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Poultry husbandry cannibalism.

Some poultry farmers use a process


known as debeaking to counter this tendency. The
Poultry farmingis a lucrative occupation in the
tip of the beak is removed, limiting a hen's ability
Caribbean. The feed conversion ratio is very
to inflict injury on another hen. The process can be
efficient and, after slaughter, the dressing-out carried out using an electric debeaking tool.
percentage (useful product as a percentage of
original body weight) is high. Poultry, as meat or When an electric debeaker is used, the blades
should be sharp and cherry-red. The chicken
egg producers, are efficient converters of feed to
quality protein, at a relatively reasonable cost to should gently be made to open its mouth. Then
finger is placed across the beak, protecting the
the population. Under an intensive system, they
iequire little land area and only a mediumlevel tongue and holding the mouth open. The top beak
is cut at an angle of 30' and between half and two
investment in housing and equipment, relative to
ceef or milk production.
thirds is removed. The hot blade cauterises the
wound. The chickens should be returned to the
There are a number of operations related to pens as soon as possible. It is important to make
poultry farming that are all present in the certain that there is water available'
Caribbean, including hatcheries, breeder farms
and meat and by-product processing plants' Nearly Egg collection
:ny student not restrictedby zoning laws can Layingor nest boxes should be large enough to
successfully raise poultry at home, for meat or hold one hen and there should be one nest or
eggs, and so contribute to their family's nutrition, compartment for four to ten hens. In the battery
-1r, on a larger scale, generate income. cage system, the wire floor usually slopes towards
a trough from which the eggs can be picked up.
Eggs should be collected at least twice a day. They
should be placed in a basket or suitable container
and, if necessary, cleaned with a soft, damp cloth'
it,r;:
3. After cleaning, the eggs should be graded. Most are
''fl:,
simply graded into small, medium, large and extra-
large. Soiled, mis-shaped, damaged or very small
eggs should be rejected. The graded eggs should be
packaged in marked boxes for marketing'

Slaughtering
It! Birds raised specifically for meat production
hr:ll (broilers) should be ready for the market at eight
lntensive poultry rearing in Guyana weeks or about 2 kilograms (3-4lb) weight.
They may be marketed live or they may be killed,
lmportant considerations in poultry farming plucked and gutted. Dressed birds are sold fresh,
}L There are a number of different options in raising chilled or frozen, whole or in parts, for example, in
:oultry. Some of the more important include: grocery shops.

I
+ lighting
+ debeaking ROLES OF AGRICULTURE
+ egg collection
+ slaughtering. PRODUCTION OF FOOD AND NON-
FOOD MATERIAL', INCLUDING
-rehting AG RO-PROCE55I NG
in poultry sheds should be left on at night
:,r encourage eating and also for increased egg In 1997 according to the Food and Agricultural
::oduction. Organisation (FAO), 29 countries were facing
acute food shortages requiring emergency aid.

E Debeaking
i some poultry flocks, even when the hens enjoy
::iative freedom, they peck at each other and
'-ri,s pecking can lead to deaths. This is known as
More than half were in Sub-Saharan Afuica, where
civil wars or disorder had disrupted normal farm
activities. New sources of food must be found if
food shortages are to be avoided.

<HAPTER 4 CARIBBEAN AcRICULTURE 143


Indusrrialisation and urban development
are of people to the cities. The large a-::
reducing the available farmland. Htwever, t"t]trlll
the city populations demand abunlan:
rising popuiarion sdmulates food production =
.:
tilllilu'
by food, whereas farmers need adecu":.
providing more labour and by prouiding
a market product prices; this represents a c.::
for more food.
conflict of interest between the far:..
In the Caribbean, most crops are used in agro_ population and the urban commun-..
processing plants; many foods, with the
exception
ofchicken and chicken products (eggs), eggplant,
okra, pineapple, coconut arrd .oco"l""re imported.
Subsistence farming is dominant in the
Caribbean
region because of the limited availability of
land.
Most islands are very small and their major
income is from tourism rather than agriculture.
However, some of the Caribbean Islarids,
including Trinidad (cocoa), Antigua (bananas),
Guyana (sugar and rice), Jamaici (bananas
and
cocoa) and Grenada (spices), do have commercial
farming.
I Figure 4. l5 Harvesting potatoes in Cuba
All non-food materials used in commercial
Most of the world,s poor are ruraily bas=: ..-
agriculture and agro-processing are imported, ;
even if they are not themselves farmers.
with the exceprion of small tools such as knives .. 1

employment and the income this pror ic. j


and plucking machines. All large machinery _:l
and depends, one way or anothel on agricul:-:::
automated systems are imported.
Agriculture growrh is a catalyst foibroac_.. :
economic growth and development in rnct: ".r,:
E(ONOMIC Iow-income countries and economic gror,,.:.:
is strongly linked to a reduction in po"ue.r.
Employment Agricultural links to the non_farm
Agriculture is one of the major sources of generate considerable employment,".ono..
income
employment for the peopie in the Caribbean and growth for the rest of the economy.
Ve:_,
who live in rural areas. iand is available, so few countries have experienced rapid
econc:. :
self-employment as a subsistence farmer is growth without agricultural growth precedi:; -
the _
most likely way to make a living. Farmers accompanying it.
with
medium-sized holdings, for example, rice
and
watermelon farmers at Nariva,r"i-p, ?inidad, Foreign exchqnge earnings
also provide employmen t for largenumbers Although agriculture is not the major foreign
of
people. The major agricultural employers exchange earner in the Caribbean,
outside it does
these two sectors are the bigger commercial contribute significantly towards the totai
and forei l:.
state-owned farms. Most state_owned farms exchange income of the countries. If
the US;;,.:.,
throughout the Caribbe an are subsidised rises, then Caribbean countries get
by more for rh=.:
governments, because it is a good way produce. However if rhe dollar fills,
to employ companies
people and provide food for the popuiation, in Europe and North America will buy
exports bring in foreign exchange and
and
the Caribbean because it is cheaper th"n -i." fro:.
create buying
stronger trade links. from counrries in their region. egri.;ti;r"t
Agriculture is the main livelihood for more produce imported from these cotintries
rhan *iit, ol
half the world's population and constitute, course, cost more in the Caribbean.
th"
cornerstone of the economy for many
developing Contribution to egross domestic product
countries. In such countries, the farms are
generally small and the level of mechanisation (GoeS
and technological innovation is low. Throughout the section on types of farming,
The lack of rural employmenr, orher than several fundamental assumptions
in have been
agriculture, results in a high rate of migration made. These include the generalisations
that the
poorest countries are those that have
the lowest

t44
output and the wealthier countries are those than Influence may not, however, operate over a
.an afford the highest inputs, giving them the wide range of contexts; for example, a normally
rnaximum yield of profit per person. The poorer influential person might not be able to exert
:ountries have the lower inputs of capital and that influence over the technical aspects of an
;echnology. agricultural production system.
The less developed a country, the lower its gross
The role of agriculture in Caribbean
lomestic product (GDP) and gross national
societies and economies
:roduct (GNP) per capita, and the greater the
:ercentage of it population involved in agriculture. Food production and trade:
The less developed a country, the greater the * provides food (fruits, vegetables and meats) for
rercentage of its GDP/GNP is made up from domestic consumption

"gricultuie.
* provides raw materials (fruits, vegetables and
lhe less developed acountry, the less fertiliser it meats for agro-processing and export
',i'i11 use. * provides materials for animal feed and other
lhe iess developed a country, the less mechanised non-human food uses
:rethods will be used in its farming. * reduces the import bill and the need for a
country to import fruits, vegetables and meats
for domestic consumption.
SOCIAI: I/vtPA(T ON CUTTURE AND
LIFESTYIE Employment generation means that:
Social change involves changes in the structure
* a large percentage of the population (farmers
system. It includes and field workers) are directly employed in the
=d functions of a social agriculture industry
::ranges in the roles, status and patterns of social
::ieraction and functions carried out by groups in * indirect employment is provided in the agro-
--:e community. processing industry
l;ltural change is broader than social change. It * the transport of workers and agricultural
:'.'olves changes occurring in any part of a culture, produce provides employment for workers in the
;-:h as its artforms, its values and beliefs or its transport sector
:::ence and technology. * employment is provided for persons who
l.:ese two types of change are encompassed by the service the agricultural sector, including farm
:=:n socio-cultural change, which is usually seen implements, agrochemicals, veterinary and
:.,-:h as a requirement for technological change and finance sectors.
:.: a consequence. The social impacts of change on
:::rmunities are a cause of much concern.
.:-_::ncies involved in rural development are
ApPTICATION OF
:r:ernai sources ofchange because oftheir TECHNOTOGY TO
::.arionship with local communities. They bring AGRICUITURE
::.proved ideas and practices from various research
,---=rirutions to assist people in improving their
U'E OF AGRO.CHEMICAT'
..-:,'as.
The use of chemicals can make farming a threat to
-':-e approach that has proved quite fruitful in
the environment. Fertiliser, slurry and pesticides
::.:ouraging farmers to adopt new practices is
all contribute to the pollution of the environmental
. -- :ave them visit other farmers outside their
system.
::::munity and sometimes even outside their
: --;:ltry. Fertiliser in the form of mineral compounds, which
contain elements for plant growth, is widely used
---.:luence is theability to persuade others to accept
.:-:'s position and is based more on interpersonal
to produce a healthy crop and increase yields. If
too much nitrogenous fertiliser or animal waste
.--s than on occupying a particular position
'' (manure) is added to the soil, some remains
::. rcr example, the extension and adoption of
unabsorbed by the plants and may be leached out
:'::nology. In rural communities, many persons
by rainfall to contaminate underground water
{,:r influence through institutions such as supplies and rivers.
: -::non livelihood, marciage, family and religion.

CHAPTER 4 CARIBBEAN AC,RICULTURE 145


Where chemical fertilisers accumulate in lakes by interfering with fundamental biochemical
and rivers, the water becomes enriched with and physiological processes common to a wide ,ill[:ilrr.i
nutrients (eutrophication) and the ecosystem is range of organisms, including humans. As a ,ru!
upset. consequence, pesticides are economic necessirie= , J{*

but are also serious threats to biodiversity and a:. -,_*,,f


also potentially serious pollutants. ru --l:
run-off from farms
Pesticides are classified according to the group c:
organisms they are designed to control, such as
insects (insecticides), plants (herbicides), fungr w"iil

i
''' i " i!9l?k":f1l-"*i:lti:9, j
(fungicides) and molluscs (molluscicides). Toda,. fi!{n-

,t
!
: ^,
Algae ard other autotrophs :
there is a general recognition ofthe dangers of
the excessive use of pesticides, both to humans
and to the environment. There is evidence that
[,., ''. ] multiply i
pesticides can, in some circumstances, be used
!l nutflents
rt
;
;
selectively, to deal with particular outbreaks of
to system and i
t' Argae and autotrophs ,ru ,p o*yg.n : pests, with no significant loss of productivity
removes more
, 'l i:
i
:i . rnd begin
and heorn to die offoff i oxygen
I

1
when compared with their more indiscriminate
use.
i'% Concerns over pesticides have mostly centred or
i* ;J
*Aerobic decomposers (bacter a)
" "-1"4 multrply and use Lp even more ox/gen
"
trd _I_ _-
: synthetic chemicals, but the earliest pesticides
were extracted from plants.

i Aerobic organisms (fish) die due


Where do pesticides go?
to Pesticides can dissipate in the air as vapour, in
i lack of oxygen
water as run-off or in soil, by leaching to the
groundwater.
A revolution in pesticides began in 1939 with rh:
recognition of DDT, an organo-chlorine as a
powerful insecticide.

t Figure 4, l6 Eutrophication of a pool

Pesticides
Economic importance of pesticides
Pesticides and herbicides are added ro crops ro
control pests, diseases and weeds. Estimates t Figure 4.)7 Spray ng pesticides, using a protective mas<
suggest that, without pesticides, cereal yields
DDT acts on the nerves of insects, causing rapid
would be reduced by 25To after one year and 45Vo
death. It is effective in low concentrations and,
after three years.
at first, this poison was not seen as toxic to
Pesticides are substances used to control humans, Between the years 1939 and 1945, DDT
organisms considered harmful to agriculture or was used particularly for the control of malaria,
horticulture, or organisms involved in disease by killing mosquitoes. DDT does not break
transmission. They are like biocides (chemicals down easily and stays lethal for years. Scientists
design to kill organisms). Most pesticides act started to discover organo-chlorine insecticide

146
in other animals in the food chain. The problem Modern pesticide use
arose because organo-chlorine insecticides are The economic value of crops and the potential for
fat-soluble and accumulate in fatty tissues. They extensive loss, requires reliable, easy-to-use and
migrate to animals at the top of the food chain. relatively cheap means of controlling pests. This
They were found to be extremely toxic to many means is offered by pesticides.
animals in high doses and were also found to The risks associated with pesticide use have led to
interfere with the fertility of many animals. Public a better form ofpest control than the widespread
concern arose due to the large numbers of cases of use ofpesticides. The system is called integrated
ivildlife poisoned by the use of DDT pest management (IPM) and involves combining
Health risk to humans methods such as:
Workers who have to apply pesticides may be at a * varying cultivation methods
:articular risk; additionally, the public at large is at * the rotation ofcrops
:isk from residues in food resulting from excessive
* minimal well-targeted applications of selected
:se ofpesticides.
pesticides
Herbicides * use of a biological control system, such as
otherwise harmless insects that prey on
.:itially, it appears that herbicides, which were
the pests, or targeted parasites such as tiny
:jective as weedkillers in low doses, left only
nematode worms.
residues in the soil and were generally
':.ort-lived It is likely to take some time for these techniques
--ir harmful to animals. Some dangers due to
-:rbicide toxicity have subsequently emerged, but to become more widely accepted and, in the
-:: ecological harm done by herbicides is due not meantime, pollution by pesticides will increase.
:: :heir toxicity but to their efficiency. Disastrous See student's essay on effects of agricultural chemicals
:::iogical damage occurs when herbicide spray on pate I 64 at the end of the chapter.
:-.::s onto hedgerows and meadows, while the
;e-:berate reduction of weeds on roadside verges
u-": railways has reduced the population of wild
ANIanAI AND PTANT BREEDING
.,:-.','ers and the insects that depend on them. Plants are more important than animals as food
sources because of their mode of nutrition and
ksticides today their consequent location in the food chain.
l:l:ern about the longterm consequences of The objective of plant breeding is to increase plant
:i;.ri pesticides has arisen, for several ecological yield by positively increasing the size of the plant,
'grs::'ls. or by selectively increasing the edible parts of
- i;:aying to eliminate pests, such as aphids on the plant, or by the selection and development of
ii:eat, may also kill the predators that control disease resistant varieties.
:r:er pests, or the bees that pollinate fruit trees. The principle of plant breeding is the combining of
* --. ;esticides may kill the natural enemies of the superior genes.
:es: species more effectively than they kill the Human choice and preference are important
:e;:. rhen the pest, once it is re-established, may factors in the economics of both plant and animal
rF:lme even more of a problem in the absence breeding. Plant breeding is carried out very largely
:i.:s natural predators and parasites. by crossing different varieties and then selecting
't'&s: :opulations may eventually become progeny with particular features from which to
ri:::ant to pesticides. Repeated low doses of breed further.
lx::jdes kill susceptible individuals but leave Plant breeders are looking for qualities in the
; :i3",i. :gsistant organisms unharmed. It is from progeny such as:
'i]*:i: :esistant forms that a new population is
* fast spring germination and/or growth
ry;la:-.shed.
* growth response to natural or chemical
,F ic*.:;es of the pesticides may accumulate in fertilisers
:"r.ri::jiis and other animals and be harmful to
::e: ?esticides have been shown to accumulate
* dwarf stem growth, in cereals, for example, and
- enhanced leaf growth
'- : ;l-e, causing manv deaths.
* efficient capture of solar energy

CHAPTER 4 CARIBBEAN ACRICULTURE 147


ll
IJ
,f
* tolerance of occasional unfavourable conditions arehomozygous; that is, they possess t\4.c
such as drought identical forms of a particular gene, one
* resistance to pest and disease inherited from each (in this case rhe same
* superior nutritional or commercial value of the parent, in many more instances than is no:::.,
grain, fruit or leaf products or their derivatives. * Breed: The animal equivalent of a plant r-a:-=.
The object of animal breeding is to improve the * Inbreeding: Typically, inbred plants are frc:--
yield or quality of wool or hide, or ro increase species that are naturally self-fertilised. An., _ -
milk production, or to increase meat quality or inbreeding is achieved by mating siblings a.::
litter size (offspring). by test cross mating.
Breeders use artificial-insemination techniques, * Outbreeding: Occurs via the crossing of
as well as rhe latest developments in genetic carefully selected varieties in order to brinE
engineering. The animal breeder has a clear idea together desirable qualities from both pare:..:
of the kind of animals wanted. The manager of in the offspring.
a miiking herd of cows, for example, will keep * Selective breeding: This involves selectin,:
a record of both the quality and the quantiry of animals with favourable characteristics anc
milk produced by the cows. Those with the better allowing them to mare and produce offspri:..
milk yields are used as mothers for the next * Gene: The basic unit of inheritance; ? gere .:
generation. They are inseminated by semen from "
specific region of a chromosome that is cap=: .
a bull known to sire good miikers.
of determining the development of a speci::
trait or characteristic of an organism.
* DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid is a long thin
moiecule, 2 nanometres (nm) in diameter. r: i
coiled in the form of a helix and consists o: :. .

strands. DNA forms the chromosomes whe:.


genes are found.
* Genotype: This is the genetic constirurion
of an organism; a gene acting together wirh
environmental factors produces the organis:. ,
appearance, called a phenotype.
* Genome: This is the entirety of an organisr ,
hereditary information, encoded in DNA.

GTNETIc ENGINEERING
Genetic engineering or recombinant DNA
technology is the manipulation of the
genetic material (genes) of an organism. The
genes contain information that controls the
characteristics of an organism. Genes can be
manipulated both inside and outside of cells. T:.=
process is referred to as in vivo, meaning,inli.fe
or in vitro meaning 'in glassware' respectively. !:hical is:
_:
An example of genetic engineering is the .- -aar6
r.rgrL ^-
<rl
f Figure 4. l8 Plant breeding under controlled condttions manufacture of insulin by a bacteriu m (E. Coti) . :t:.:ntaine;
The bacterium does not naturally have the gene:_: - )'tt16)
Common terms used in plant and animal code for production of insulin. However, by the
breeding :,::enrists c
use of recombinant DNA technology, the DNA
* Variety: A genetically distinct population ---.erired ci
sequence for the manufacture of insulin is
::l'ler orga:
within a plant species. incorporated into ro the DNA of E. Coli. An :: characrer
* Pure line: A plant variety produced by example of genetic engineering in plants is the
--.aracterisl.
intensive self-fertilisation, so that the progeny production of varieties of tomatoes with resista:::= ::edicted br
to virus attack, or resistance to insect attack.

r48
Environmental concerns related to genetic One argument in favour of genetic engineering is
that scientists may be able to help preserve some
of the rarer and endangered species by increasing
Genetic engineering techniques and their possible
genetic variability or by overcoming some of the
future applications raise enormously important
less adaptive genetic characteristics resulting from
economic, environmental and ethical issues. genetic drift.
Early in human history, people began manipulating
On the other hand, they might inadvertentiy
the genetic constituents of organisms by
create super pests, predators or competitors for
the selection of plants and animals as they
endangered species.
began to practise agriculture. The breeding of
improved domesticated species of plants and Newly created organisms can lead to benefits,
animals involves artificial selection and natural
but we must be careful not to release into
hybridisation between related species. In artificial the environment new strains that might have
great reproductive potential and could become
selection, genetic modification occurs when
unexpected pests.
organisms with favourable characteristics that are
genetically controlled are permitted to breed and
:he progeny they produce are similarly selected.
Those with favourable characteristics are used as
:urther breeding stock, and so on.
Today, a new type of genetic manipulation
:an be used, known as genetic engineering or
recombinant DNA technology. