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Review
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: One of the current challenges of wastewater treatment is the presence of recalcitrant pollutants which
Received 8 May 2016 are difcult to remove using conventional treatment technologies. This poses a threat to environmental
Received in revised form sustainability and hinders the efforts of many industries to adopt cleaner production through zero-
11 August 2016
discharge and subsequent wastewater reuse. Effective wastewater treatment technologies are there-
Accepted 18 September 2016
Available online 20 September 2016
fore needed to address this challenge. Accordingly, the last few years have seen intensied effort to
develop more effective wastewater treatment technologies. The use of uidized bed reactor in waste-
water treatment, particularly Advanced Oxidation Processes and biological treatment, represents a
Keywords:
Fluidized bed reactor
unique opportunity for cost-effective treatment of wastewater containing recalcitrant pollutants.
Fluidized bed Fenton Although the application of uidized bed reactor in biological wastewater treatment is well established
Fluidized bed bioreactor with many large-scale plants in existence, its application in advanced oxidation processes is mostly at
Advanced oxidation processes laboratory-scale. For proper design, upscaling and process improvement, information on the major pa-
Adsorption rameters affecting the processes is important. This paper offers an overview on the applications of u-
Operational parameters idized bed reactor in wastewater treatment, with emphasis on the important design and operational
parameters affecting its performance. The discussion covers liquid-solid and gas-liquid-solid uidized
bed reactors and their applications in advanced oxidation processes, biological as well as adsorption
processes which are effective wastewater treatment technologies. Fluidized bed reactors are excellent
contacting devices and have the potential to enhance the effectiveness and energy efciency of these
treatment processes if properly design and utilized. An energy efcient and cost-effective wastewater
treatment technology is crucial to industries adopting cleaner production. Important parameters such as
reactor geometry, aspect ratio, support materials, reactor internal, supercial uid velocity and other
operational parameters are reviewed. The review concluded with some perspectives on future research
interests.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1493
1.1. Fluidization and fluidized bed reactor (FBR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1494
1.2. Classifications of FBR for wastewater treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1495
1.2.1. Two-phase versus three-phase FBR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1495
1.2.2. Upward-fluidization versus downward/inverse-fluidization in FBR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1495
2. Applications of FBR in wastewater treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1495
Abbreviations: AOPs, Advanced oxidation processes; BPA, Bisphenol A; COD, Chemical oxygen demand; DMSO, Dimethyl sulfoxide; DTFBR, Draft tube uidized bed
reactor; FBR, Fluidized bed reactor; FB-Fenton, Fluidized bed Fenton; FB-Photocatalysis, Fluidized bed photocatalysis; FB-Adsorption, Fluidized bed adsorption; FBBR, Flu-
idized-bed bioreactor; HLR, Hydraulic retention time; IFBBR, Inverse uidized bed bioreactor; IFBR, Inverse uidized bed reactor; IFAFB, Integrated occulation-adsorption
uidized bed; LDPE, Low density polyethylene; MO, Methyl orange; OH, Hydroxyl radicals; OLR, Organic loading rate; OM, Organic matter; PC, Phthalocyanine; PP, Poly-
propylene; PZC, Point of zero charge; RB, Rhodamine B; RB13, Reactive blue 13; TOC, Total organic carbon; UV, Ultraviolet; VSS, Volatile suspended solids.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mmbello.cda@buk.edu.ng (M.M. Bello), aziz@um.edu.my (A.A. Abdul Raman), monash.purushothaman@vit.ac.in (M. Purushothaman).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.09.148
0959-6526/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.M. Bello et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 141 (2017) 1492e1514 1493
et al. (1995) evaluated the kinetic reaction of an FBBR treating et al. (2014) attempted to capture the recent applications of FBR in
slaughterhouse waste with concomitant methane generation. AOPs. However, the review mainly discussed the basic concept of
Recently, Haribabu and Sivasubramanian (2016) studied the FBR-AOPs and their specic applications to different wastewater
biodegradation of domestic wastewater using FBBR and achieved a streams. Thus, a review that covers the common applications of FBR
COD removal of 96.7% under optimum condition. Wang et al. (2016) in wastewater treatment with focus on the major inuential pa-
conducted anaerobic digestion of primary sludge (PS) and thick- rameters is yet to be presented.
ened waste activated (TWAS) using FBBR and reported that the Despite the wide applications of FBR in wastewater treatment,
system performed better than conventional anaerobic processes. A its designing and operation still pose signicant challenges. The
high-rate autotrophic denitrication using FBBR was reported lack of proper understanding of the inuential parameters can lead
where complete nitrate removal was achieved at a hydraulic to improper design and poor reactor performance. Therefore, a
retention time (HRT) of 10 min (Zou et al., 2016). However, the prerequisite knowledge of FBR design and operational parameters
earliest studies on the application of FBR in AOPs were reported in is necessary for successful application of the technology. This paper
the late 90s (Chou and Huang, 1999). reviews, for the rst time, the common applications of FBR in
Currently, there is growing interest in the applications of FBR in wastewater treatment and the major parameters affecting its per-
wastewater treatment, particularly in AOPs where it has shown formance. The goal is to offer an overview of the recent applications
potential in addressing some of the drawbacks of Fenton oxidation of FBR in wastewater treatment and provide insights on the major
(Chen et al., 2016) and improving the performance of photo- design and operational parameters which are prerequisites for
catalysis (Shet and Shetty, 2016). Anand et al. (2015) investigated successful design and application of the technology.
the performance of a uidized bed solar photo Fenton for the Since uidization technology has wide applications, large vol-
treatment of hospital wastewater and achieved 98% COD removal at ume of literature on various aspects of the technology exists. Thus,
HRT of 90 min. The process achieved 92% COD removal at 60 min to keep the review within reasonable proportions, the discussion
HRT compared with 67% obtained using conventional solar photo covers only liquid-solid and gas-liquid-solid FBRs and their appli-
Fenton oxidation. Chen et al. (2015) evaluated the effect of different cations in wastewater treatment. Thus, throughout the paper, FBR
carriers and operating parameters on the degradation of ax refers to either liquid-solid or gas-liquid-solid system used for
wastewater by uidized bed Fenton process. SiO2 was reported to wastewater treatment. The review is presented as follows:
be the most appropriate carrier while Fe2, H2O2 and bed expan-
sion were signicant operating parameters. Matira et al. (2015) 1. The basic concepts of FBR and its applications in wastewater
studied the degradation of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) using a treatment are rst discussed
uidized bed Fenton process and achieved 95% DMSO degradation 2. Important parameters related to reactor design and process
and 34% TOC removal after 2 h. The process also showed better hydrodynamics are then reviewed
performance than conventional Fenton process. Dong et al. (2014) 3. The operational parameters are discussed with emphasis on FB-
conducted a visible-light photocatalytic degradation of methyl or- Fenton, FB-Photocatalysis and FBBR
ange over spherical activated carbon-supported and Er3:YAlO3- 4. Lastly, the review offered some perspectives on future research
doped TiO2 in a uidized bed reactor. The process achieved an interest
optimum color removal of 65% after 8 h, with a reaction rate con-
stant of 22.17 mgL1 h1. Mailler et al. (2016) studied the removal of
emerging pollutants from wastewater treatment plant discharges 1.1. Fluidization and uidized bed reactor (FBR)
by micro-grain activated carbon in a uidized bed as tertiary
treatment. The obvious advantages of the process was the contin- The basic concept of uidization involves passing a uid through
uous injection of fresh dose of adsorbent and non-requirement of a static bed of solid particles with a supercial velocity enough to
additional separation steps. suspend the particles and caused them to behave as though they
Recent studies have also been directed towards process inten- were uid. When the uid is introduced into the static bed at a low
sication and energy efciency through process integration. For velocity, it simply passes through the voids of the solid particles
example, Apollo and Aoyi (2016) investigated the combined and the bed remains xed. As the velocity increases, the bed ex-
anaerobic digestion and photocatalytic treatment of distillery pands until the particles become suspended when the buoyancy
efuent using FBR. Besides the improved performance of the force balances the drag and gravitational forces. At a particular
combined process, the methane generation could provide the velocity, the minimum uidization velocity (Umf), the pressure drop
necessary power to drive the ultraviolet (UV) lamp. Studies have across the bed equals the weight of the particles and the bed be-
also been reported on the application of an integrated anaerobic comes completely suspended (Khan et al., 2014). Fluidization im-
uidized bed membrane bioreactor for wastewater treatment (Kim pacts excellent features onto the system such as excellent particle
et al., 2016). The integrated process results in low energy con- mixing, uniform temperature distribution and high mass transfer
sumption and reduces membrane fouling. Li et al. (2014) utilized a rate (Tisa et al., 2014). Depending on the uidization velocity,
uidized bed membrane bioelectrochemical reactor as an energy- various ow regimes such as particulate/smooth uidization,
efcient wastewater treatment process. Besides achieving more bubbling uidization, slugging uidization, turbulent uidization,
than 90% COD and 80% suspended solids removals, the overall en- and pneumatic conveying regimes can be obtained (Yang, 2003).
ergy balance of the process was theoretically neutral. The principle of uidization has been extensively utilized, partic-
Some reviews have also been presented on FBR applications in ularly in chemical processes where efcient mixing and mass/heat
wastewater treatment. Burghate and Ingole (2013) presented an transfer are essential.
overview of FBBR, discussing the basic concepts, advantages and FBR is a contacting device that uses the principle of uidization
applications in both aerobic and anaerobic treatments. Although in its operation. It is similar to the commonly used packed bed
the review had highlighted the need for standardizing the design reactors in many aspects, except that the packing material is
procedure of FBBR, the discussion on the design parameters was expanded by the upward or downward movement of the uid
limited. In their review for anaerobic biolm reactors for the (Burghate and Ingole, 2013). The degree of the bed expansion de-
treatment of dairy industry wastewater, Karadag et al. (2015) dis- pends on the particle size and density, the up-ow velocity of the
cussed the application of FBBR and highlighted its advantages. Tisa uid and its viscosity. FBR involves multiphase ow system (solid-
M.M. Bello et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 141 (2017) 1492e1514 1495
gas, solid-liquid, or solid-liquid-gas) which may include mo- The solid phase could be a variety of support materials or catalysts
mentum exchange, heat exchange and mass transfer. Because of its while the liquid phase is always the wastewater. The three-phase
excellent features, FBR is one of the most important reactor systems system involves gas-liquid-solid process where aeration or
used in chemical and biotechnology applications (Si et al., 2011). oxygenation is added to a typical liquid-solid FBR. In a two-phase
Initially, applications of FBR had been limited to catalytic cracking, FBR, uidization is provided by the ow of wastewater through
combustion, coating, granulation, drying and other chemical ap- the catalyst or biomass bed. In a three-phase system, uidization is
plications. However, FBR was later deployed for wastewater provided by the concurrent or countercurrent ow of the liquid and
treatments. gas through the solid bed. The three-phase system was developed
Fig. 1 shows the basic concept of FBR in wastewater treatment. to improve, inter alia, the oxygen limitation encountered in two-
The wastewater is introduced into the bed of the reactor at a phase FBRs (Choi et al., 2000). However, the three-phase system
particular supercial velocity enough to suspend the support me- has some challenges such as particle elutriation with high gas ow
dia. The purpose of the distributor (spager, if air) is to uniformly rate and increased agitation which may cause reactor failure.
distribute the efuent across the reactor bed. Depending on the Although two phase systems are simpler in design and easier to
system design, recycling of the efuent is usually employed. The control, the three-phase systems have seen wider applications (Han
uidized media can be an immobilized catalyst in AOPs or micro- et al., 2003).
organisms in biological treatment.
1.2.2. Upward-uidization versus downward/inverse-uidization in
1.2. Classications of FBR for wastewater treatment FBR
FBR can also be classied based on the direction of the uid ow.
In chemical industries, various types of FBRs such as bubbling Conventional FBR uses solid particles that are denser than the uid
uidized bed, circulating uidized bed, turbulent uidized bed, phase and uidization is achieved by the upward uid ow from
oating uidized bed, twin uidized bed and many other classi- the bottom of the reactor. However, inverse uidized bed reactor
cations based on ow regime and reactor design are used (IFBR) was later introduced to overcome some challenges intrinsic
(Jordening and Buchholz, 1999). However, most of these have been to the conventional FBR, such as uncontrolled growth of biomass
developed for specic chemical applications, often involving very which can affect the bioparticles hydrodynamics (Lakshmi et al.,
high supercial uid velocities typically not needed in wastewater 2000). In IFBR, the density of the solid particles is lower than the
treatment. Thus, this review departs from these conventional uid phase and uidization is achieved by the downward uid ow
classications and discusses FBR in a way that is more applicable to opposite to the net buoyancy of the particles (Nikolov et al., 2000).
wastewater treatment (Fig. 2). The IFBR is argued to possess superior hydrodynamic characteris-
tics than conventional FBR. However, the downside of IFBR is that it
usually requires higher supercial uid velocity (Bufere et al.,
1.2.1. Two-phase versus three-phase FBR
1998).
Two-phase FBR involves a liquid-solid or gas-solid process
where uidization is brought about by the liquid or gas. In waste-
2. Applications of FBR in wastewater treatment
water treatment, however, only liquid-solid system is applicable.
2.1. FBR-AOPs
Classificaon of
FBR for
wastewater
treatment
Based on
Based on reactant
direcon of
phase
fluidizaon
Upflow
Downflow
2-Phase FBR 3-Phase FBR (convenonal)
(inverse) FBR
FBR
one or a combination of chemical oxidations by using H2O2, ozone, are uidized bed Fenton (FB-Fenton) and uidized bed photo-
and radiation assisted sources such as ultraviolet (Soon and catalysis (FB-Photocatalysis).
Hameed, 2011). Typical AOPs include Fenton and Fenton-like pro-
cesses, photocatalysis, electrochemical oxidation, Ozonation, and
ultrasound cavitation. AOPs are very effective in degrading recal-
citrant pollutants and have many advantages over conventional 2.1.1. Fluidized bed-Fenton
wastewater treatment methods. Unlike conventional treatments Fenton oxidation is considered one of the most effective AOPs
which either separate the pollutants from the wastewater stream because of its rapid formation of OH in acidic medium (Asghar
or convert them to some intermediate compounds, AOPs are et al., 2015). The process consists of a homogeneous catalytic re-
capable of mineralizing organic pollutants to H2O and CO2 (Ahmadi action between ferrous iron (Fe2) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
et al., 2015). This made AOPs very attractive, especially in the to produce OH that can oxidized organic pollutants as shown in
treatment of recalcitrant and persistent organic pollutants that Equations (1)e(3) (Alalm et al., 2015). The decomposition of the
have deed the conventional treatment technologies. pollutants using Fenton process occurs in two stages (Lu et al.,
Since a number of chemical reactions are necessary for the 1999). The rst stage is the rapid reaction of Fe2 and H2O2
generation of OH, then the choice of a reactor is very important. which produces large amount of OH that can rapidly oxidized the
Because of the excellent features of FBR, many researchers have pollutants. The second stage involves a reaction between Fe3 and
investigated its potential application in AOPs. Combining FBR H2O2 which produces less OH and decomposes the pollutant rather
technology with AOPs can reduce sludge production (Briones et al., less rapidly. This stage produces hydroperoxyl radicals, which have
2012), increase catalyst reusability (Tisa et al., 2014) and improve lower oxidative power.
process performance. The most commonly investigated FBR-AOPs
H2O2 Fe2 / Fe3 OH OH (1)
Application of FBR in
Wastewater Treatment
Advanced
Biological Adsorption
Oxidation
Processes
Processes
FB- FB-
FB-Fenton FBBR Adsorption
Photocatalysis
Table 1
Applications of FB-Fenton in wastewater treatment.
Target pollutant Reactor and support material Operational conditions Performance Reference
properties
Table 1 (continued )
Target pollutant Reactor and support material Operational conditions Performance Reference
properties
Dyes: RB5, RO16, RB2 Cylindrical glass pH: 3.22 RB 5 and RO16: 99 (Su et al., 2011a)
V: 1.35 L Fe2: 0.06 mM %
D: 5.23 cm H2O2: 19.87 mM RB2: 96 %
H: 133 cm COD: 34e 49 %
Solid: SiO2 and Al2O3
PL: 74.07 g/L
50 % bed expansion
Textile wastewater Cylindrical glass pH: 2e5 COD: 86.7 % (Su et al., 2011b)
V: 1.35 L [COD]: [Fe2]: [H2O2] Color: 97.9 %
D: 5.23 cm 1:0.95:7.94
H: 133 cm
Solid: SiO2
PL: 74.07 g/L
50 % bed expansion
Aniline Cylindrical glass pH: 3 Aniline: 96 % (Anotai et al., 2010)
V: 1.35 L Fe2: 0.00107 mM
D: 5.2 cm H2O2: 58 mM
H: 133 cm HRT: 60 min
Solid: SiO2
DP: 0.42 e 0.84 mm
Solids: glass beads 2 & 4 mm
2, 6, Dimethylaniline Cylindrical glass pH: 3 100% (Ratanatamskul et al.,
V: 1.35L H2O2: 2.5 mM 2010)
Solid: Al2O3 Fe2:10 mM
DP: 2.5 mm
2,4-dichlorophenol Cylindrical glass pH: 3 2,4-DCP: 99 % (Muangthai et al., 2010)
V: 1.35 L H2O2: 10 mM COD: 55 %
Solid: SiO2 Fe2:0.25 mM Iron: 14 %
DP: 0.84-2.00 mm
PL: 100 g/L
Nitrobenzene and Iron removal Cylindrical glass pH: 2.8 0.2 Nitrobenzene: 90 % (Anotai et al., 2009)
V: 1.35 L H2O2: 50 mM Iron: 30 e 65 %
Solid: Al2O3 Fe2: 5 mM
DP: 0.8 -2.0 mm
Phenol Cylindrical Pyrex tube pH: 2.8 0.2 TOC: 98 % (Huang and Huang, 2009)
V: 150 m L H2O2: 500 mg/L
D: 2.0 cm T: 30 C
Solid: SiO2-immobilized iron oxide Q: 1.5 L/min
DP: 0.89 mm
Benzoic Acid (BA) D: 2 cm pH: 2.85e3.74 BA: 95 % (Chou and Huang, 1999)
H: 100 cm UL: 0.011 m/s Iron: 90 %
Solid: g-FeOOH TOC: 59 %
DP: 0.564 mm
Density: 1.11 g/cm3
PL: 80 g
50 % bed expansion
V: Reactor volume; D: reactor diameter; H: reactor height; DP: diameter of support media: BH: Initial static bed height; Q: liquid ow rate; Qa: air ow rate: HRT: Hydraulic
Retention Time; T: Temperature; Umf: Minimum supercial velocity; UL: supercial Liquid velocity; Ug: supercial gas velocity; PL: Solid particle loading; BPA: Bisphenol A;
DMSO: Dimethyl Sulfoxide; TFT-LCD: Thin lm transistor liquid crystal display; MEA: Monoethanolamine.
Mungmart et al. (2011) investigated the degradation of phenol 2.2. Fluidized bed bioreactor (FBBR)
in a three-phase FBR using three different metal oxides. The per-
formances of reactors utilizing O3, TiO2 deposited on silica beads, FBBR has been widely used for aerobic and anaerobic waste-
metal catalyst (Ni or Co) impregnated on mesoporous carbon water treatments. The system consists of microorganisms-coated
beads, or O3 in combination with each catalyst were compared. The particles in wastewater which are sufciently uidized to keep
reactor with Co impregnated on mesoporous carbon beads gave the the phases thoroughly mixed (Vinod and Reddy, 2005). The support
highest phenol removal while the reactor with only Ozone gave the materials of FBBR normally have extremely large specic surfaces
lowest phenol removal. The carbon beads provided adsorption sites and achieve treatment levels in shorter time than conventional
for the phenol, thereby increasing the removal rate. Kanki et al. biological treatment processes (Alfredo et al., 2013). This is because
(2005) studied the degradation of phenol and bisphenol A in a the uidization maximizes surface contact between microorgan-
uidized bed photocatalytic reactor using TiO2-coated ceramic isms and the pollutants. It has been argued that FBBR offers the
particles. Two FBRs, one with an internal UV lamp (254 nm, 9 W) stability and ease of operation of a trickling lter and the high ef-
and the other with an outside black lamp (365 nm, 15 W) were ciency of activated sludge process (Burghate and Ingole, 2013). For
compared. The reactor with the internal UV lamp degraded the example, it was reported that FBBR operated at lower HRT and gave
pollutant 4 times faster than the other reactor. Clearly, the intensity better performance than a stirred tank reactor in the degradation of
and location of the lamp have an effect on the reactor performance. phenol (Gonzalez et al., 2001). Fluidization provides a favorable
gas-liquid mass transfer, which promotes good pollutant-biomass
contact and suitable oxygen transfer rate (Pen and Jose, 2008).
1500 M.M. Bello et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 141 (2017) 1492e1514
Table 2
Applications of FB-Photocatalysis in wastewater treatment.
Target pollutant Rector and support material properties Operational conditions Performance Reference
Table 2 (continued )
Target pollutant Rector and support material properties Operational conditions Performance Reference
H: 45 cm
Catalyst: Degussa P-25
Particle size: 21 nm
Loading: 0.2 g/L
V: Reactor volume; D: reactor diameter; H: reactor height; DP: diameter of support media: BH: Initial static bed height; Q: liquid ow rate; Qa: air ow rate: HRT: Hydraulic
Retention Time; T: Temperature; Umf: Minimum supercial velocity; UL: Liquid supercial velocity; Ug: Gas supercial velocity; MO: Methyl Orange; TCE: Trichloroethylene.
Obviously uidization will do away with preferential ow paths, problems encountered in xed-bed column adsorption such as
bed clogging and other problems encountered in xed-bed reactors clogging, temperature gradient, channeling and dead zones are
(Jaafari et al., 2014). eliminated. Table 4 shows reported studies on adsorption using
Although FBBR is a well-established technology with full-scale FBR.
plants in existence, lab-scale studies are still being conducted to- Dora et al. (2013) investigated the adsorption of Arsenic (III)
wards process improvement, application of new materials and using cashew nut shell in a three-phase FBR and reported a removal
integration with other technologies. For example, Logan and co- efciency of 92.55% under optimum condition. The adsorption was
workers have recently combined FBBR with membrane bioreactor found to be affected by the gas and liquid velocities, particle size
as a possible solution to membrane fouling (Kim et al., 2011, 2016). and initial static bed height. Kulkarni et al. (2013) studied the
Improved treatment efciency, stable mixed liquor suspended solid adsorption of phenol from wastewater in an FBR using coconut
and reduced transmembrane pressure are obtained when FBBR is shell activated carbon. The adsorption was found to depend on the
combined with membrane bioreactor (Shin et al., 2014). initial phenol concentration, owrate and bed particle size.
Table 3 gives a summary of some reported studies on waste- Jovanovic et al. (2014) studied the hydrodynamics and sorption
water treatment using FBBR. Both two- phase and three-phase studies for the removal of Cu (II) from aqueous solution using FBR
processes have been used, with some researchers exploring the packed with Zeolite A beads. The process was optimized, with a
advantages of an inverse uidized bed bioreactor (IFBBR). Haribabu maximum sorption capacity of 23.3 mg/g.
and Sivasubramanian (2016) studied the biodegradation of organic Zhou et al. (2015) developed an integrated occulation-
matter in domestic wastewater using IFBBR and achieved a adsorption uidized bed (IFAFB) system for the removal of Kaolin
maximum COD removal of 96.7%. A three-phase FBR with a working clay and phenol from synthetic wastewater. The adsorption ca-
volume of 0.0125 m3 and employing low density biocarries was pacities of the uidized regime were found to be 8.77 and
used. The low density media had a positive effect on the minimum 24.70 mg/g greater than those of the xed bed regime. At shorter
uidization velocity and increased the efciency of the process. HRT (below 50 min), however, the adsorption was higher in the
Lin et al. (2010) investigated the biodegradation of RB13 in a xed bed regime. At longer HRT and higher supercial velocities,
two-stage anaerobic/aerobic FBBR and achieved color and COD the adsorption performance of the FBR was superior. Under uid-
removal efciencies of 86.9% and 90.4% respectively. Rajasimman ization, the solution forms micro-vortices and create a uniform
and Karthikeyan (2007) investigated the effect of HRT on the aer- condition around the adsorbent, resulting in effective utilization of
obic digestion of starch wastewater using FBBR with low density the adsorbent. Under xed bed mode, however, there are discrep-
biomass support. The COD removal increased with increase in HRT ancies between the two sides of the particles. In a similar study,
for all initial substrate concentration, with maximum removal Wang et al. (2011) reported that the adsorption capacity of xed
(95.6%) at 40 h HRT. bed was higher than that of an inverse uidized bed in their study
Cuenca et al. (2006) studied the anaerobic biodegradation of for aqueous phase adsorption of toluene using hydrophobic aero-
diesel fuel-contaminated wastewater using FBBR and reported that gels. The breakthrough time was found to be shorter in the inverse
both diesel and COD removal efciencies increased with increased FBR than packed bed. This is perhaps because of the short HRT
in HRT for all the conditions investigated. Mustafa et al. (2014) (50 min) where the packed bed normally exhibits a better perfor-
studied the treatment of municipal wastewater sludge using mance. The use of the inverse FBR might have equally contributed
anaerobic FBBR and reported that the treatment performance to the lower performance of the process.
decreased with increased in organic loading rate (OLR). A volatile
suspended solids (VSS) removal efciencies of 88%, 79% and 70% 3. Effects of design parameters
were achieved at OLRs of 4.2, 9.5 and 19 kg COD/m3-d respectively.
A COD removal efciency of 68% was obtained at OLR of 19 kg COD/ Successful application of FBR requires knowledge of the
m3-d. Borja et al. (2004) carried out mesophilic anaerobic digestion important design parameters. However, despite the extensive ap-
of wastewater from the production of protein isolates from plications of FBR, uidization is still an empirical science (Yang,
chickpea our using FBBR and reported that the percentage COD 2003) and a single systematic design approach is yet to emerge.
removal decreased with increase in OLR. Instead, the design is largely application-specic and relies on
empirical correlations (Onysko et al., 2002) and experience of the
2.3. Fluidized bed-adsorption designer (Zhang et al., 2012). For example, Deng et al. (2016)
developed an integrated methodology for designing FBBR for the
Adsorption is an effective and economical method for the treatment of dyeing efuents. The method was based on theories,
removal of recalcitrant pollutants from wastewater, especially experiments and knowledge base. The absence of a robust meth-
when low-cost adsorbent such as grape bagasse (Demiral and odology and the reliance on heuristics may lead to various prob-
Gngo r, 2016) and cow bone (Cechinel et al., 2014) are utilized. lems such as insufcient or over-uidization, poor treatment
Although treatability studies on adsorption are usually conducted performance and reactor failure. Although attempts have been
in batch (Abidi et al., 2015) or xed-bed column rectors (Bello et al., made to understand the design parameters, large-scale applica-
2013), studies have also been reported on the use of FBR for tions of FBR still pose signicant challenge (Reinhold et al., 1996).
adsorption process. When FBR is used in adsorption, operational Despite the wide applications of FBR in wastewater treatment,
1502 M.M. Bello et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 141 (2017) 1492e1514
Table 3
Applications of FBBR in wastewater treatment.
Target pollutant Reactor and support material Operational conditions Performance Reference
properties
PS & TWAS Plexiglass rectangular column T: 37 C PS, COD: 62%, VSS: 63% (Wang et al., 2016)
V: 16 L HRT: 2.2 e 4 d TWAS, COD: 56%, VSS: 50%
H: 3.6 m OLR: 12 -18kg COD/m3 d
Support: HDPE
DP: 600e850 mm
Density: 1554 kg/m3
Domestic wastewater V: 0.0125 m3 HRT: 6.25 e 24 h COD: 96.7 % (Haribabu and Sivasubramanian,
D: 0.1 m Q: 10 e 80 mL/min 2016)
H: 1.8 m Ug:0.0016 - 0.00318 m/s
Support: LDPE
Density: 870 kg/m3
BH: 0.6 e 1.0 m
Autotrophic denitrication Glass column pH: 5.8 N: 100 % (Zou et al., 2016)
V: 580 ml T: 20 e 30 C
Support: GAC Q: 800 mL/min,
DP: 0.5 -1 mm HRT: 10 min
OLR: 500 mg/L h
Bed expansion: 25 %
Aquaculture Efuent: Nitrate removal V: 2.85 L Phase I: HRT: 3.2- N: 49 % (Christianson et al., 2015)
D: 0.31 m 3.3 min,
H: 3.9 m Flowrate: 63-65 L/min
BH: 0.9 m Phase II: HRT: 3.2-
Support: Sulfur biolters 4.8 min
DP: 0.3 mm Flowrate: 67-43 L/min
13 e 42% bed expansion
Aquaculture efuent: denitrication V: 285 L HLR: 188 L/min m2 N: 26.9 % (Tsukuda et al., 2015)
D: 0.31 m HRT: 15 min
H: 3.9 m Q: 13.7 L/min
Support: sand biolters 50 % bed expansion
DP: 0.11 mm
BH: 0.9 m
Denitrication of mining water V: 1 L T: 7 e 22 C Denitrication: 100 % (Zou et al., 2015)
Support: GAC HRT: 12 h
Dp: 0.5 e 1 mm Q: 800 mL/min
25 % bed expansion
Cu, Ni & Zn removal V: 2.5 L HRT: 24 h Cu: 97.5 % (Janyasuthiwong et al., 2015)
D: 0.08 m pH: 7 & 5 Ni: 65.9 %
H: 1.0 m OLR: 1 g COD/L. d Zn: 97.0 %
30 % bed expansion COD: 61.9 %
Synthetic municipal wastewater: Plexiglass column T: 20 3 C N2O: 0.53 % (Eldyasti et al., 2014)
denitrication V: 608 ml HRT: 0.6 h
D: 2.54 cm OLR: 5.9 e 7 kg COD/m3
H: 100 cm d
Support: zeolite Q: 20 2 L/day
DP: 600 e 850 mm
Currant wastewater: COD Plexiglass column T: 35 2 C COD: 96. 9 % (Jaafari et al., 2014)
V: 3.95 L OLR: 9.4 to 24.2 kg COD/
3
D: 60 mm m
H: 140 cm Umf: 0.75 m/min
BH: 0.6 m 30 % bed expansion
Support: PVC
DP: 2 mm
Domestic wastewater Plexiglass plate T: 15 - 35 C COD: 74.0 3.7% (Gao et al., 2014)
V:7.6 L, HRT: 6 h
Support : GAC
Loading: 200 e 300 g
Formaldehyde Pillar glass reactor HRT: 24 h Degradation: 98. 37 % at (Qiu et al., 2014)
V: 486 mL T: 30 & 37 C 30 C
D: 3.6 cm Degradation: 96.83 % at
H: 46 cm 37 C
Support: Gel beads
Metal precipitation (Cu, Pb, Cd, Zn) PVC pipe with conical bottom T: 25 C Removal: 99 % (Villa-Gomez et al., 2014)
V:2.5 L HRT: 24 h
D: 0.05 m 30 % bed expansion
H: 1.0 m
Support: LDPE beads
DP: 3 mm
PS & TWAS V: 16 L OLR: 8 e 19 kg/m3-d COD: 68 % for PS (Mustafa et al., 2014)
H: 3.6 m Q: 3.4 L/d COD: 55 % for TWAS
Support: zeolite
DP: 425 e 610 mm
M.M. Bello et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 141 (2017) 1492e1514 1503
Table 3 (continued )
Target pollutant Reactor and support material Operational conditions Performance Reference
properties
Petrochemical wastewater: COD and TPH Glass column with draft tube T: 20 e 25 C COD: 87 % (Qin et al., 2014)
V: 4.36 L HRT: 6 h TPH: 95 %
Qa: 2-5 L/h,
OLR:1.61-2.56 kg COD/
m3.d
Thin stillage H: 3.6 m T: 37 C, COD: 88 % (Andalib et al., 2012)
Support: Zeolite UL: 1.4 cm/s TSS: 78 %
DP: 425 e 610 mm OLR: 29 1.2 kg COD/
m3d
Dyeing Efuent: color and COD V: 0.02 m2 Qa: 0.025 m/s COD: 83.3 % (Balaji and Poongothai, 2012)
D: 0.15 m HRT: 26 h Color: 89.5 %
H: 1.17 m 50 % bed expansion
BH: 0.25 m
Support: PVC
Sulde oxidation Glass column T: 30 2 C Degradation: 92 % (Midha et al., 2012)
V: 0.6 L HRT: 25 e 70 min
D: 0.045 m Uup: 14 e 20 m/h
H: 0.38 m
Support: nylon
DP: 2-3 mm
Density: 1140 kg/m3
BH: 16 cm
Real acid drainage mine water V: 300 mL T: 35 C Sulfate: 90 % (Sahinkaya et al., 2011)
Support: AC HRT: 12 e 24 h COD: 80 %
DP: 0.5 e 1 mm pH: 2.7 e 7 Metal: 99.9 %
15 e 20 % bed expansion
V: Reactor volume; D: reactor diameter; H: reactor height; DP: diameter of support media: BH: Initial static bed height; Q: liquid ow rate; Qa: air ow rate: HRT: Hydraulic
Retention Time; T: Temperature; Umf: Minimum supercial velocity; UL: Liquid supercial velocity; Ug: Gas supercial velocity; OLR: Organic Loading Rate; IFBBR: Inverse
Fluidized Bed Bioreactor; IAFMBR: Inverse Anaerobic Fluidized Bed Bioreactor; GAC: Granular Activated Carbon; HDPE: High Density Polypropylene; LDPE: Low Density
Polypropylene; TPH: Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon; PS: Primary Sludge: TWAS: Thickened Waste Activated Sludge.
the effects of design parameters are not fully established. Also in- (Fig. 4). Conventional FBRs are atbed reactors with uniform cross-
formation on the effects of reactor conguration on the mass sectional areas. However, wash-out of particles occurs sometimes
transfer and the reactor performance are somewhat sparse. Some due to high supercial velocity. To overcome this challenge, Scott C.
of the design parameters that may affect the performance of FBR D and Hancher C. W. introduced the concept of tapered-bed FBR in
include reactor geometry, aspect ratio, reactor internals, particle 1976 (Parthiban et al., 2007). In Tapered FBR, the cross-sectional
size and density, particle loading and uid supercial velocity. area of the reactor is made narrower at the bottom (tapered-in)
or both bottom and top (tapered-in tapered-out) (Askaripour and
Dehkordi, 2015). This results in a stable feed introduction as well
3.1. Reactor geometry as minimizes eddies and back mixing that could arise in atbed
FBR. However, it is necessary to ensure appropriate taper angle so
3.1.1. Shape and cross-sectional area of the reactor that turbulent ow due to sudden expansion can be avoided.
Reactor conguration is an important parameter that affects A comparative study on the performance of a atbed FBR and a
mixing and particle distribution in FBR (Choi and Shin, 1999). Par- tapered FBR showed that the latter has superior treatment perfor-
ticle mixing plays an important role in the performance of FBR since mance and better hydrodynamic characteristics (Huang et al.,
it affects both heat and mass transfer (Yan et al., 2009). For 2000). Three FBRs having 0 , 2.5 and 5 taper angles were
wastewater treatment, it is necessary to obtain high mass transfer compared in the study. The hydrodynamics characteristics and
rate and uniform temperature in the reactor through uid-particle performance of the three FBRs were in the following decreasing
interactions. order 5 / 2.5 / 0 . The 5 tapered FBR showed the highest
Although FBRs are conventionally cylindrical, other shapes such performance while the 0 tapered FBR exhibited the lowest per-
as square columns have been used. Dead-zones are encountered formance. A previous study by Wu and Huang (1996) reported that
more frequently in square columns where the sharp corners of the COD removal efciency of a tapered FBR was higher than a atbed
reactor promote their occurrences. The presence of dead-zones FBR when the taper angle does not exceed 5 . Above 5 taper angle,
inhibits proper particle mixing in the reactor. In their compara- the performance of the atbed FBR was either higher or lower than
tive study on the effect of bed geometry on mixing rate, Gorji-kandi the tapered FBR.
et al. (2015) concluded that mixing rate is greater in a cylindrical
bed than a square bed FBR. This was attributed to the presence of
dead-zones at the corners of the square reactor which caused slow 3.1.2. Aspect ratio
motion of particles. The presence of slow uidization on the wall of Aspect ratio, dened as the ratio of the static bed height to the
the reactor had been conrmed earlier (Efstathios and Michaelides, reactor diameter, is an important design parameter of FBR. The
2013). Therefore, it is necessary to choose appropriate shape of the aspect ratio has an inuence on uid circulation velocity and
reactor for effective wastewater treatment. consequently on the phase mixing in the reactor (Weipeng et al.,
The cross-sectional area of the reactor is another parameter that 2014). Large aspect ratio promotes bubble coalescence and higher
can affect the hydrodynamics and treatment performance of FBR. solid holdup. This reduces both gas/liquid holdup and the inter-
Generally, FBR can be divided into a atbed or a tapered-bed FBR phase mixing. Conversely, a low aspect ratio promotes higher
1504 M.M. Bello et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 141 (2017) 1492e1514
Table 4
Applications of FB-Adsorption in wastewater treatment.
Target pollutant Reactor and support material properties Operational conditions Performance Reference
V: Reactor volume; D: reactor diameter; H: reactor height; DP: diameter of support media: BH: Initial static bed height; Q: liquid ow rate; Qa: air ow rate; HRT: Hydraulic
Retention Time; T: Temperature; Umf: Minimum uidization velocity; UL: Liquid supercial velocity; Ug: Gas supercial velocity; CAC: Coconut activated carbon; IFAFBR:
Integrated Flocculation-Adsorption Fluidized Bed Reactor; IFBR: Inverse Fluidized Bed Reactor; GAC: Granular Activated Carbon; OM: Organic matter: PAC: Powder Activated
Carbon.
liquid/gas holdup and encourages interphase mixing. Therefore, result in slugging effect (Kunii and Levenspiel, 1991) and hence the
low aspect ratio can reduce the uid ow rate requirement and diameter is usually made relatively bigger to achieve the necessary
hence lower the process cost (Ochieng et al., 2003). It is therefore degree of uidization. However, a very large diameter may pose
necessary to select the appropriate aspect ratio for proper design challenges to uniform uidization. Therefore, a compromise is
and successful application. usually necessary (Jordening and Buchholz, 1999). For example,
Typical ranges of aspect ratio for both laboratory/pilot FBRs and Ochieng et al., (2002) found an aspect ratio of 10 to be the optimum
technical plants are shown in Table 5 (Jordening and Buchholz, in their treatment of brewery wastewater using laboratory-scale
1999). Laboratory scale FBRs usually have small diameters in rela- FBBR.
tion to the reactor column height and the corresponding static bed In FBBR, large aspect ratio results in more surfaces for biomass
height. Since the reactor volume is small, a small diameter and a growth. However, higher aspect ratio above the optimum value will
relatively high static bed height can give the necessary solid increase solid holdup and thereby inhibit proper mixing of the
loading. In the case of full scale FBR, a long and narrow column may bioparticles and wastewater. The increased amount of solid
M.M. Bello et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 141 (2017) 1492e1514 1505
increase in particle diameter for the two types of particles inves- (Han et al., 2003).
tigated. This was attributed to the increase in the Archimedes For a given reactor diameter, particle loading can affect the ox-
number which increases with increase in particle diameter. ygen mass transfer rate in a three-phase FBR. However, the inu-
Surface characteristic of the solid particle is another important ence of particle loading on oxygen transfer rate is rather complex.
parameter that can affect the performance of FBR. Solid particles High particle loading promotes bubble coalescence, which in turns
can be hydrophobic or hydrophilic. Unlike hydrophobic particles, reduces the interfacial area of gas-liquid and hence the oxygen
hydrophilic particles mix excellently with water. This improves the mass transfer (Abdel-aziz et al., 2016). Large bubbles will move
mass transfer coefcient for up-ow uidization (Kim and Kang, faster, resulting in shorter residence time and consequent low gas
1997). However, for inverse uidization, the reverse is the case. hold up. It was reported that an increased particle loading of 15%
Han et al. (2003) compared hydrophobic and hydrophilic particles caused a 30% drop in oxygen mass transfer in a three-phase FBR for
having the same density and concluded that hydrophobic are better aerobic wastewater treatment (Yu et al., 1999).
than hydrophilic particles for inverse uidization. This was attrib- The initial static bed also affects the pressure drop across the
uted to the retardation of rising bubbles near the hydrophobic reactor bed. At Umf, the pressure drop is equal to the weight of the
particles which subsequently increased the gas holdup. A similar particles divided by the cross-sectional area of the bed. The pres-
concept of hydrophobic/hydrophilic was discussed by Choi & Shin sure drop in FBR is the sum of the frictional pressure drop and the
(1999) and observed by Bufere et al. (1998) during their study of static pressure drop. However, the static pressure drop is usually
an IFBBR. Kim and Kang (1997) had equally discussed this in terms negligible and the total pressure drop is then due to the frictional
of the wettability of the particles. This shows the importance of pressure drop only (Askaripour and Dehkordi, 2016). Therefore, the
surface properties of FBR support materials in wastewater frictional pressure drop required to counterbalance the weight of
treatment. the bed increases with increase in initial static bed height (Dora
Particles with high specic surface areas, good physicochemical et al., 2012). Thus, it is necessary to use appropriate aspect ratio
and uidodynamic properties should therefore be used as support to ensure optimum performance of the system.
materials (Pen and Jose, 2008). Particles with irregular surfaces,
sharp angles and crevices are suitable for biomass attachment and 3.2.3. Particle density
development which are important in FBBR (Bufere et al., 1998). For a given bed height, the density and surface property of the
Silica, quartz sand, granular activated carbon, vitreous coke, glass particles would determine the required supercial uid velocity
beads, PVC, are some of the common support materials used in FBR (Han et al., 2003). Dense particles would require high up-ow ve-
(Alfredo et al., 2013). The particle diameter of the support materials locity to achieve uidization (Escudero, 2010). Also porous mate-
is usually less than 1 mm, though larger particles have also been rials result in lower supercial velocity requirement than non-
used (Vinod and Reddy, 2005). The specic area of bed materials porous materials (Jordening and Buchholz, 1999). Where FBBR is
after uidization can be calculated using the following formula: used, polymeric support particles could be the materials of choice
because they offer large surface areas for microbial growth (Midha
61 et al., 2012). The use of light particles will result in low uid
as (4)
dj pumping requirement and thereby low operational cost. In such
case, however, the aspect ratio should be as low as possible in order
Where. to achieve bed homogeneity at the low gas/liquid ow rates
(Ochieng et al., 2002).
as specic surface area (m1) Conversely, minimum uidization velocity decreases with in-
expanded bed porosity (dimensionless) crease in particle density in the case of an IFBR. A study on the
d support particle diameter (mm) minimum uidization velocity requirement between a low density
j form factor (dimensionless, equals 1 if considered a pseudo- polyethylene (LDPE) (940 kg/m3) and polypropylene (PP) (840 kg/
spherical particle) m3) revealed that the LDPE particles required lower velocity than
the PP particles (Lakshmi et al., 2000). This is because the upward
buoyance force increases as the particle density decreases and thus
3.2.2. Particle loading higher liquid velocity is required to achieve uidization.
For successful application, it is necessary to understand the ef- For a given initial static bed height, particle density affects bed
fect of particle loading/initial bed height on the hydrodynamics of pressure drop. Dense particles increase the weight of the initial
FBR (Delebarre et al., 2004). The initial static bed height is the static bed height and this increases the pressure drop necessary to
height of the solid particles in the reactor prior to uidization. counterbalance the weight (Dora et al., 2012). A correlation of gas
Theoretically, the initial static bed height does not affect the min- velocity, phase holdups and pressure drop can give further insights
imum uidization velocity (Umf) in a conventional FBR (Jena et al., on the inuence of the hydrodynamic characteristics on the process
2009). This is because uidization is achieved when the upward performance (Equation (5)).
inertial and drag forces exerted on the particles equal the buoyant
weight of the bed. Lakshmi et al. (2000) studied the effect of bed dp
s rs L rL g rg g (5)
height on Umf in a two-phase FBR and reported that constant ve- dz
locity is obtained for all bed heights investigated.
However, Delebarre et al. (2004) studied the inuence of bed s L g 1 (6)
inventory on uidization characteristics of FBR and concluded that
the initial static bed height has effect on Umf. An increase in bed Where dp is the pressure drop, dz is the bed height; s, L and g are
inventory led to an increase in Umf. However, there were some the solid, liquid and gas phase holdups respectively; rs, rL and rg are
inaccuracies in the bed height measurements which might have similarly the densities; g is the acceleration due to gravity.
affected the authors conclusion. Previous study by Garcia et al. Clearly from Equation (5), the use of dense particles could lead
(1999) had reported a small inuence of particle loading on the to an increase in pressure drop, which consequently increases po-
liquid velocity of the system. In the case of IFBR, however, the wer consumption. On the other hand, very low densities could lead
uidization velocity decreases with increase in particle loading to particle wash-out. However, a careful design and reactor internal
M.M. Bello et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 141 (2017) 1492e1514 1507
can minimize this problem (Ochieng et al., 2002). supercial gas velocity. This was attributed to the higher gas
holdup, volumetric mass transfer coefcient and oxygen transfer
3.3. Supercial uid velocity rate due to the increased gas velocity. The highest COD and phenol
degradation rates were obtained at a gas velocity of 0.220 m/s.
Supercial uid velocity (Uf) refers to the volumetric ow rate of Above this optimum value, however, the degradation efciencies
the uid divided by the cross-sectional area of the reactor. Uf is became lower. At gas velocities above the optimum value, larger
responsible for the particles uidization and therefore inuences bubbles are formed which dominate over the interfacial area,
the particles mixing, heat and mass transfer rate in the reactor resulting in lower mass transfer. Uf is affected by the properties of
(Mostou and Chaouki, 2001). Therefore, it is necessary to under- bed materials as well as the aspect ratio of the reactor (Zhong et al.,
stand how Uf affect FBR performance. Uf is required to be within 2008).
two extremes, the minimum uidization velocity (Umf) and the
terminal uidization velocity (Ut). Umf is the lowest uid velocity 4. Effect of operational parameters
necessary to initiate particles uidization while Ut is the uid ve-
locity at which particles are carried out with the uid ow Since FBR is most commonly used in Fenton oxidation, photo-
(Jovanovic et al., 2014). catalytic oxidation and aerobic/anaerobic treatments, the discus-
Umf is an important parameter which is closely related to the sion on the operational parameters has given emphasis to them.
power requirement of the system (Ochieng et al., 2003). A high Umf Some of the operational parameters that affect FBR performance
will result in a high uidization power requirement. Therefore, it is include pH, catalyst concentration, amount of H2O2, temperature,
necessary to control Uf slightly above Umf with as much accuracy UV intensity, HRT and OLR.
and precision as possible (Delebarre et al., 2004). Umf can be
calculated using Equation (7) (Alfredo et al., 2013). 4.1. pH
turbidity (Meng et al., 2010) which reduces light penetration into leads to a decrease in OLR, other conditions being equal. For a
the reaction matrix and hinders the photocatalytic performance of constant OLR, increase in HRT will lead to higher performance of
the reactor (Zulfakar et al., 2011). Also from an economic viewpoint, the process as microorganisms will have more time to degrade the
excess catalysts should be avoided so as to keep the operating cost pollutant. However, above the optimum HRT, the process becomes
as low as possible. Therefore, it is imperative to establish the op- independent of the HRT (Borja et al., 2001). Although HRT can be
timum dosage of the TiO2. Where immobilized TiO2 is used, addi- controlled through ow rate manipulation, it may pose uidization
tional removal is obtained via adsorption of pollutants on the challenges for the bioparticles (Christianson et al., 2015). Thus,
surface of the solid. there is need for a trade-off between HRT and ow rates to obtain
Youngsoo Na et al. (2005) studied the photocatalytic decolor- the optimum condition for specic applications.
isation of rhodamine B by immobilized TiO2/UV in an FBR and re- For aerobic FBBR, the optimum degradation is usually achieved
ported that the decolorisation rate increased with increase in TiO2 within a short HRT, depending on the microorganisms, pollutants
dosage. The immobilized TiO2 was responsible for both degradation and other operational parameters (Table 3). Rajasimman and
and adsorption of the dye. However, since UV light was used, Karthikeyan (2007) investigated the effect of HRT on the treat-
excessive amount of the catalyst could hinder light penetration. A ment of starch wastewater in an aerobic FBBR and reported that the
dosage of 33.8 g/L was found to be the optimum concentration. COD reduction increased with increased in HRT for all initial sub-
Details of typical photocatalyst concentrations reported in the strate concentrations. The optimum removal efciency of 93.8 5%
literature can be found in Table 2. was achieved after 24 h.
The effect of HRT on anaerobic FBBR follows the same trend as
4.6. UV intensity that of aerobic FBBR. Cuenca et al. (2006) investigated the anaerobic
biodegradation of diesel fuel-contaminated wastewater in an FBBR
A source of photons, mostly UV lamp, is usually introduced into and reported that both the diesel and COD removal efciencies
FB-photocatalysis and FB-Photo-Fenton processes. The rate of increased with increased in HRT for all the conditions investigated.
photon increases as the number and intensity of UV lamps increase. Lin et al. (2010) studied the effect of HRT on dye degradation using a
The degradation efciency of FB-photocatalysis increases with UV two-stage anaerobic/aerobic FBR and reported that the overall
light intensity, and shorter wavelength gives higher degradation degradation was enhanced when HRT was increased from 20 h to
(Lim and Kim, 2002). Shorter wavelength light is adsorbed more 70 h.
strongly by TiO2 particles than longer one. Therefore, the pene-
tration distance of photons into TiO2 particles is shorter and elec- 4.8. Organic loading rate (OLR)
trons and holes are formed closer to the surface of the particles.
In their study for the Photooxidation of sodium lauryl sulfate in OLR is the measure of organic pollutants which is expressed as
a three-phase FBR using TiO2/SiO2, Nam et al. (2009) found that the kilogram (kg) of COD per cubic-meter (m3) per day (d). In FBBR, OLR
degradation rate increased with an increase in the UV light in- is normally manipulated through variation of owrate. When OLR
tensity. The intensity of light determines the potential number of is increased, the performance of the system reduces due to shock
photons that can be generated and hence the number of photons and disturbance on the biomass. However, the microorganisms
that may eventually reach the catalyst surface. Thus a 65 W lamp adjust to the new OLR and the process performance usually re-
gave a better performance than a 30 W lamp. sumes. Excellent FBBR performance is usually associated with low
Also the position of the UV lamp in relation to the reaction OLR (Balaji and Poongothai, 2012). On the other hand, when the
matrix is also important. The closer the lamp is to the reaction substrate is limiting in the process, increasing OLR can improve the
matrix the higher the amount of photons reaching the reactants. process performance (Ferna ndez et al., 2008). In that case,
Kanki et al. (2005) investigated the inuence of UV irradiation on increasing OLR provides more food to microorganisms and hence
FB-photocatalytic process using TiO2-coated ceramic particles. Two more biomass production.
FBRs, one with an internal UV lamp (254 nm, 9 W) and the other Carbajo et al. (2010) reported a slight decreased in phenol and
with an outside black lamp (365 nm, 15 W) were used. The reactor TOC degradation as the OLR was increased in their treatment of
with the internal UV lamp degraded the pollutant 4 times faster phenol in an anaerobic FBBR. However, the degradation efciency
than the other reactor. This signies the importance of the prox- resumed once the microorganisms acclimatized to the new OLR.
imity of the light source to the reaction matrix. Mustafa et al. (2014) studied the anaerobic digestion of municipal
wastewater sludge using FBBR and reported that the treatment
4.7. Hydraulic retention time (HRT) performance decreased with increased in OLR. A volatile suspended
solids (VSS) removal efciency of 88%, 79% and 70% were achieved
HRT is the average length of time the wastewater stays in the at OLRs of 4.2, 9.5 and 19 kg COD/m3-d respectively. A COD removal
reactor. Generally, long HRT leads to a better performance of FBR- efciency of 68% was equally obtained at OLR of 19 kg COD/m3-d.
AOPs, until the optimum time is reached. Above the optimum Borja et al. (2004) carried out mesophilic anaerobic digestion of
HRT, there is usually little or no further degradation of the wastewater from the production of protein isolates from chickpea
pollutant. During a treatment of recalcitrant organic silicone our in an FBBR and reported that the percentage COD removal
wastewater using FB-Fenton, Li et al. (2014) found out that the decreased with increased in OLR.
degradation of COD and TOC increased as the HRT was increased
from 15 to 60 min, with no further degradation thereafter. Thus, the 5. Conclusions and future perspectives
optimum HRT was 60 min corresponding to COD and TOC removal
efciency of 90% and 78% respectively. In another study for COD FBRs have been widely used in wastewater treatment, particu-
removal from hospital wastewater, 98% removal efciency was larly biological processes and AOPs, due to their excellent features
achieved at an HRT of 90 min (Anand et al., 2015). such as high mass transfer rate, excellent mixing and low sludge
In FBBR, any change in HRT is likely to affect the OLR and hence generation. Few studies have also appeared on the use of FBR for
the performance of the reactor (Haroun and Idris, 2009). The ef- adsorptive removal of recalcitrant pollutants. Since the design and
ciency of pollutant removal in FBBR is a function of the HRT which operation of FBR depends largely on experience and empirical
is concomitant with OLR (Perez et al., 2007). Increasing the HRT approach, an understanding of the important design and
1510 M.M. Bello et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 141 (2017) 1492e1514
operational parameters is necessary for successful application of Combining FBBR with other wastewater treatment technologies
the technology. This review discusses the applications of FBR in such as membrane bioreactor is an attractive research area. Some
wastewater treatment, with emphasis on design and operational recent studies have shown that combining FBR with membrane
parameters affecting process performances. Although the review is bioreactor can improve process performance (Gao et al., 2014) and
non-exhaustive, especially with the technology still unfolding, alleviate membrane fouling (Kim et al., 2016). This has the potential
major parameters affecting the process such as reactor geometry, to reduce energy consumption and increase cost-effectiveness of
particle size, particle density and loading, supercial uid velocity, the process. Another approach that is considered attractive is the
catalyst concentration, pH, HRT, and OLR have been discussed. integration of biological processes and AOPs using FBR. Since AOPs
Reviewed literature shows that using FBR in wastewater treat- are more cost-effective when applied as tertiary treatment tech-
ment increases process performance and could help in addressing nologies, FBBR can be used as initial treatment to reduce the
some of the drawbacks of the conventional treatment technologies. organic loading, followed by FBR-AOPs to mineralize the recalci-
In the last two years, more than 80% of the reported studies on FBR trant pollutants. For example, integrating anaerobic digestion and
applications in wastewater treatment have been on FB-Fenton and photocatalytic oxidation using FBR can improve cost-effectiveness
FBBR. Therefore, these two represent the most important applica- as the methane generated from the anaerobic digestion could
tions of FBR in wastewater treatment. In particular, FBR has shown provide the necessary energy for driving AOPs.
potential to overcome the problem of excessive sludge generation It is obvious that the excellent features of FBR can be exploited in
in conventional Fenton oxidation. Reported studies show that the wastewater treatment as indicated by the recent growing interest
support materials in FB-Fenton can crystallize about 30e65% iron in the topic. Overall, FBR has the potential to improve process
from the solution and can achieve 15e20% better performance than performance and increase the cost-effectiveness of various waste-
conventional Fenton oxidation. This indicates that FBR can increase water treatments, particularly AOPs and biological processes. A
the cost-effectiveness of Fenton oxidation. In biological wastewater cost-effective wastewater treatment technology is particularly
treatment, most of the recent studies have been on improving important to industries as they strive to adopt zero-discharge as a
process performance, energy efciency and fouling prevention in means of cost reduction and environmental sustainability. The
membrane bioreactor. Fluidized bed membrane bioreactor using outcomes of this study provide a prerequisite knowledge for un-
GAC as support material reduces membrane fouling and conse- derstanding the important parameters affecting the performance of
quently lowers energy requirements of the process. In some FBR in wastewater treatment while at the same time highlighting
studies, anaerobic FBBR has been integrated with AOPs such as some existing gaps for future studies.
photocatalysis, where energy generated from methane can provide
the power required by the UV. Acknowledgment
Although previous studies have shown encouraging results on
the application of FBR in wastewater, more studies will be needed This work was nancially supported by the University of Malaya
to address some of the existing gaps in the literature. One of the High Impact Research Grant (UM.C/HIR/MOHE/ENG/37) from the
major challenges is that uidization is still an empirical science, Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia and University of Malaya,
relying largely on empirical correlations and heuristic approach. As Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
FBR operation is known to be inherently complex, modeling and
optimization of wastewater treatment using FBR are challenging
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