it
has a magnet, any metallic substances are removed so as to protect the mill. Thereafter, it is
sent to BC075 and it enters as fresh feed into the ball mill.

28
6.2 Separation
The process of cement milling and separation is just similar to that of raw milling and
separation. Therefore, the separator type and mode of separation until the final cement is the
same as in the former.

Final cement discharged at the mill outlet is led into the air slide AS031 which takes it to the
elevator 080 using the root blower RB 031. From the elevator it is placed into air slide AS032
then to the separator.

The separator has a rotor which is used for separation of the materials. Therefore with the
help of the separator fan SF251, materials is pulled from the bottom of the tower to the rotor
which separates course materials from fine materials. The coarse material moves down and
diverted through a channel to the belt which indicates the amount of materials returned to the
mill through belt BC071.

The fine materials then enters into separator cyclones; in the cyclones, separation also takes
place. The finest materials are separated from the gaseous material. Since materials enter the
cyclones in the swirling manner, the heavier particles fall down while the gasses are pulled by
the fan. The gases are returned into the separator so as to continuous the process.

The cyclones have rotary air locks which play the same roles as those explained in chapter
four. The rotary air locks are run by motors and the locks opened at intervals as the motors
rotated.

Air slides AS033 and AS034 take the materials to the main air slide AS035, which is finally
taken to the bucket elevator BE081 and then to the cement silo for temporary storage as well
as further blending.

29
6.3 Cement Dispatch

To prevent spillage, the loading spout is fitted with a level sensor and cut-off switch. The
design of modern road tankers is used pg 40.

30
Schematic representation of the flow.

31
 CHAPTER SEVEN

QUALITY CONTROL AND ASSURANCE

Quality control
Quality control (QC) means ensuring that a manufactured product is consistent with a defined
set of quality criteria and therefore meets the requirements of the clients.

Quality assurance (QA): refers to a procedure or set of procedures intended to ensure that a
product before work is completed as opposed to afterwards, met specified requirements.

Quality control and assurance are effected in the plant laboratory and this is majorly
responsible for:
Analysis of raw materials and fuel.
Mix design, and this reflected individual raw material costs, production costs
(principally drying, grindability, and burnability), and product quality.
Preblending of raw materials and blending of kiln feed to minimize chemical variation
into the kiln.
Process control which involved raw materials moisture, raw meal chemistry and
fineness, clinker free lime, degree of calcination and volatiles contents of hot meal at
the kiln inlet, proportioning of clinker and gypsum, and fineness of milled cement as
well.
Chemical analysis and physical testing of cement to confirm and certify compliance
with specification.
Quality assurance and certification of shipped cement.
Miscellaneous functions such as water treatment and laboratory measurements
associated with process engineering and pollution control.

The quality control and assurance laboratory have three subsections which frequently
maintain and report production and inventory data. These are:

Testing laboratory
Physical laboratory
Chemical laboratory

32
7.1 Testing Laboratory
7.1.1 Sampling
Sampling, is the reduction of a large quantity of material to a small portion which can
represent the whole, as important as analysis, particularly with raw materials where large
particle (rock) sizes and heterogeneity require that massive samples are taken and reduced
systematically to the quantity actually analyzed.

Reduction involves successive crushing and splitting of samples to achieve the final
analytical sample.

Theoretically, the required sample is estimated using standard formulae involving

predetermined factors for material heterogeneity, particle size, density, shape factor, and
required precision.

The sample size is approximately 5kg. The sample size is determined by the maximum
particle size and the testing required.

7.1.2 Sampling and sample preparations:

For the case of sampling of the materials, considerations are made on the sample name,
source and date of receiving. There after random selection is carried out at the yards to obtain
a uniform mixture of the sample.

For sample preparation, representative sample is got by quartering method using a quartering
machine. The material is then pounded before it is brought to the Jaw crusher to break it into
smaller particles. After breaking, the material is then taken to the pulverizing machine for
grinding into powdered form, sieved and now ready to be taken to the chemical and testing
laboratory.

7.1.3 Material preparation for testing

After the materials have been sampled and prepared in the physical laboratory, it is then taken
to be pulverized for grinding into powdered form.

In the testing laboratory, these powdered material is weighed according to whether it was a
burnt material or products and raw material as shown in the table below;

33
Table of weights used

Materials Amounts/weights(grams)
Raw meal materials 12grams + 2grams of grinding aid
Burnt products(clinker, and cement) 9grams + 1gram of grinding aid.

The weighed material is placed into the grinding plate and taken for grinding in the grinding
machine.

The palliating machine is first cleaned, and a palliating plate is placed inside it then the
material is poured with the help of a metallic funnel, material leveled using spatula and
funnel removed.

The machine is switched on and left for about 3minutes to allow it to be compressed in the
palliating plate, the plate is removed, cleaned and the sample name and date are written on it
for easy identifications when taken for analysis to the X-Ray machine for wet test in chemical
laboratory.

7.1.4 Determination of specific surface area (Blain) by air permeability apparatus

[Blaine apparatus]
In Tororo cement limited, there are two ball mills for cement, therefore samples from mill one
and mill two together with their despatches (one which is ready for storage in the cement silo)
are taken at an hour material to be tested for Blaine in the testing laboratory.

The Blaine apparatus consists of:

Perforated disc,
A plunger,
And the cell which is the tube like metal.

Procedure

Perforated disc is placed at the bottom of the cell metal tube, and anew filter paper thereafter
added ensuring that the paper fully covers the disc; both the disc and the filter paper is made
flat using dry metallic rod.

34
A cement sample (2.800g) is weighed and directed inside the cell using the funnel to avoid
loss of the material.

The cell is tapped to leave the cement and then second new filter paper was added on top to
cover it. The plunger is then inserted slowly to contain the cement until the lower face of the
cap of the plunger is in contact with the cell, here the cement bed is compacted and ready for
permeability test, and then plunger is slowly withdrawn.

The cell is inserted onto the conical socket at the top of the manometer tube and the aspirator
is compressed to let it air free, then the stop clock opened to allow the fluid in the manometer
move up as the aspirator is released slowly until given mark is excited then the cook is closed
while the aspirator attains its normal shape.

The stop clock is started immediately as the fluid flows downwards from the upper mark and
stop at the lower mark, and then time is recorded to the nearest 0.00 seconds

The surface area is obtained corresponding to the time from the blain charts.

35
7.2 Physical Laboratory
7.2.1 Physical Tests

Equipment for the physical tests are closely defined by the cement specification(s) to which
the plant was manufacturing.

Cement fineness by air permeability is used for finish mill control, the other tests are applied
to daily or batch composites. Major tests are for fineness, compressive strength (1, 2,7,28
day), setting time, air content, and soundness.

There are also numerous other tests for particular cements or particular specifications.
It followed that bias can easily creep into the results of even the most conscientious physical
tester and, to a lesser extent, the results of classical analysis.

Tests considered.

Physical properties of the finished products are tested and these included:

Natural or standard consistency

Setting time
Soundness/ expansion
Compressive strength

7.2.1.1 Preparation of cement in the physical laboratory.

Tororo cement industries limited, mainly concentrates on the production of mainly two
classes of cement that whose composition is briefly discussed in chapter two of this report; In
this chapter, the two are discussed in detailed and these were as follows.

Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)

Portland pozzolana cement (PPC)

All these classes of cement have different physical and chemical properties as discussed
below:

The clinker used in the production of PPC and OPC has the same chemical and physical
properties, and the amount of gypsum used is dependent on the how much sulphate is found
in the material, but it should be at least 2-5%.

36
In the physical laboratory both the OPC and PPC are produced in small scale and tested just
to ensure efficiency while producing in large scale and this is done to ensure that the cement
being produced is of high quality with consistence to make it competitive in the market.

According to UNBS this testing should to be done on daily basis. Below are the processes
that are followed, after sampling and sample preparations.

7.2.1.2 Laboratory Production of OPC

Clinker is mixed with gypsum in their respective proportions that is 96.5% of clinker and
3.5% of gypsum.

The capacity of the ball mill used in the physical lab for grinding is 5000g.

Procedure:

Clinker sample (4825g) and gypsum (175g) are weighed separately, added together, and then
taken for milling in the ball mill for an hour and 15 minutes. It is then removed and taken for
testing as required (the Blaine target limits ranged between 390 to 410m2/Kg).

7.2.1.3 Laboratory Producing of PPC

This type of cement is produced by adding clinker, gypsum and pozzolana in the percentages
of 68%, 30% and 2% respectively.

Procedure

Clinker sample (3400g), pozzolana (1500g) and gypsum (100g) are weighed separately,
mixed together, and then taken for milling in the ball mill for an hour. It is then removed and
taken for testing as required (the Blaine target limits ranged between 45030m2/Kg.

7.2.2 Natural/ normal consistency (NC) and setting time determination.

Natural consistency (NC), refers to the amount of water which is required to make or produce
paste of standard consistency or to produce a workable paste. It should be between 25 to
35%.

On the other hand, setting time refers to the time taken for the cement to gain minimum
strength. This is determined in terms of initial and final setting time. All this time is

37
determined from the time of adding water to cement. The standard unit for setting time is
considered to be minutes.

38
Preparation of paste
Requirements.

A weighing balance.
Vicat apparatus.
Measuring cylinder.
2 trowels.
Clean mixing platform.
Distilled water.
Clock for timing.

Procedure.

A cement sample (400g) is weighed using a weighing balance, placed on to a flat metallic
plate and a trough made so that water poured does not escape out. The time at which water is
added should be noted; and it is from this time that initial and final setting time is measured.

Immediately after adding the water to the cement, the mixing starts and it took 3-5 minutes to
be completed.

The mixing is done until the paste is soft enough (workable), which is then put in a setting
time mold for the NC testing.

7.2.2.1 Penetration and NC determination.

Procedure:

Using the calibrated vicant apparatus with a plunger attached, the pointer is adjusted to read
at zero on the scale and the pointer rises to the stand by position.

Immediately after mixing the past, it is transferred into the setting time mould and is taken to
the base plate of the vicant apparatus and positioned centrally under the plunger.

The plunger is lowered gently until in contact with the paste and is allowed to penetrate
vertically into the center of the paste.

For the paste to be consistent, the reading on the scale is considered with in a rage of 4-7mm.
above the range means that water is not enough and below means water is in excess so, in
either circumstances, the experiment has to be repeated again.

39
Whenever, the paste is realized to be inconsistent, the procedure can be repeated while
adjusting the amount of water in order to ensure that it is consistent.

The amount of water in the consistent paste is then noted and then used to calculate NC as
percentage.

amount H 2 0 used
NC was obtained from = x100%
Weight of sample

Sample tested as at 17th, August.

Water used was=100 ml of water.

100
Therefore, NC = x100 = 25.00%
400

7.2.3 Testing for initial and final setting times

Setting time is the time taken for the cement to harden or set. The vicat apparatus is again
used to determine the setting time.

7.2.3.1 Initial setting time

The vicat plunger is replaced by the needle, it is lowered into the paste by quickly releasing
and allowing it to sink in the paste at intervals of five (5) minutes until the needle is 5mm
from the bottom of the mould. The time which has elapsed between when water is added to
the dry cement to the time when the needle is at the 5mm mark is recorded in minutes and
this is the initial setting time.

7.2.3.2 Final setting time

The needle is replaced by an annular attachment. Same procedure is repeated as in (A) above
till time when only the needle formed a prick but the attachment failed to make an impression
(mark). Final setting time is interval when water is added and time for prick formation.

Before setting
After setting

40
7.2.4 Determination of cement expansion
Here, emphasis is put on how cement expanded and the method employed is the LeChatelier
method of measuring expansion of cement after immersion in cold and boiling water.

The apparatus for conducting the LeChatelier test consists of a small split cylinder of spring
brass of 0.5mm thickness, forming a mould of internal diameter 30mm and height 30mm. on
either sides of the split are attached two indicators with pointed ends about 165mm from the
center of the cylinder.

Procedure:

A sample of cement (100g) is weighed and it is used to prepare a paste of standard

consistence. The paste is thereafter placed in the expansion mould and covered with two
sheets one on top and the other at the bottom.

A small weight is put on to in order to avoid water contact, which could wash away the paste.
The whole set up is then immersed in a curing tank containing water at normal room
temperature and pressure. The curing should take 24hours.

After 24hrs, the mould is removed and the gap between the two rods on the mould is
measured using a ruler and the distance L1 (mm) was noted.

The mould and the paste is the placed in a hot water bath, boiled for 3hrs and left out to cool.
The gap between the rods after boiling was taken and recorded as L2

The expansion (E) is obtained from the formula, E=L2 - L1 (mm).

It should be noted that good cement must be free from expansion. However, this isnt the case
in reality.

Therefore, the limits with in which expansion occurs should be within a range of 0-10mm.

41
7.2.5 Test for compressive strength of cement
Here, mortar is used. Mortar refers to a mixture of sand of different particle sizes (which
particle sizes vary according to the different sizes of mesh used during sieving), cement and
water.

In the laboratory, 1350g of sand + 450g of cement + 225ml of water are used in making of
mortar.

Below is the particle size distribution of ISO sand (Uganda) in a sample of 1350g which is
used.

Mesh size Mesh % Residue on Cumulative Mesh Cumulative

mesh (%) residue (%) weight (g) weight on mesh
(%)

A)+2mm 0 0 0 0

B)-2mm to +1.6mm 8 8 108 108

C)-1.6mm to +1mm 27 35 356 473

D)-1mm to +0.5mm 36 71 486 959

E)-0.5mm to +0.16mm 22 93 297 1256

F)-0.16mmto+0.08mm 7 100 94 1350

In making mortar cubes, different particle sizes of sand (1350g) are measured and dry
mixed with 450g of cement before 225ml is added. This is then put on the mortar mixer
which mixes it for 4 minutes.

The mortar is poured in the casting mould which is then put on the casting board or
jolting machine for compacting (2 minutes).

Seasoning of the mortar cubes is done for 24 hours in a humidity chamber, after which
they are removed and labeled according to the type of sample, number of days for curing,
date, and month when testing is to be done. This is usually done for two (2), seven (7) and
twenty eight (28) days.

42
 The labeled cubes are put in a curing can at room temperature and relative humidity of
above 80%.

Compressive strength is tested using the compressive machine; this is done after
determining the flexural strength by means of the flexural machine, which has another
function of breaking the mortar cubes to sizes suitable for measure of compressive
strength. This is recorded in mega Pascal (MPa or N/mm2)

7.2.6 Illustration of the lab report

3 Sample: Portland pozzolana cement (PPC) dispatch

Date of sample: 14th-06-2010

Date of cast: 15th-06-2010

Setting time
Amount of water= 100milliters

Weight of cement= 400g

amount H 2 0 used
Percentage of N/C= x100 %
Weight of sample

= 100100%

= 25%

Initial setting time (IST) Final setting time (FST)

11:00 12:30

8:30 8:30

2:30, 150minutes 4:10, 250 minutes

Therefore; IST= 150 minutes and FST= 250 minutes

Expansion
Distance before boiling= 19 mm

43
 Distance after boiling= 19 mm

Expansion= distance after boiling minus distance before boiling

= 19-19= 0 mm

Compressive strength in Mega Pascals (M Pa)

Sample Day Flexural strength Flexural force Compressive Average
s Reading. strength compressive
(MPa) (MPa) strength
(KN) (MPa)

