Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles

BHUTAN

by
Kinzang Wangdi

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FAO 2006
 3

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 5

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY 6

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES 6

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 7

5. FODDER RESOURCES 9
5.1 Fodder from tsadrog (registered grazing land) 9
5.2 Forest grazing. 10
5.3 Fallow 10
5.4 Crop residues 10
5.5 Annual arable crops 11
5.6 Tree fodder 11

6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF FODDER RESOURCES 12

7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL 12

8. REFERENCES 13

9. CONTACTS 15
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 5

1. INTRODUCTION

Bhutan is a small kingdom covering an area of 46500 km2 in the eastern part of the Himalayan Range
between latitudes 260 40 and 280 20 N and longitude 880 45 and 920 7 E. It is surrounded by the Tibetan
Plateau in the north, the Bengal and Assam Plains in the south, Arunachal Pradesh in the east and the
Darjeeling and the Sikkim Himalaya in the west (see Figure 1).
The country is mountainous with elevations ranging from 150 up to 8 000 m traversing south to
north with a great diversity of environments. Of the 600000population (estimates range from 600000
to 810 000 to as high as 2.3M, but a figure of
1.5 million is probably of the correct magnitude
although the World Factbook suggests 2.3 million
for July 2006 with a growth rate of 2.1%),
90% are dependent on agriculture. Farming is
essentially subsistence and the main crops grown
are maize, rice, millet, buckwheat, barley and
mustard. However, the mountainous nature of the
country makes only about 8% of the total land
suitable for crops (LUPP, 1995). Furthermore
land use is dictated by the diverse climate and
topography. Land use is shown in Table 1.
The number of farming households in 1996
was estimated at 65 000 with an average
of seven members. Average land holdings
are 1.5 ha with 10% of households owning
more than 5 ha (PPD, 1996). Most farming
is subsistence with an integration of crops,
forests and livestock.
Figure 1. Map of Bhutan
Livestock is an integral part in all Bhutanese
farming systems contributing 10% of the GDP Table 1. Bhutan: land use
(Dorji, 1995). This figure however does not account Land use Area % of
000 ha. country
for value added contributions made to agriculture
through manure and draught power. The large Forest 2 904.5 72.5

variations in the environmental conditions has Wetland 38.8 1.0

led to a range of livestock production systems, Dryland 181.7 4.5

ranging from the high altitude transhumance yak- Shifting cultivation (Tseri) 88.3 2.2
sheep system to systems where animals are used Orchard (apples, citrus, cardamom) 5.8 0.1
primarily for draft and manure only. Natural pasture (Tsadrog) 155.3 3.9
Livestock categories with farmers include Improved pasture 1.1 <0.1
cattle, equines, pigs, poultry, sheep and goats. Others (scrubs, rocks etc.) 632.2 15.7
Cattle are by far the most numerous and constitute Total land area 4 007.7 100
79.5% of the total ruminant population (Table 2). Source: LUPP Dzongkhag Data Sheets, 1995. MOA 1997a,
Improved breeds introduced into the country are 1997b; Roder et al. 2001.

Jersey, Brown Swiss and mithun (Bos frontalis),

but local native cattle account for 73% of the Table 2. Livestock population
cattle population. Ruminants Number (000)* % of ruminants
Primary production figures are not Cattle 304.9 79.5
available but estimates based on animal Yak 30.2 7.9
population and household surveys have put Buffalo 1.0 0.3
the annual milk production at 10 600 tonnes Sheep 31.3 8.2
(PPD, 1996), production of different types of Goats 16.0 4.1
meat at 2 0003 000 tonnes and eggs at 600 Source: LUPP Dzongkhag Data Sheets, 1995; Roder et al. 2001.
800 000 dozen. Most of these products are for 11 995 excluding pigs and poultry
* Note that some of these data differ somewhat from the
home consumption (MOA, 1995). FAOSTAT figures in Table 5 in section 4.
6 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY

The topography of Bhutan is characterized by rugged mountains separated by river valleys. Elevations
range from just below 200m in the south to almost 8000m in the north. Geologically, most of Bhutan
consists of crystalline sheets with large masses of tertiary granite intrusions towards the north. For details
of the geology of Bhutan see Ganser (1983) who defined five geological zones: the Sub-Himalaya; the
Lower Himalaya; the High Himalaya; the Tibetan Himalaya, and the Indus-Tsangpo zone.
Information on Bhutans soils is very scarce. The FAO/UNESCO soil map (FAO/UNESCO, 1977)
classified about 27% of Bhutan as having either cambisols or fluvisols (cambisols are most common
in the medium-altitude zone, while fluvisols mostly occur in the southern belt). Less fertile acrisols,
ferrasols and podzols were estimated to cover 45% of the country. The same study also reports that 21%
of the soil-covered area suffers from shallow depth with mostly lithosol occurring on steep slopes (Roder
et al., 2001). Bhutans forest soils have been classified by Sargent et al. (1985) and Okazaki (1987) who
delineated five major soil groups (yellow soils, yellow brown forest soils, brown forest soils, podzols
and alpine meadow soils) based on 69samples collected from sites between 150 and 5300m. Altitude
and prepcipitation were the main factors used in the classification. Currently a Soil Survey Project has
embarked on a systematic soil survey of Bhutan.

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Bhutan is divided into six agro-ecological zones: alpine, cool temperate, warm temperate, dry sub-
tropical, humid subtropical and wet subtropical (Table 3).
Grierson and Long (1983) have classified Bhutans vegetation into 11 zones (see Table 4).
The climate is dominated by
the monsoon, with a dry win- Table 3. Agro-ecological zones of Bhutan
ter and high precipitation during
Agro-ecological Altitude m Temperature C Rainfall
JuneSeptember. Bhutan has a zone mm
Max Min Mean
wide variety of climatic condi-
Alpine >3500 12.0 -1.0 5.5 <650
tions influenced by topography,
elevation and rainfall patterns. Cool temperate 25003500 22.0 1.0 10 650850

The great variation in rainfall Warm temperate 18002500 26.0 1.0 13 650850

within a relatively short distance Dry subtropical 12001800 29.0 3.0 17 8501200

is due to the effect of rain shadow Humid subtropical 6001200 33.0 5.0 20 12001500

but precipitation generally dimin- Wet subtropical 150600 35.0 12.0 24 25005500
ishes significantly from south to Source: Dorji, 1995

north (Table 3).

Land use and agricultural Table 4. Vegetation zones in Bhutan
enterprises are influenced by the Dominant species Altitude (m) Rainfall (cm)

diverse climate and topography Subtropical forest 2001000 250500

related to altitude. In the higher Warm broadleaf forest 10002000 230400

altitudes, farming is dependent on Chir pine (Pinus roxhburgii) forest 9001800 100130
livestock, temperate fruit crops and Cool broadleaf forest 20002900 250500
crops such as potato, buckwheat, Evergreen oak (Quercus semecarpifolia) forest 20002600 200300
wheat and barley. Further south, Blue pine (Pinus wallichiana) forest 21003000 70120
towards the subtropical areas, Spruce (Picea spinulosa) forest 27003100 50100
rice and maize dominate the Hemlock (Tsuga dumosa) forest 28003100 130200
farming system. Cash crops such Fir (Abies densa) forest 33003800 >130
as cardamom and citrus also find Juniper/rhododendron 37004200 1
-
an important niche with livestock Dry alpine scrub 40004600 1
-
as an integral component in the 1 No rainfall estimate given.
overall farming system. After Grierson and Long (1983) from Roder et al. , 2001.
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 7

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Data for livestock numbers, meat and milk production and meat and milk imports for the period 1995
2005 from FAOSTAT are given in Table 5.
The traditional farming system evolved over centuries in Bhutan with the integration of crop
production, grazing animals and forest areas into a mutually supportive system. Within this multi-
composite farming system, large ruminant livestock plays a critical role by providing draught power,
manure and livestock products for sale or home consumption.
There are three distinct types of large ruminant production systems in Bhutan. The transhumant Yak
system is limited to the alpine-cool temperate areas; the migratory cattle in the temperate-subtropical
area. These two systems take advantage of the variations in climate and vegetation as herders migrate
with their animals according to the seasons. The third is the sedentary livestock rearing system in semi-
urban and other rural settlement areas.
Transhumance is associated with nomadic herders in the alpine-cool temperate areas who keep yaks
and sheep as their sole source of livelihood. This system is mainly prevalent in the Dzongkhags of
Haa, Thimphu, Paro, Gasa, Wangdue Phodrang, Bumthang and Trashigang. The migration takes place,
depending on the number of pastures owned by the herders and their location, within village, within geog
(subunit of a district), within Dzongkhag (district) or between Dzongkhags (Gyamtsho, 1996, MOA,
2001). This production system is also influenced by the in-born nature of the yaks that keep on moving
in response to temperature changes.
For the movement of their animals, the herders depend on the vast native grasslands between altitudes
of 2 600 and 5 000 m to feed their animals. Yak production in these areas and especially above the
tree line (4 000 m) is recognized as the only viable enterprise where the high altitude grasslands are
efficiently converted into sources of energy for human use at no opportunity cost (Gyamtsho, 1996; Ura,
1993). In the summers the herders take their animals to pastures as high as 5000m and come down in
the winters to 2600. Herders respect and follow their age-old traditional migratory routes to respective
designated pastures in the various elevations for which they have traditionally grazing rights.
The annual migration to the summer pastures generally starts from late April to May and back to
winter pastures in October. Gyamtsho (1996) notes that the migratory yak herds of Dhur village in
Bumthang are moved and rotated very meticulously among pastures based on years of experience. The
number of days grazed in each pasture are carefully worked out for the whole of the summer (Gyamtsho,
1996). The exception is where the yak have to stay in a particular pasture all summer because the herder
owns only that pasture.

