7

Control of Induction Motors

by AC Voltage Controllers

The speed control of induction motors by stator voltage control has been described in
section 6.4.1. It has been shown that a class D design squirrel-cage induction motor
should be used for wide variation of speed. Since the torque to current ratio de-
creases with voltage, the method is suitable for applications requiring a low torque at
low speeds.
The variation of motor voltage is obtained by ac voltage controllers. It may be
recalled that the function of ac voltage controllers is to allow a variable ac voltage of
the same frequency to be obtained from a fixed ac voltage. However, this conversion
is obtained at the expense of a low power factor and a considerable amount of har-
monics in th output voltage of ac voltage controllers. The harrnonic content in-
creases and the power factor decreases with the decrease in output voltage. The
harmonics increase the losses and require derating of the motor. The motor torque
capability, which is already low at low voltages, is further reduced ..
The induction motors controlled by ac voltage controllers find wide applica-
tions in fan, pump, and crane drives.

7.1 AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER CIRCUITS

Figure 7.1 shows two commonly used symmetrical 3-phase ac voltage controller cir-
cuits for wye- and delta-connected stators, respectively. For small size motors, each
antiparallel thyristor pair can be replaced by a triac. Connection el can also be used
with a delta-connected stator. With a delta connection, a third harmonic current may
circulate, increasing the motor losses. Each thyristor pair of circuit el carries the
line current, whereas each thyristor pair of circuit e2 carries only the phase current.

273
274 Control of Induction Motors by AC Voltage Controllers Chap.7

T,
A---------"""
A

B nn n. '-----" N B

e
Stator
windings
e --------- .

Figure 7.1 3-phase ac voltage controller circuits.

Thus, in C2 the thyristor current rating is reduced by a factor of v'3. Under normal
operation, the maximum voltage to which the thyristors of circuit C, are subjected is
(Y3/2) times smaller than that of the thyristors of circuit C22 However, under ab-
normal conditions, the maximum voltage is the same (that is, equal to the peak of
the line voltage). Such an abnormal condition can arise if thyristors in one of the
phases are rendered conductive by device failure or misfiring, when all phases are
intended to be off. Since such abnormal conditions can always arise, the thyristor
voltage rating is chosen to be higher than the peak of the line voltage. Thus voltage
controller C2 would cost less than circuit C i- However, circuit C2 can be used only
when the machine is delta-connected and both ends of the phase windings are avail-
able. This situation may not exist in many commercially available motors.
A cheaper controller can be obtained by replacing one thyristor in each phase
of circuit C, by a diode. This approach introduces even harmonics. The predominant
harmonic is the second, compared to the fifth and third forothe circuits C, and C2,
respectively. The presence of the low-frequency second harmonic increases the
losses considerably, particularly at low motor speeds.
Asyrnmetrical circuits are obtained by removing one or two antiparallel thyris-
tor pairs from circuit C, and connecting corresponding motor phases directly to the
source. These asyrnmetrical circuits cause asyrnmetrical operation of the induction
motor and increase harmonics. The asyrnmetrical operation and the large harmonic
content substantially derate the motor. The torque capability, which is already low at
low speeds, is greatly reduced. Hence these asymmetrical circuits are not used.
The thyristors of the controllers of figure 7.1 are fired in the sequence of their
numbers with a phase difference of 60 For circuit C" the firing angle a is mea-
0

sured from the instant the phase voltage VAN has a zero value. For circuit C2, the fir-
 Sec.7.2 Four-Quadrant Control and Closed-Loop Operation 275

ing angle is measured from the instant the line voltage V AB has a zero value. Let us
define an angle
(7.1)

where (Rin + jXin) is the input impedance of the induction motor.

For the firing angle a::; C/>, the motor terminal voltage remains constant and
nearly equal to the supply voltage. Both motor voltage and current are sinusoidal.
For higher values of a, the current flows discontinuously and the motor voltage de-
creases with an increase in a. The zero motor voltage and current are reached at
a = 1500 and a = 1800 for the circuits el and e2, respectively. Because of the dis-
continuous conduction and dependence of Rin and Xin on the motor slip s, the analy-
sis of the induction motor fed by an ac voltage controller becomes complicated. The
speed-torque characteristics also deviate considerably from those obtained with the
variable sinusoidal ac voltage (fig. 6.11).
The motor voltage and current waveforms depend on the firing angle. A typi-
cal current waveform for circuit el at a = 600 is shown in figure 7.2. The delay
from the instant the phase current reaches zero to the firing of the succeeding thyris-
tor in that phase is called hold-off angle y.

o wt

Figure 7.2 The waveform of the phase

current iA fe;a = 60 for the controller el
of Fig. 7.1.

7.2 FOUR-QUAORANT CONTROL ANO CLOSEO-LOOP

OPERATION

The 3-phase circuits of figure 7.1 can provide forward motoring and reverse plugging
operations. The use of the class O design squirrel-cage motor allows higher torques
to be produced, with reduced currents, for low-speed motoring and high-speed brak-
ing operations. The four-quadrant operation with plugging is obtained by the use of
the circuit of figure 7.3a. Thyristor pairs A, B, and e provide operation in quad-
rants I and IV. The speed-torque curve at a fixed stator voltage and for operation in
quadrants I and IV is shown by a solid line in figure 7.4. Use of thyristor pairs A' ,
B, and e' changes the phase sequence, and thus gives operation in quadrants 11 and
111. The speed-torque curve for the same stator voltage and operation in quadrants 11
and III is shown in figure 7.4 by a dotted line. While changing from one set of
thyristor pairs to another-that is, from ABe to A'Be' and vice versa-care
should be taken to ensure that the incoming pair is activated only after the outgoing
276 Control of Induction Motors by AC Voltage Controllers Chap.7

A---_- ...A

e'

B---+-4---+ B

A'

e ----------+ e

(a)

A-_----YH-+ A

B-----+-++ B

e -----+f-- ... e

(b)

Figure 7.3 Four quadrant ac voltage controllers.

pair is fully tumed off. Failure to satisfy this condition will cause short circuiting of
the supply by the conducting thyristors of the two pairs. The protection against such
a fault can be provided only by the fuse links and not by the current control. There-
fore, when changing from one set of thyristor pairs to another, the firing pulses are
withdrawn to force the current to zero. After the current zero is sensed by the zero-
current sensor, a dead time of 5 to 10 ms is allowed to ensure that al! the thyristors
Sec.7.2 Four-Quadrant Control and Closed-Loop Operation 277

/
Plugging /

/
/
o T
(
\ <,
Motoring _
Figure 7.4 Speed-torque curves for a
fixed stator voltage and +ve and -ve
phase sequence.

of the outgoing pair have in fact turned off. Now the pulses are released to the
incoming set of thyristor pairs. In the multiquadrant operation, the current control
(section 3.9) is employed to restrict the motor current below a safe value.
The four-quadrant operation can also be obtained by the circuit of figure 7.3b.
It consists of three pairs of thyristors A, B, and e and a contactor with two normally
open and two normally closed contacts. The operation in quadrants 1 and IV is ob-
tained when the contactor is off and the operation in quadrants II and III is obtained
when the contactor is on. To reduce the contactor rating, the switching operation is
done after the current ceases to flow. Thus, when the need for changeover arises, the
thyristor gate pulses are withdrawn to force the current to zero. The contactor is al-
lowed to operate some time after the current zero is sensed.
Por closed-loop speed control, the inner-current control scheme described in
section 5.1 (fig. 5. lb) for a de motor drive is employed. It consists of an inner-
current control loop and an outer speed loop. Por l-quadrant operation, the voltage
controllers of figure 7.1 are used. Por 4-quadrant operation, the voltage controllers
of figure 7.3 are employed. A closed-loop scheme for the single-quadrant control is
shown in figure 7.5. A four-quadrant closed-loop drive can be realized by using the

AC supply

L 1 L
3-phase
voltage
controller

Wm
Speed Current r, Current Firing
controller limiter controller circuit

Tachogenerator

Figure 7.5 Single quadrant closed-loop speed control.

 278 Control of Induction Motors by AC Voltage Controllers Chap. 7

AC Supply

Absolute
r:::
Speed
J[
Current l.
t::
Current
Ve Ve

Firing
a 3phase
voltage
controller

value controller limiter controller circuit

circuit

~-------------------------------------------------------{~
Tachogenerator

Figure 7.6 Four quadrant closed-loop speed control.

voltage controller of figure 7.3a and the drive of figure 7.6. Let us consider the opera-
tion of the drive for speed reversal. When the speed command is set for the reverse
direction, the speed error ewm reverses and exceeds a prescribed limit. The master
controller, on sensing this, withdraws the gate pulses to force the current to zero.
After the zero current is sensed, the master controller provides a delay of 5 to 10 ms
to ensure that the outgoing thyristors have tumed off. Now the gate pulses are re-
leased to the other set of thyristors. The drive first decelerates and then accelerates in
the reverse direction at a constant maximum allowable current and finally settles at
the desired speed.

7.3 FAN OR PUMP ANO CRANE HOIST ORIVES

Two major applications of induction motors fed by ac voltage controllers are fan or
pump drives and tbe crane boist drive.

7.3.1 Fan and Pump Orives

In fan and pump drives, the torque varies as tbe square of the speed and the power as
the cube of the speed. The volume of the fluid delivered by the pump or fan against
a constant pressure head is proportional to the motor power, and, hence, to the cube
of speed. Tbus, a small reduction in speed from fullload will cause a large reduction
in fluid flow. For example, a 53.6 percent reduction of speed below the full-load
value reduces the fluid flow to 10 percent. Therefore, most of the pump and fan
drives require speed control only in a narrow range. Because torque reduces as tbe
square of the speed and the speed control is required only in a narrow range, the ac
voltage controller fed class O squirrel-cage induction motor with a full-load slip of
0.1 to 0.2 is found suitable for tbese applications. From equation (6.17) the motor
torque is given by

(7.2)
Sec.7.3 Fan or Pump and Crane Hoist Drives 279

AIso
T L = Cw2m = C(1 - S)2W2 ms (7.3)

where C is a constant.
If the friction, windage, and core loss torques are neglected.

T=TL (7.4)

Substituting from equations (7.2) and (7.3) in equation (7.4) and rearranging the
term gives .

l'
r
= K[O v'"R:
- S)Vs] (7.5)
r

where
K = Y(Cw~sl3) (7.6)

If the magnetizing branch of the equivalent circuit of figure 6.1d is ignored, then
I, = 1; and hence from equation (7.5)
Is = K[O v;&Vs] (7.7)

Equation (7.7) shows that for a given slip, the motor current is inversely propor-
tional to the square root of the rotor resistance, R;. If the full-load stator current and
the motor slip are denoted by Iraledand sraled' respectively, then from equation (7.7)

I
rated
= K[(l- Sraled)vS::;]
v'"R:r
(7.8)

Dividing equation (7.7) by equating (7.8) gives

r, (1 - s)Vs (7.9)
Iraled (1 - Sraled)Ysraled

The slip at which the maximum value of I, occurs is obtained by equating (dls/ds) in
equation (7.7) to zero, giving

sm = 1/3 (7.10)

Substitution from equation (7. 10) into equation (7.9) gives

Imax
--
Iraled
= --=-------==
3\13 - 2
S rated)Y Sraled
(7.11)

where Imax is the maximum value of I, - greater than the rated motor current.
Equation (7.11) suggests that the maximum current has a lower value for a
motor with a larger full-load slip. The ratio of maximum to rated motor current has
values of 1.35 and 1.07 for full-Ioad slips of 0.1 and 0.2, respectively. Therefore, if
a motor with a power rating equal to the full-load power requirement of the load is
chosen, it will be overloaded for speeds less than the rated speed.
280 Control of Induction Motors by AC Voltage Controllers Chap. 7

When a speed range from synchronous speed to two-thirds of snychronous

speed (or s = 1/3), or to a speed less than this, is required, then the motor current
rating will have to be selected as equal to Imax When this is done, the motor current
at fullload will be less than the rated current. Consequently, the full-Ioad power de-
livered by the motor will be less than the motor power rating and thus the motor will
be derated. The motor derating will be approximately equal to the ratio of rated to
maximum current. Thus, for full-Ioad slips of 0.1 and 0.2, the motor will be derated
by factors 0.74 and 0.93, respectively. Except when forced cooling is used, the mo-
tor cooling will be less at s = 1/3 compared to a full-Ioad speed. Hence, actual dera-
ting will be higher. These figures suggest that when considering derating, a higher
value of full-load slip is preferred. But then the full-load efficiency is adversely
affected. A compromise value of the full-Ioad slip is chosen considering these
aspects. It gene rally lies between 0.1 and 0.2.
The foregoing discussion does not account for the harmonics generated by the
ac voltage controller. As the motor terminal voltage is decreased to reduce speed,
harmonics in the stator and rotor currents increase. According to section 6.8.2 or
equation (6.108), the harmonic motor current value depends approximately on the
motor reactance alone. Hence the harmonic current remains nearly the same for
motors with 0.1 a~d 0.2 slips if they have the same reactance. Thus, the harmonic
current at s = 1/3 will not appreciably change by the increase in the full-Ioad slip.
When the additional heating of the motor due to harmonics is considered, the motor
derating will be more than just mentioned.
In a fan or pump drive, braking is not required, because the fluid pressure pro-
vides adequate braking torque. To maintain the constant fluid flow with variations in
pressure head and the nature of the pumped fluid, the drive is often operated with a
closed-Ioop speed control.

7.3.2 Crane Hoist Drive

The hoist drive on a crane is required to provide motoring and braking operations in
either direction, with a smooth switch-over from motoring to braking and vice versa.
Therefore, the motor is fed by the four-quadrant controller of figure 7.3a. Further-
more, it must operate smoothly at controlled speeds over a wide speed range irre-
spective of the loado The drive may, therefore, be operated with a closed-Ioop speed
control with inner-current control (fig. 7.6).
The use of a class O design squirrel-cage motor fed by an ac voltage controller
allows good braking and low-speed motoring torques to be obtained. But prolonged
operation under these conditions is not possible because of excessive current. Hence,
a wound-rotor induction motor with variable resistances in the rotor is used. By hav-
ing a sufficiently large rotor resistance, a high torque with reduced motor current is
obtained. The motor heating is substantially reduced due to the reduction in current
and due to the fact that part of the heat dissipation occurs in the external resistor.
The variable resistance may consist of a few sections which are cut in and out by
contactors. Alternatively, a chopper controlled resistance (section 9.1) may be used.
By the use of combinations of ac voltage controller firing angles and rotor resistance
values, the motor characteristics are shaped to satisfy varying torque and speed re-
quirements during motoring and braking.
 Sec.7.3 Fan or Pump and Crane Hoist Drives 281

7.4 AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER STARTERS

AC voltage controllers are finding applications as induction motor starters. Because
of the stepless control of the motor voltage and the controlflexibility provided by the
low power control circuitry, the ac voltage controller starters have a number of ad-
vantages over conventional starters such as an autotransformer starter, a wye-delta
starter, and so on. Some of the advantages are smooth acceleration and deceleration;
ease in implementation of the current control; simple protection against single-
phasing or unbalanced operation; reduced maintenance requirement in applications
requiring automatic cyclical starting and stopping; absence of the current inrush
which occurs in the open circuit transition to line voltage in the autotransformer and
wye-delta starters as explained in section 6.2.
When the operating conditions are favorable, the ac voltage controller starter
can allow energy savings by operating the motor at the optimum voltage as discussed
in the next section.

7.5 LOSS MINIMIZATION

It was explained in section 6.6 that considerable savings in motor losses can be ob-
tained by reduced voltage operation at light loads. In such applications, voltage con-
trol is used for the reduction of losses and not for speed control. The savings in
losses primarily depends on three factors: the loading on the motor, the magnitude of
the applied voltage, and the quality of the motor construction. The saving in losses is
more with l-phase motors than with three-phase motors.
The most significant factor affecting savings is the loading on the motor. The
lighter the load, the greater the savings. The duty cyele of the motor operation is
defined as the ratio of the full-Ioad period to the sum of the no-load and full-Ioad
periods. The applications with low-duty cyeles will allow greater savings in energy.
Applications where a motor operates at no load for a significant period of time in-
elude drill presses, cutoff saws, gang ripsaw, woodhog, reciprocating air compres-
sors, machine tools, and industrial sewing machines. In such applications, the motor
is fed at a fixed voltage, as speed control is not required. Considerable savings in
energy can be obtained by operating them at a variable voltage.
The energy savings also depend on the supply voltage. A motor operating near
a distribution substation will have higher voltage than the one at the end of the distri-
bution line. Therefore, the voltage reduction will allow greater savings. A badly
designed motor will draw more magnetizing current and will have higher core losses
from the poor quality of laminations and a larger air-gap. The reduced voltage opera-
tion under light loads will allow greater savings than for a well-designed motor.
The variation in the motor voltage can only be obtained by interposing an ac
voltage controller between the source and the motor. The ac voltage controller loss
and the additional motor loss from harmonic voltages substantially reduce the sav-
ings in energy. In most applications, the net savings in energy may not justify the
additional cost of an ac voltage controller. However, if the ac voltage controller
is also used for motor starting, then the same controller can be employed for loss
reduction.
282 Control of Induction Motors by AC Voltage Controllers Chap. 7

REFERENCES
l. W. Shepherd, Thyristor Control of AC Circuits, Crosby Lockwood Staples, London,
1975.
2. G. K. Dubey, S. R. Doradla, A. Joshi, and R. M. K. Sinha, "Thyristorised power
controllers," Wiley Eastem, 1986.
3. D. A. Paice, "Induction motor speed control by stator voltage control," IEEE Trans. on
PAS, vol. PAS-87, Feb. 1968, pp. 585-590.
4. R. M. Crowder and G. A. Srnith, "Induction motor for crane applications,' lEE Jour,
Electric Power Applications, Dec. 1979, pp. 194-198.
5. T. M. Rowan and T. A. Lipo, "A quantitative analysis of induction motor performance
improvement by SCR voltage control," IEEE Trans. on Ind. Appl., vol. IA-19,
July-Aug. 1983, pp. 545-553.
6. F. M. H. Khater and D. W. Novotny, "An equivalent-circuit model for phase-back
voltage control of ac rnachines,' IEEE Trans. on Ind. Appl., vol. IA-22, Sept./Oct.
1986, pp. 835-841.

PROBLEMS

7.1 Calculate and plot the (Imax/Irated)versus Sratedrelation for Sratedvalues from 0.05 to 0.25.
Also plot the derating versus sratedcurve on the same axis.
7.2 In a pump drive, the fluid flow is to be varied from full to 50 percent. If the full-load slip
is 0.15, calculate the maximum motor current to rated current ratio and the motor
derating.