PPC 1st 2nd 1st 2nd 1st 2nd

dispatc
1 3.28125 3.51562 1.4 1.5 8.86 9.06 8.96
h
5

2 4.45312 4.21875 1.9 1.8 15.7 16.10 15.93

5 5

7 5.625 5.85937 2.4 2.5 26.1 26.44 26.29

5 4

28 7.26562 7.26562 3.1 3.1 33.3 33.70 33.30

5 5 0

6.1.8.4 Flexural strength calculation:

1.5 Ff L
Formula, RF=
b3

Where;

b is the side of square section of prism in mm (b is constant 40 mm)

L is the distance between the supports in mm
Ff is the load applied to the middle of the prism in Newtons
Therefore considering Ff = 1.4 KN

1.5 Ff L
RF = = 3.28 Nmm2.
(40)3

44
7.3 Chemical Laboratory
7.3.1 Chemical Analysis

In the chemical laboratory, analysis of raw material, clinker and cement is carried out. The
method used is mainly wet analysis since the x-ray equipment (for dry analysis method) is
down. The analysis done is mainly to check for the composition of CaO, CaCO 3, SiO2, Al2O3,
SO3, Fe2O3, IR, R2O3, K2O, Na2O, LOI, Ash content, and Free CaO. Free CaO is only done for
burnt material like clinker and cement. IR and LOI are insoluble residue and loss of ignition
respectively; these are done for only clinker, cement and pozzolana

However the major tests that can be obtained using the x-ray analysis include Fe 2O3, CaO,
SiO2, Al2O3, SO3, K2O, Na2O, and Free CaO.

7.3.1.1 Chemistry theory of cement.

Non hydraulic cement such as slaked limes (calcium hydroxide mixed with water), hardens
due to the reaction of carbonation in presence of the carbon dioxide naturally present in the
air. Calcium oxide is produced by lime calcination at temperatures above 825 C (1,517 F)
for about 10 hours at atmospheric pressure:
CaCO3 CaO + CO2

The calcium oxide is then spent mixing it to water to make slaked lime:

CaO + H2O Ca (OH) 2

Once the water in excess from the slaked lime is completely evaporated, thus setting.

Ca (OH) 2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O

This reaction takes a significant amount of time because the partial pressure of carbon
dioxide in the air is small. The reaction of carbonation requires the air be in contact with the
dry cement, hence, for this reason the slaked lime is non-hydraulic cement and cannot be use
under water.

45
Conversely, the chemistry ruling the action of the hydraulic cement is the hydration.
Hydraulic cements such as the Portland cement are made of a mixture of silicates and oxides,
the four main components being:

Belite (2CaOSiO2)
Alite (3CaOSiO2)
Tri calcium aluminate (3CaOAl2O3)
Tetra calcium aluminate ferrets (4CaOAl2O3Fe2O3)

The reactions during the setting of the cement are:

(3CaOAl2O3)2 + (x+8) H2O 4 CaOAl2O3xH2O + 2 CaOAl2O38H2O

(3CaOAl2O3) + 12 H2O + Ca (OH) 2 4 CaOAl2O313 H2O
(4CaOAl2O3Fe2O3) + 7 H2O 3 CaOAl2O36H2O + CaOFe2O3H2O

And during the hardening the chemistry of the reaction of hydration is still not completely
clear.

(3CaOSiO2)2 + (x+3) H2O 3 CaO2SiO2xH2O + 3 Ca (OH) 2

(2CaOSiO2)2 + (x+1) H2O 3 CaO2SiO2xH2O + Ca (OH) 2
The silicates are responsible of the mechanical properties of the cement, the Tri calcium
aluminate and the Tetra calcium aluminate ferrets are essential to allow the formation of the
liquid phase during the cooking.

The chemistry of the above listed reactions is not completely clear and is still object of
research.
Therefore the following chemical tests were involved in the quality control of the produced
cement.

46
7.3.2 Activities carried out in the chemical laboratory.

7.3.2.1 Determination of loss on ignition (LOI).

The loss on ignition was determined so as to know the moisture content of the raw materials
and was performed every day in the morning; Result was used to determine the percentage
(%) Calcination.

Procedure:

The sample (1g) was weighed into the crucible, and the weight of the sample plus the
crucible was taken, it was then ignited for an hour at 9000C in the muffle furnace, after its
removed, cooled and reweighed.

This was carried out on materials for the Kiln feed and cyclone 4 as samples A and B
respectively.

Table of results for A.

Moisture Grams
Sample A Sample B
Initial moisture content
Final moisture content
Difference

Calculation

Differencewt
% loss on Ignition = x 100 %
Original weight of sample

47
7.3.2.2 Determination of the free lime (CaO) in clinker and cement.
Procedure:

A sample (1.000g) was weighed into a conical flask, followed by addition of ethylene glycol
or Ethanediol (30ml) to dissolve the lime. A magnetic rod was inserted in the flask, stoppard,
and stirred with a thermostatic magnetic stirrer for 60mns.

The temperature maintained at 500C, it was filtered into a filter flask with a 540 filter paper
using a suction vacuum pump, rinsed with 10ml of methanol and titrated against 0.1N
Hydrochloric acid with bromocresol green indicator. The end point was observed when the
color changed from blue to pale yellow.

The solution factor was always obtained after standardization of the 0.1N HCl in the
laboratory.

Calculation:

Free CaO = B.R X Factor.

7.3.2.3 Determination of CaO in Raw meal, Clinker and Cement.

Procedure.

A sample (0.1g) was weighed into a conical flask moisturized, and added 20ml of dilute 1:1
HCl and boiled for 10mins the sides of the flask was rinsed and cooled, Added few grains of
Patton and Readers indicator, it was then regulated with a mixture of T.E.A (2N Na0H +
Triethanolamine) solution at PH of 12 till a pink color was formed. It was then titrated against
standard E.D.F.A solution.

It was noted that at PH 12, MgO was precipitated as Mg (OH) 2 and so it did not interfere
with the determination of CaO

Calculation:

% CaO = B.R X Factor.

48
7.3.2.4 Determination of silica (SiO2) in cement

Procedure.
A sample (1.000g) was weighed into a 250ml beaker, moistened with cold distilled water, and
added dilute 1:1 HCl (10ml) after which it was baked on a hot block.

Addition of hot distilled water (100ml) was done, followed by another conc. HCl, and
thereafter boiling for about 10minutes. The resultant was filtered (What man 540) into a
500ml beaker, and the residue washed thoroughly so as to remove any Cl- ions fully.

The filtrate was kept and used for determination of mixed oxides (R2O3).

The residue was then put into a weighed silica crucible and ignited (in muffle furnace) for 1
hour, cooled and reweighed again.

Results

Weight of crucible + sample after heating/g

Weight of crucible alone before heating/g
Weight of sample alone after heating

Calculation

Differencewt
SiO2 = x 100 %
Original weight of sample

7.3.2.5. Determination of mixed oxides (R2O3) in clinker and cement

To the filtrate in a 500ml beaker, conc. HNO3 (2ml) followed by methyl orange indicator (3
drops) and then NH4Cl (5g) until end point. The mixture was boiled while 1:1 NH3 solution
until a brown precipitate formed.

It was left to digest and filtered into a 500ml volumetric flask using a whatman 541 filter
paper. The residue was washed thoroughly to eliminate any Cl- present and ignited for an
hour in order to obtain the R2O3.

49
Results

Weight of crucible + sample after heating/g

Weight of crucible alone before heating/g
Weight of sample alone after heating

Calculation

Differencewt
R2O3 = x 100 %
Original weight of sample

The filtrate from above was later used for determination of CaO and MgO as well.

7.3.2.6 Determination of Fe2O3 in in cement

A sample (0.500g) was weighed into a 250ml conical flask, moistened with cold distilled
water, and added dilute 1:1 HCl (25ml) after which it was it was boiled (10minutes) on a hot
block.

During boiling, drops of stannous chloride were added until the yellow solution turned
colorless. It was then cooled under running water. Thereafter HgCl solution followed by
1:1phosphoric acid (5%) solution were added.
The mixture in the conical flask was titrated against K2Cr2O7 solution with BDS indicator (3
drops) until end point (when the colorless solution turned purple).

Calculations

Fe2O3 = Burette Reading X Factor

50
7.3.2.7 Determination of P2O5 in in cement

Procedure.
A sample (1.000g) was weighed into a 250ml beaker, moistened with cold distilled water, and
added dilute 1:1 HNO (1ml) followed by per chloric acid solution and boiled until fuming
(solidifying). I was then cooled to allow the fume disappear. Distilled water (20ml) was
added and boiling continued.

The resultant was filtered into a 250ml conical flask while still hot using what man 541and
the residue washed thoroughly.

To the filtrate in the conical flask, conc. HCl (20ml) was added, followed by sodium
molybdate (30ml) solution and the mixture boiled on a hot block. While boiling went on,
quinoline (60ml) of solution was added and the resultant precipitate was boiled further for 10
minutes, and the cooled under running tap water.

It was then filtered with whatman 540 filter paper and washed thoroughly (several times) to
obtain a clean residue on the filter paper. The residue was thereafter taken into a clean conical
flask and 0.5N NaOH (50ml) of solution followed by distilled water (50ml) and lastly mixed
indicator (5 drops) were added.

Calculation
P2O5 = (50 final burette reading) x Factor

51
7.3.3 Dry analysis in the x-ray laboratory

The x-ray laboratory is an extension of the chemical lab, and all dry analysis is to be
conducted there.

The Ray machine

This machine consists of cassettes plates, cassettes tray, x-ray tube, crystals and others and is
connected to a computer in which the data is obtained and store for records.

Procedure used to obtain results

After the material is compacted in the palliating plate, it is inserted into the cassette plates
and then loaded into the trays. Since the trays are 12 in number, the tray number is noted for a
given sample.

The computer is then used to select the kind of materials to analyse for example; clinker, raw
meal, pozzolana, cement samples.

After the type of material is selected, it is then commanded to be taken for analysis in the x-
ray tube and after 3minutes results are displayed and are accepted if they are genuine.

7.3.3.1 Theory of the X-Ray analysis

X-Ray Fluorescence spectrometer principle.
The sample to be measured is loaded into the spectrometer and excited by the x ray beam
coming from the x ray tube. An incoming x ray photo strikes an electron, the electrons breaks
free and leaves the atom, this leaves avoid.

The void

52
This void is filled by an electron from a higher energy level. The electron releases energy
(fluorescence) as it drops in form of an x ray photon.

Avoid formed

The spectrum of the tube is composed of characteristic wavelength of the anode elements and
the continuum. The emitted radiation from the sample is composed of the tube spectrum the
sample. The reflected beam is guided onto a dispersive system called in our case goniometry;
this goniometer produces spectrum of lines which are in relation with the elements included
in the measured sample.

Note: the XRF measures intensity, the concentrations are obtained only once the instrument
has been calibrated, it should be stressed that an XRF quant-meter is a very accurate
comparator, but the accuracy of the final analysis entirely dependent on the quality of the
standard samples used for calibration, the intensity concentration relationship is generally
linear but in some cases the curve can be second degree.

X-ray tube.
The x-ray tube is positioned at 90 0 relative to the horizontal plane the distance between the
anode and the sample surface is 30milimeter

The end window design allows a very sensitivity for light elements and thus low limits of
detection, light element analysis is very efficient with the 75 micron beryllium window
having allow absorption on light elements wavelength, and the usual target is Rhodium.

7.3.3.2 Types of crystals used in an X-Ray tube.

Flat crystals
Focusing crystals

53
Flat crystals Flat crystal

X- Ray Secondary collimeter

Primary beam Flow proportional counter

Primary collimeter

Secondary beam

Sample

These are efficient reflections for soft X-Rays and permit excellent analysis results of light
elements from boron and magnesium.

Focusing crystals focusing crystal

X-Ray tube. Detector slate

Source slate

Primary beam secondary beam Detector

Sample

Natural crystals like Life, ADP or PET allow for the utilization of curved crystals focalizing
systems of great precision and resolution. These natural crystals ensure excellent analytical
results for elements from magnesium atomic number 12 and higher.

54
 CHAPTER EIGHT

POLLUTION CONTROL
Environmental regulation is of course very much a matter of national and local ordinance.
However, certain generalizations can be made about air, water, solid, and noise pollution at
Tororo Cement Limited. The plant is primarily concerned with air emissions and dust
pollutions.

8. 1 Air emissions.
Air pollution control is focused to lower limits on particulates, CO, SO2, NOx, CO2
emissions, etc. and add new prohibitions on metals, dioxins, and other trace chemicals that
can enter the surrounding environment.

Typical particulate limits for the kiln are about 40-100mg/NM3 and should probably
continue to decrease; this progressively favors bag-houses over ESP, especially since the
bughouse isnt prone to the total failure which could affect the ESP.

Dust suppression can be important in both quarry and plant where dry materials are handled
and where unpaved surfaces are used by mobile equipment. Respirable dust at locations
within and at the perimeter of plants is subject to regulation in the factory.

CO is formed by incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials. Oxidation to CO2 takes

place in presence of excess oxygen at temperatures above about 680oC. CO in stack
emissions is usually attributed to overall deficiency of oxygen in the burning zone or to poor
fuel/air mixing. However, Sadowsky et al (ZKG; 5/1997, pg 272) found out that many
cement raw materials contain 1.4-6g organic carbon per kg clinker that these oxidize below
680oC, and that 10-20 % of the oxidation results in CO irrespective of the level of excess O2
(Note that 2g C/kg clinker with 15% conversion yields about 250ppm CO at 5% excess
oxygen).
Obviously this is too low a temperature for post oxidation to CO2 and suggests that some CO
observed at the stack might not indicate combustion problems and cannot be easily
rectifiable.

NOx is formed during fuel combustion by oxidation of nitrogen compounds in the fuel (fuel
NOx) and of the nitrogen from combustion air (thermal NOx). Thermal NO increased with
flame temperature above 1200oC, with retention time, and with increasing free oxygen.
Thus, additional factors affecting NOx at kiln exhaust include:

Kiln atmosphere (NOx degraded by CO > 3000ppm)

Alkali cycle increased rapidly with burning zone temperature and with reducing
conditions
Secondary air temperature NOx emissions for normal operation between 1000
1500mg/NM3. Flame quenching, low-NOx burners, or staged combustion (for
precalciner kilns only) should approach 500mg/NM3.

55
Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) or Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) are required
to get significantly lower (Haspel; ICR; 1/2002, pg 63). So, SO2 is produced in the kiln both
by oxidation of fuel S and by decomposition of sulphates. SO2 thus produced is almost totally
scrubbed by K2O, Na2O and CaO in the cyclone preheater.

Gas analysis for process control and emission monitoring involves a wide range of
proprietary instruments.
Dioxin emissions are of particular concern where alternative fuels are burned. It is generally
accepted that dioxins and furans will not be released in significant quantity if burned under
the following conditions:
Minimum temperature 1200oC
Minimum retention time 2 seconds
Minimum excess oxygen, liquid fuels 3 % and solid fuels 6 %
Maximum CO (@ 11% O2) 40 ppm
(Krogbeumker: ICR; 5/1994, pg 43)

The cement kiln easily meets these requirements with adequate process control and well-
designed burner.

8.2 Dust Collection

The cement production process has environmental impacts at all stage. Three principal types
of dust collection are used at the cement plant. Cyclones are typically about 95% efficient
dropping to 60% for particles less than 5.

At Tororo cement, dust control is mainly done using two methods for example,
i. The electrostatic precipitator (ESP)
ii. And the bug dust collector (BH)

8.2.1 The Electrostatic precipitator

Electrostatic precipitator (ESP) comprises an array of discharge wires at 50-100kV negative

potential and earthed collecting plates. Pressure drop is about 15-20 mmH2O and power
consumption 0.2-0.3 kWh/1000M3. Efficiency is typically 75- 80% per field so that a 4 field
unit could capture up to 99.85% of entrained dust.

56
8.2.1.1 Electrostatic precipitator (ESP):
The ESP stacks clinker dusts from inside the cooler. Electrostatic precipitators has
electrostatic forces (charged plates) to separate dust particles from exhaust gases. A number
of high voltage, direct current discharge electrodes present between grounded collecting
electrodes. The contaminated gases flow through the passage formed by the discharge and
collecting electrodes.

8.2.1.2 Principle of operation of the ESP:

The basic principle underlying ESP operations is that pollutant particles in gas stream are
electrically charged in which the airborne particles receive a negative charge as they pass
through the ionized field between the electrodes. These charged particles are then attracted to
a grounded (positively charged) electrodes. The collected material on the electrodes can then
be removed by vibrating the collecting electrodes either continuously.

The four main components of electrostatic precipitators are:

Power supply unit which provided high-voltage DC power.

Ionizing section, which impart a charge to particulates in the gas stream.
A means of removing the collected particulates.
A housing to enclose the precipitator zone.

The efficiency of the electrostatic precipitators largely dependents on the larger collection
surface areas and lower gas flow rates. These increase efficiency because of the increased
time available for electrical activity to treat the dust particles.

Secondly, increase in the dust particle migration velocity to the collecting electrodes also
increases the ESP efficiency. The migration velocity can be increased by decreasing the gas
viscosity, increasing the gas temperature, and increasing the voltage field.

Efficiency varied with particle size and operation is described by the Deutsch formula:

n = 1 - e-(w.A/Q) where n = efficiency %

Where;
w = particle migration velocity (M/sec)
A = area of collecting plates (M2)
Q = gas flow rate (M 3/sec)

57
It should be also noted that migration velocity reflect dust resistivity, particle size, field
intensity, gas viscosity, and other design parameters and ranged 0.07-0.10M/sec. Dust
resistivity was about 107-1011Ocm. H2O, Cl and SO3 reduce resistivity of basic dusts.
Conditioning of inlet gas is normally required with about 15% moisture in kiln exhaust and
3% in cooler exhaust; gas temperature was 120-150oC.

8.2.3 The bug house and dust collectors.

The bag house is simply a house of dust collectors although many other bag dust collectors
are stationed at various points other than the bughouse.

Bag dust collectors are used to enhance the quality of air released from the factory and by
collecting dust and other impurities from air and gases. Bag dust collectors (BDC) comprise
filters of either woven fabric (which uses bag shaking or reverse air flow for cleaning) or
needle felts (cleaned by reverse air pulse).

These are designed to handle high volume dust loads. The system of the bag dust collector
consist of a blower, a dust filter, a filter cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust
removal system.

These collectors are distinguished from air cleaners, because they use disposable filters to
remove dust, unlike the air cleaners.

8.2.3.1 Operation of the bug dust collector

The BDC has a powerful fan (within its center), which creates suction throughout a large
system of ductwork that runs throughout the plant to the specific areas of the facility where
airborne dust is generated. The suction should pull the dirty air through the duct work system,
eventually leading it to the dust collector. In a fabric collector, or Bag house, the dirty air is
cleaned of harmful particles.

At high pressure, compressed air is blasted to remove dust from the bags. The blast enters the
top of the bag tube, temporarily ceasing the flow of dirty air. The shock of air then causes a
wave of expansion to travel down the fabric. The flexing of the bag thereafter closes and
discharges the dust cake.

Respectively, it takes about 0.1 seconds and 0.5 seconds for the air burst and shock wave to
travel down the length of the bag and due to its rapid release; the blast of air does not
interfere with contaminated gas flow. Therefore, pulse-jet can operate continuously and are
not usually compartmentalized.

58
The blast of compressed air is always powerful enough to ensure that the shock wave travels
the entire length of the bag and fracture the dust cake.

8.2.3.2 Illustration

Noted:

Conditioning of kiln exhaust gas is necessary before dust collection. The exhaust gas from
kiln is used for drying raw materials and this process served both to cool the gas and to raise
its humidity before dust collection. The gas temperature is always below 170 oC for both bag-
house, and the ESP.

59
8.3 Water, solid wastes, and noise pollution.
Water discharge is not a concern beyond handling normal domestic waste and storm water
run-off with its potential for leaching from stockpiles and spillage. The temperature of
discharged cooling water is also a subject to control.

Solid waste is frequently confined to kiln brick. Chromium, once common in basic brick, had
largely been eliminated due to its alleged toxicity and all used refractory can then be
incorporated into kiln feed (after crushing and grinding).

The only other likely solid waste can result if kiln dust is discharged to relieve a volatile cycle
in the kiln. This however is not the case in the factory.

Noise originates primarily from mills, fans/compressors and screw/drag-chain conveyors.

Noise affecting plant workers is be controlled by ear protection. Noise at the property
boundary is mitigated by enclosure, insulation and, for fans, sound attenuators. Although
most fan problems occur with short exhausts, the tall chimneys resonates unless silenced.

60
 CHAPTER NINE

CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMANDATIONS AND REFERENCES

9.1 Conclusions
Throughout the training season, exposure and the opportunity of hands-on study has rendered
me satisfactory experiences which have typically created an impact on my growth in the
fields of process and quality control. Nevertheless, the training has induced new ways of
thinking in line with my education and the entire future as an industrial chemist as well as a
chemical engineer.

Given the fact that I found a mentor in Mr. Olinga Vicent, I was able to access needful of
development in my profession. I could acquire significant practical skills, working ethics,
social and behavior conduct while at the work place. These have set a reference line upon
which my response to problems and fellow workers will continually be figured.

The entire staff was amazingly welcoming, caring, and with a lot of enthusiasm to help.
Prompt answers for various questions and numerous corrections throughout the course of
carrying out the training has ensured that my training is a success to this day.

The knowledge about type of process to be used, source of raw materials and waste
management, have an enormous effect on what the nature of product, efficiency of the plant,
and economical advantages. For this reason, the Cement manufacture begins in the quarry
with the mining of raw materials and their transport to the plant.

In conclusion therefore, industrial production is simply a function of two departments of

which are quality and process engineering. Technical knowledge and adequate concentration
in order to analyze and run the production process are key irrespective of the nature of
process, its design and raw materials in question.

61
9.2 Recommendations
Cement production is largely associated with heat losses with at least 10,000KJ per Kg of
clinker. This heat can be utilized both for energy generation and more necessary drying of the
raw materials and coal. It is against this background that I recommend use of it other than
merely losing it to the surroundings.

The principal cause of hard grinding (mainly in OPC) was the presence of excessive belite
(C2S) in clinker; conversion of belite to alite (C 3S) can be maximized if silica is not present
in raw mix as coarse quartz, if the lime saturation factor was high (97-99%), if the liquid
phase was relatively high (>24%), and if the silica ratio was relatively low (<2.5).

Since higher K2O (>0.5%) is correlated with ease of grinding, I recommend that was also
noted that more alkali can always be regulated to higher values which will bring about
incidental correlation between alkalis and clay. Hence easy grindability of clinker.

In order to render industrial training a more quality benefit for the students, I do suggest that
students be permitted to exercise running of the process under authorized instructors. This
can enhance confidence and technical knowledge of the trainees.

For a similar purpose, I suggest that training can be revised to take 5 working days of the
week as this gives lenience and ensures that students develop a feeling of enjoyment for their
holidays. I suggest so based on the reason that industrial training is a university program
which is scheduled for holidays.

Since accidents are miscerenious, I think it is worth to recommend relevant medical services
both for working staff and trainees too! And as a means of prevention, I recommend that
communication should be effected pertaining areas that are safe or unsafe for walking, and
working under. This can be easily achieved by posting written warnings in addition to the few
existing ones, as well as marking the paths within the plant.

62
9.3 References
Cement plant operations handbook for dry process plants.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cement (5th, July, 2015) @17.30hours.
http://www.baghouse.com/products/dust-collection-system(18th, July, 2015)
@15.00hours.
R.H.Bogue: Chemistry of Portland cement (New York Reinhold 1978).
F.M Lea: Chemistry of cement and concrete (London Arnold 1989).
M. Neville and J.J Brooks: Concrete technology (New York 1990).
Blacklege and F. George: cement and concrete association.
Austin G.T (1984). Shreves chemical process industries. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Washington.
Tororo cement standard: Quality control laboratory manual 1995.
Book of cement by Dudda.
Makerere University Industrial Training log book (by Julius Matege).

63
 APENDICES

A) Process Flow Chart

64
B) Acronyms
BDC: Bug Dust Collector

AS: Air Slide

RF: Rotary Fan

FN: Root Blower

BC: Belt Conveyor

BE: Bucket Elevator

BL: Blower

RM: Raw Mill

CY: Cyclone

DG: Diverter Gates

R: Rotor

SR: Separator

FV: Feeder Valve

LD: Loader dampers

BF: Bag filter

HGLS: High Grade Lime Stone

LGLS: Low Grade Lime Stone

321. SR300: Number 321 means area code, SR is equipment name and number 300 is the
equipment number.

65
C) ISO 9000 Quality Management & Quality Assurance
Standards

ISO 9000 is a quality management system, adopted in Europe in 1987, which establishes and
documents procedures for all phases of either production or service operations designed to
ensure output quality. The standards originate with the International Standards Organization
in Geneva but have been adopted worldwide and operate through national certification
bodies.

ISO 9000 is not itself a performance standard and relates to existing product and method
standards. Establishing the program involves extensive documentation of operating
procedures and t raining to ensure that such procedures are understood and implemented.
Certification is by facility, not by company, and follows an audit conducted by an accredited
registrar company. Re-certification is required every three years.

The external costs of achieving certification for a cement plant have been estimated at $15-
25,000 and the time, depending upon pre-existing systems, 12-18 months. A number of
claims are made for the efficiencies and cost savings which stem from implementation; this is
more evident for widget manufacture if the rejection or repair rate is reduced, but is less
convincing for cement manufacture.

This is not to contest the benefits of appropriate procedures and training but these are, in any
case, good management practices and predated formalized quality management. More
persuasive, however, is a recognized worldwide trend towards the adoption of ISO 9000 with
the inevitability that eventually major engineers and contractors will require certification of
cement manufacturers in order to meet standard procurement terms.

66