Table 5. Bhutan statistics for livestock numbers, beef + veal and milk production and imports for
the period 19952005
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Cattle*, nos (000) 372.1 353.8 353.5 354 384.2 355.4 355 355.4 371.8 372 372
Buffaloes, nos
1.2 2.9 3.2 2.7 2.4 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.0
(000)
Goats, nos (000) 35.1 36.3 35.6 36.0 36.0 31.3 38.0 31.3 30.0 30.0 30.0
Sheep, nos (000) 34.4 34.5 34.5 32.2 24.8 22.9 25.5 22.9 21.0 20.0 20.0
Horses (000) 29.9 29.9 32.1 32.0 31.3 27.9 28.0 29.0 27.9 28.0 28.0
Beef and veal Mt
6.0 6.4 5.5 5.3 6.0 4.9 4.9 4.7 5.1 5.1 5.1
(000)
Cow milk fresh Mt
43.0 40.9 40.9 40.9 40.9 41.1 41.1 41.1 41.1 41.1 41.1
(000)
Cattle (live animal)
16.1 16.1 2.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 n.r.
imports (,000 head)
Total meat imports
29.4 95.4 48.6 48.6 48.6 48.6 48.6 48.6 48.6 30.6 n.r.
(mt)
Milk equivalent
2.2 3.0 5.1 4.9 8.9 7.7 7.7 7.0 4.0 5.2 n.r.
imports (,000 mt)
*Probably includes yak
Source: FAOSTAT, 2006.
8 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

Sheep are grazed along with yaks and may belong to a number of owners who pay the herders in
kind under a contract for rearing them. These sheep are usually handed back to their respective owners
on migrating back to the valleys in winter. Although sheep supplement the family with wool that can be
processed into household items, it is not considered important.
The butter and cheese from yaks are generally bartered for grain from the lower areas on a seasonal
basis. Important cheese products that find a ready market are chugo (dried cubes of cheese) from the
west and central Bhutan and zoetey (fermented cheese) from eastern Bhutan.
Migratory cattle in the temperate areas are local animals; herd size could range from 18 to over 100.
Sometimes small herds are pooled for logistical and economic reasons. Movement of animals to the
lower subtropical area starts in NovemberDecember and they only come back in April.
Despite the governments efforts in discouraging migration in this agro-ecological zone through
supply of improved exotic cattle breeds like Jerseys and Brown Swiss, migration is likely to be there for
years to come. The following reasons encourage migration (MOA, 2001):
strategy to address feed shortage in the winter;
there are other income opportunities for herders (e.g. porterage);
social factors (retain ownership of pastures-crop land in the subtropical areas; display of wealth
and status; unproductive animals cannot be culled for religious reasons);
to prevent registered grazing land from reverting to forests;
cultivation of crops in lower areas (Baumgartner, 1984).
A survey carried out by Muller-Jaag in 1983 (Muller-Jaag, 1984) indicated a decline in migration
by 19%, and it has further declined since, although a complete ban on migration will not be possible
in the immediate future. It can, however, be mitigated through providing alternative sources of feed.
The herders and the peoples representatives at the National Grazing Policy Workshop (MOA, 2001)
also suggested that migration could be alleviated if rules and regulations governing tsadrog (registered
grazing land) ownership and management be modified and redefined. The resolution of legalities
surrounding ownership of these grazing lands has been recognized as a prerequisite for developing the
Bhutanese grasslands (Gyamtsho, 1996; RGOB, 1997; Roder, 1981a; Roder et al., 2001).
In both the migratory systems described above, the herders follow a prescribed route (tsalam) to their
respective grasslands. It is not uncommon to find more than one herd using a route. All herds then would
have the right to use the route as well as the grazing rights to the grasslands of a specified night camp
irrespective of whoever may own the particular grassland. This is called the lamjo tsadrog roughly
translated to transit pasture. In the grasslands of upper Chokhor leading to the summer grasslands at
Domjen, in Bumthang, there is an unwritten rule that no herd is allowed to pasture for more than three
days in the lamjo tsadrog either way. It is noticed that because so many herds camp and pasture, the
lamjo tsadrog are badly deteriorated and colonized by Rumex nepalensis.
The migratory habits of the herders also bring disadvantages:
animal health services cannot be guaranteed;
there is a risk of carrying diseases from one area to another;
services of cross-bred bulls cannot be used since they cannot go on migration;
there is heavy demand on family for manpower and time during migration;
migration depends on fodder trees along the route to supplement the fodder from the grasslands,
resulting in indiscriminate lopping and sometimes felling of trees.
The sedentary livestock production system involves rearing of improved breeds of cattle like Jersey
and Brown Swiss. In certain parts of eastern Bhutan, the large local migratory herds of cattle have been
replaced with a few improved animals. This has been accompanied by planting fodder. These animals
are stall-fed at night and graze in the fodder paddocks during the day. Such enterprises have yielded
a multifold increase in milk production with less demand on time and human resources compared
withhaving a large herd of local cattle.
The benefit from such a switch over is raising interest especially in semi-urban areas where there is
a ready market for fresh milk. The Ministry of Agriculture will be giving major emphasis in the 9th five
year plan to such enterprises.
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 9

5. FODDER RESOURCES

The fodder resources available to livestock vary with the climate, the farming system and the season.
The important fodder resources are forest grazing; natural grassland; improved pasture; shifting cultiva-
tion and fallow land; fodder trees; crop residues and others (like arable fodder crops grown in croplands).
Estimates by RGOB (1995) and Roder (1990) indicate that forest grazing and natural grassland grazing
contribute about 23% and 30% respectively to the total fodder requirement. These two fodder sources
have also been highlighted as the most important sources of fodder in an assessment of fodder resources
in five livestock rearing Dzongkhags (Roder et al., 2001). The survey also showed that grazing fields
after harvest was the most important source of winter fodder.

5.1 Fodder from tsadrog (registered grazing land)

There are over 400000ha of registered grazing land (tsadrog) in Bhutan (Table 6). Most of these are
located above the tree line at elevations between 4000 and 5000m. The area of registered grazing
land available to cattle and yak is about 1.4ha per animal. It is assumed that not all natural grasslands
are registered. From this assumption, the total
area of natural grasslands will be more than the Table 6. Grassland resources for individual
tsadrog, contrary to what is given in Table 6. Dzongkhags
This has happened probably because the natural Dzongkhag Tsadrog1 Natural ha per
grasslands estimated from aerial photographs (000 ha) grassland2 animal3
(000 ha)
were classified as forests because of substantial
Haa 67.4 12.1 5.63
tree cover in some tsadrog areas (Roder et al.,
Gasa 10.0 23.3 3.25
2001).
Thimphu 55.2 33.4 2.48
The natural grasslands of Bhutan were first
Paro 32.6 8.2 2.20
described by Singh (1978) into five types as:
Trongsa 22.9 6.5 1.89
Saccharum reed dominant cover, 8002 000 m;
Chrysopogon-Themeda cover, 2 5002 800 m; Bumthang 26.8 21.4 1.86

thin and short (dwarf) bamboo [Yushania Punakha 18.4 1.9 1.78

microphylla] dominant cover, 2 5003 000 m; Wangdue 38.8 14.2 1.56

high altitude scrub cover, above 2800m; alpine Zhemgang 23.3 1.0 1.39

and subalpine cover, 3 5005 000 m. A more Trashigang 40.2 10.9 1.04
useful classification of the natural grasslands has Samtse 15.4 0.1 0.95
been provided by Miller (1988) in an unpublished Chhukha 26.2 3.0 0.94
report (quoted by Noltie, 2000, Table7) Dagana 8.0 1.6 0.76
Grassland communities are influenced by Lhuentse 7.5 9.5 0.46
cultivation, fire and grazing. Grasslands between S. Jongkhar 10.2 0.8 0.43
700 and 2100m are dominated by Cymbopogon Monggar 7.8 1.4 0.27
khasianus, Cymbopogon gryllus, Cymbopogon Trashi Yangtse 1.7 4.7 0.12
sp., Apluda mutica, Arundinella nepalensis, Pema Gatshel 0.9 0.0 0.11
and Heteropogon contortus (Miller 1989). The Sarpang 0.2 1.2 0.02
important grasses and other vegetation above Tsirang 0.0 0.1 0.00
these elevations are Themeda sp., Schizachyrium Total 413.6 155.3 1.36
delavayi, Eragrostis sp., Carex sp., Agrostis sp., Registered grazing land; grassland estimated from aerial photos
1 2

Festuca sp., Poa sp., Rhododendron, Potentilla or satellite imagery; area of tsadrog per number of cattle and yak
3

combined. Source: Roder et al., 2001

sp., Primula sp., and Danthonia sp.
Reliable production figures from the natural
Table 7. Grass communities
grasslands are scanty. The dry matter production
based on visual estimates ranged from 0.7 to Grassland type Altitude (m)

3.0tonnes/ha for temperate grasslands at elevations Cymbopogon grassland 7002100

of less than 3000m. and 0.3 to 3.5tonnes/ha for Schizachyrium grassland 20003100

alpine grasslands at elevations over 3 000 m. Danthonia grassland 30004000

(Singh, 1978; Harris, 1987; Rumball, 1988; Miller Kobresia/Carex alpine meadow 39004800
1989; Gyamtsho, 1996). After Miller (1988) from Noltie 2000
10 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

Based on Dorjees (1986) carrying capacity for different agro-ecological zones and assuming that
the average production per ha from registered grasslands is 0.7tonnes/ha, the total annual dry matter
production from tsadrog is 289000tonnes, enough to feed 30% (8kg dry matter/day) of the Bhutanese
livestock population (Roder et al., 2001).
The productivity of the natural grassland is further decreased when community pastures are grazed
indiscriminately on a free-for-all basis (Dorjee, 1993; Gyamtsho, 1996). It is also not uncommon for two
parties, such as a transhumant yak herder and a family from a nearby settlement, to have grazing rights
over the same area putting extra pressure on the grasslands (Roder et al., 2001).
Deterioration of these grazing resources (the natural grasslands) has also been caused by the presence
of poisonous and toxic plants; damage to grazing sites in Laya has also been caused by increased number
of blue sheep (Pseudovis nayaur) and the burrowing habit of marmots (Gyamtsho, 1996).

5.2 Forest grazing.

In a survey of five Dzongkhags, forest grazing has been rated as an important resource for ruminants
(Roder, 1998).
Environmentalists and forest ecologists have tended to blame forest degradation and destruction on
grazing. However, there is no quantitative information to prove that livestock grazing in forests causes
degeneration (Roder et al., 2001). Studies by Gibson (1991), RNR-RC Jakar (1997) and Tegbaru,(1991)
have indicated that forest grazing is not a major problem for forest regeneration and health. An
assessment of forest grazing in Zhemgang Dzongkhag has actually concluded that grazing can be an
efficient use of available resources (RGOB/ISDP, 1995).
While grazing may not have serious effects on the regeneration and health of well-managed forests,
it is a serious problem in forest ecosystems that have been disturbed by mechanical logging or by
poor silvicultural management. These effects may be harmful especially in the subtropical broadleaf
forests (Roder et al., 2001). Whether we like it or not, forest grazing will be there as long as migration
takes place: as long as alternative feed sources are not provided and the legal issues on ownership and
management of natural grasslands are not looked into.

5.3 Fallow
Grazing fallow arable fields is an important fodder source (Roder, 1998; Roder et al., 2001). The most
important fallow systems that contribute substantially to the livestock fodder especially in the dry winter
months are a) the maize system, b) Tseri system and c) the pangshing system (Table 8). Animals are
allowed to graze these fields right after the crops are harvested. The quantity and quality of fodder within
fields will be dependent on the crop, the weed flora and the harvesting systems used, as can be seen in
Table 8 (Roder et al., 2001).

5.4 Crop residues

Crop residues after post-harvest operations are another important source of winter fodder. Different
authors have put estimates of the contribution of crop residues to Bhutans total feed requirement at 13%
(RGOB, undated); 20% (Roder, 1982) and at 43% by Verma (1984). Vermas estimation was probably
an overestimation (Roder et al., 2001).

Table 8. Fodder from fallow land and selected characteristics of the major crop and fallow systems
Type Maize system Tseri1 Pangshing2
Area (ha) 55000 40000 10000
Crops Maize Maize, millets, rice, buckwheat Buckwheat, wheat
Altitude range (m) 300-2600 300-2500 2500-4000
Major fallow vegetation Annual weeds Shrubs, trees Grasses, blue pine
Fallow period 48 months 28 years 620 years
Main feed Annual weeds, crop residues Annual weeds, shrubs Grasses
Dry matter (tonnes/ha) 0.11.0 0.23.0 0.11.5
1
shrub-fallow shifting cultivation system used in subtropical areas;
2
grass fallow shifting cultivation system used in temperate areas. Source: Roder et al., 2001.
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 11

Among crop residues, the important sources are rice straw, maize stover and buckwheat straw. Other
important crop residues fed to livestock are inferior and broken grains, husks and other chaff, residues
from change (any alcoholic drink, fermented from wheat, barley, maize or millet) and are (home-made
alcoholic beverage distilled from fermented grain of wheat, barley, maize, rice or millet) making and
by-products of milling grain (Roder et al., 2001).

5.5 Annual arable crops

The important annual arable crops grown for livestock are turnip, radish and pumpkin, maize, wheat,
barley and oats. These are grown at elevations between 2500 and 4200m and are fed to milking cows,
growing animals, draught animals and pigs throughout the winter. Farmers at higher elevations may
cultivate turnips up to 0.3 ha annually (Roder et al., 2001). In two villages of Wangdue Dzongkhag,
turnip was the main winter fodder for 87% of the households (Roder, 1998).
Maize is grown and fed to draught animals in subtropical areas like Zhemgang and Sarpang during
the months of May and June. Wheat and barley are cultivated over a wide range of production systems
including the rice systems of Paro and Thimphu and the wheat-barley systems found at higher elevations
in Wangdue and Trongsa dzongkhags. Oats have partly replaced wheat and barley as winter forage in the
rice growing areas of Paro, Thimphu, Wangdue and Trongsa (Roder et al., 2001).

5.6 Tree fodder

Livestock production is also dependent on the fodder trees. Fodder trees are mainly planted near houses,
along fences and field boundaries (Tshering et al., 1997). A large variety of trees are used for fodder
production (Roder, 1985). The trees used and management practices differ according to the altitude, the
availability of other types of fodder and the existing land-use practices (Roder et al., 2001).
Depending on the altitude, the most popular fodder trees currently used are Ficus roxburghii, Ficus
cunia, Salix babylonica and Quercus semicarpifolia. There are no area-based yield data for the tree
fodder in Bhutan. However, yield extrapolation for temperate species from single tree measurements has
estimated the yield of different tree fodder at 4tonnes/ha/year for willow; 2tonnes/ha/year for evergreen
oak, 4tonnes/ha/yr for Populus robusta and 12tonnes/ha/year for Chinese pear (Roder, 1992). As far as
the nutritional content of the tree fodders are concerned, most are inferior to herbaceous species except
for willow, which has excellent nutritional qualities and high palatability (Roder, 1992; Wangdi et al.,
1997).
[For full details of the pasture resources of Bhutan see Roder et al., 2001 and for details of fodder
production in Bhutan see the Handbook for Extension Agents (January 2002) produced by RNR
Research Centre Jakar/Bumthang (Livestock Research Program, 2002).]

12 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF FODDER RESOURCES

The concept of growing fodder (conventional fodder grasses and legumes) for livestock is relatively
new in Bhutan. This has posed difficulties when farmers had to spare land for fodder development. It
was usually the marginalized land not suited for any other crops that was put under fodder. However,
this is changing as the inherent limitations of the countrys topography and climate for sustainable field
crop production are becoming more obvious and accepted by the policy-makers and planners (Roder et
al., 2001).
There are fodder technologies suitable to the different agro-ecological zones. With the increase in
cross-bred animal numbers, demand for better quality and high producing fodder crops could only
increase in the near future. Livestock enterprises involving dairying will assume a greater role where
crop production is difficult. However, a sustainable dairying enterprise will not be possible without
adequate fodder resources, among other things. Existing opportunities to improve fodder availability in
Bhutan will be enhanced if the following are considered:
The review of the draft pasture policy is expedited following the recommendations made during
the National Grazing Policy Workshop held in Bumthang in 2001.
Amendment to the rules and regulations of natural grasslands regarding ownership, use and
management. This will act as an incentive to the livestock farmers to make investments in these
grasslands to increase their productivity.
Fodder grown on crop land and fodder trees planted on registered land of any class should be
accounted for in the Land Act and given importance at par with other arable crops.
Optimizing land use and fodder production from synergistic association of fodder crops with field
crops, horticultural crops and tree crops will have to be increasingly emphasized to address the
shortage of land made available to fodder development.

7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND

PERSONNEL

Research in Bhutan is carried out through the four national research centres that are charged with a
national and a regional mandate. The Renewable Natural Resources Research Centre Jakar (RNR-
RC Jakar) based in the east central region is the national coordinating centre for all types of livestock
research in Bhutan.
The livestock research programme is structured into four broad subprogrammes: Livestock Breeding
and Management, Feed and Fodder, Animal Health and Socio Economy. The priority area of research
is in Feed and Fodder. Within the feed and fodder subprogramme, priority research areas are addressing
winter fodder shortages and looking at synergistic and complementary effects of fodder production in
combination with arable crops, horticulture and forestry systems (Roder, 1998; Roder et al., 2001). For
the 9th five year plan (20022007), emphasis for livestock research under different subprogrammes will
be as below:
1) Feed and Fodder 60%, 2) Breeding and Management, 30% and 3) Health, 10%. The low emphasis
given to the last two subprogrammes is because it is assumed that technologies pertaining to these two
could to a large extent be imported from outside Bhutan with little or no need for further adaptation
(RNR-RC Jakar, 2002).
The mandate to implement the animal health subprogramme has been delegated to the Royal
Veterinary Epidemiological Centre (RVEC), Serbithang Thimphu due to the existing expertise lying with
the RVEC. It is however proposed to be brought back under the RNR-RC Jakar in the 9th five year plan
as the Jakar Centre gradually builds its own expertise.
Livestock research in other regions is carried out through the livestock sector based in the other three
centres. The three other national research centres are RNR-RCs, Yusipang, based in western region
(Forestry); Bajo based in the west central region (Field Crops) and Khangma based in the eastern region
(Horticulture).
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 13

The key people working in livestock research and based in the different RNR Research Centres are
given below:

RNR Research Centre, Jakar

Mr. Kinzang Wangdi, Programme Director. His interest is in grassland ecology and native fodder
grasses.
Dr. Walter Roder, Research Advisor. His interest is in farming systems, fodder crops and slash and
burn agriculture.
Dr. Tashi Dorji, Programme Officer. His work includes phenotypic and genotypic description of
livestock.
Mr. Rinzin, Head, Feed and Fodder Sector. He is currently working on the nutritive description of
Ficus auriculata.
Mr. Kezang Wangchuk, Research Officer. He is currently working on lucerne.

RNR Research Centre, Khangma

Mr. Chencho Dukpa, Research Officer. He is currently working on feeding and management of
poultry and swine.
Dr. M.P Timsina, Programme Officer. He is also working on the management aspects of piggeries.
RNR Research Centre, Bajo.
Mr. Dawa Lhakpa Sherpa, Research Assistant.

RNR Research Centre, Yusipang

Mr. Tshering Gyaltshen, Programme Officer. He is currently working with oats and other fodder
crops in wetland systems.

8. REFERENCES
Baumgartner, R. (1984). A Short Note on Seasonal Cattle Migration in Bumthang. Zurich: Helvetas
Dorjee, J. (1986). Estimation of Animal Feed Requirements in the Kingdom of Bhutan. Thimphu: AHD
Dorjee, J. (1993). Livestock Development and Pasture Management. Thimphu: National Environment
Commission.
Dorji, K. (1995). An Analysis of Comparative Advantages in Bhutanese Agriculture. PhD Dissertation.
Zurich: ETH.
Ganser, A. (1983). The Geology of the Bhutan Himalaya. Basel:Birkhaeuser Verlag
Gibson, T.A. (1991). Forest Grazing Study. Working document No. 26. (FAO:DP/BHU/85016). Thimphu:
Department of Forests RGOB and FAO.
Grierson, A.J.C. and Long, D.G. (1983). Flora of Bhutan including a Record of Plants from Sikkim. Vol. 1
Part 1, Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Garden.
Gyamtsho, P. (1996). Assessment of the Condition and Potential for Improvement of High Altitude
Rangeland of Bhutan - Dissertation No. 11726. Zurich: ETH
Harris, P.S. (1987). Grassland Survey and Integrated Pasture Development in the High Mountain Region of
Bhutan. Thimphu: TCP/BHU/4505[A] AHD/FAO.
Livestock Research Program (2002) Fodder Production in Bhutan; A Handbook for Extension Agents.
RNR-Research Centre Jakar/Bumthang, Bhutan, 88 p.
LUPP (1995). LUPP Dzongkhag Data Sheets for Bhutan. Land Use Planning Project. Thimphu: MoA
Miller, D.J. (1989). HLDP End of Assignment Report. Thimphu, Bhutan: AHD
MOA. (2001). Proceedings of the National Grazing Policy Workshop, Bumthang, August 2124, 2001. FIDI/
RGOB
MOA. (1995). Livestock Development Policy and Strategy. Thimphu: Ministry of Agriculture.
MOA. (1997a). Atlas of Bhuitan. Land Use Planning Project. Thimphu: Ministry of Agriculture.
MOA. (1997b). Forest and Nature Conservation Rules. Thimphu: Ministry of Agriculture.
Muller-Jaag, L. (1984). Views on the Development Projects by the Public of Bumthang. Thimphu: Helvetas.
14 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

Noltie, H.J. (2000). The Grasses of Bhutan. Flora of Bhutan, Including a Record of Plants from Sikkim. Vol.
3 Part 1. Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Garden.
Okazaki, M. (1987). Soil of the Bhutan Himalaya. 145184. In Oshawa, M. (ed.) Life Zone Ecology of the
Bhutan Himalaya. Japan: Laboratory of Ecology, Chiba University.
PPD. (1996). Unpublished data on Fodder Development Activities Achieved. Thimphu: Planning and Policy
Division, Ministry of Agriculture.
RGOB. (1997) Planning Mission for National Fodder Seed Production Centre Bumthang. Thimphu: RGOB-
Helvetas.
RGOB. (n.d) National Policy Document on Use and Maintenance of Domestic Animal Diversity, Thimphu:
RGOB.
RGOB/ISDP. (1995) A Natural Resources Inventory of Zhemgang Dzongkhag. Thimphu/Zhemgang: RGOB,
Dzongkhag Administration Zhemgang, Integrated Sustainable Development Program.
RNR-RC Jakar, (1997). Field Visit of Forestry Research Activities in Hurchi FMU, Chumey Valley, 25.
October. Paper presented at the IUFRO Seminar. Jakar: RNR-RC Jakar.
RNR-RC Jakar. (2002). Proceedings of the 7th Livestock Research Coordination Workshop. Gelephu Bhutan
(in press)
Roder, W. (1981a) Fodder Development. Annex IX, 2633. In proceedings of the Departmental Conference.
Thimphu:AHD
Roder, W. (1981b) Willow (Salix babylonica) A fodder to Rely on. In Bhutan Journal of Animal Husbandry,
4: 79.
Roder, W. (1982) Pasture/Fodder Development, 142. In Seminar on Pasture/Fodder Development. Thimphu:
AHD/RGOB
Roder, W. (1985) Fodder Tree Use in Bhutan, 341. In L.D White and J.A Tiedeman [eds.] Proceedings of
International Rangeland Resource Development Symposium. Salt Lake City Utah.
Roder, W. (1988) HLDP Grassland and Fodder Development in Bhutan Past Activities. In HLDP April
Report. Thimphu:AHD.
Roder, W. (1990) A Review of Literature and Technical Reports on Grassland and Fodder in Bhutan.
Thimphu: Himalayan Pasture and Fodder Research Network (RAS/79/121)
Roder, W. (1992) Experiences with Tree Fodders in Temperate Regions of Bhutan. Agroforestry Systems 17:
263270.
Roder, W. (1998). Fodder Sources/Fodder Development/Farmers Management Preliminary Data from
a National Survey, 7279. In Proceeding Third Annual Natiuonal Livestock Research Workshop,
Bathpalathang, Bumthang. Jakar: RNR-RC Jakar.
Roder, W., Wangdi, K., Gyamtsho, P. and Dorji, K. (2001). Feeding the Herds - Improving Fodder
Resources in Bhutan. ICIMOD, Nepal.
Rumball, J. (1988). Interim Report. In HLDP End of Assignment Reports. Thimphu:AHD.
Sargent, C., Sargent, O. and Parsell, R. (1985). The Forests of Bhutan: A Vital Resource for the Himalayas?
Journal of Tropical Ecology, 1265286.
Singh, R.P. (1978). Pasture Development in Bhutan. [AGOF/BHU/7272/010] Thimphu: RGOB/FAO
Tegbaru, A. (1991) Sociological Dimension of Livestock Grazing in Gidakom Forest Management Unit and
Its Immediate Environs. Thimphu: (DP/BHU/85/016). FAO.
Tshering, G., Gyetshen, T., Penjor, T., Wangdi, R. and Roder, W. (1997) Tree Fodder in Sub Tropical
Regions of Bhutan, 6068. In proceedings of the Second Annual National Livestock Research Workshop,
Bathpalathang, Bumthang. RNR-RC Jakar.
Ura, K. (1993). The Nomads Gamble. A background paper for Bhutans National Environmental Strategy.
National Environment Commission.
Verma, M.L. (1984). Treatment and Utilization of Straw for feeding under Small Farm Conditions. Training
material for the National level Training Course Bhutan, March 212. 1984. Bangkok: FAO
Wangdi, K., Roder, W. and Thinlay, P. (1997). Salix babylonica, a Traditional Fodder with Promising
Potential. Proceedings Eighth International Grassland Congress, Winnepeg and Manitoba, Canada
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 15

9. CONTACTS

The author is the Programme Director of the RNR-RC Jakar. He has been associated with fodder
development in Bhutan, since 1987. He has a Masters degree in Pasture Agronomy from Lincoln
University, New Zealand.

The Programme Director of RNR Research Centre Jakar will be the custodian of the profile. The contact
address is as follows:

The Programme Director

Renewable Natural Resources Research Centre Jakar,
Ministry of Agriculture,
P.O. Bumthang.
Bhutan.
Tel: +975-03-631195/631224
Fax: +975-03-631218
Email: rcjakar@druknet.bt

[The profile was lightly edited by J.M. Suttie and S.G. Reynolds in May and November 2002 and live-
stock data modified by S.G. Reynolds in October 2006.]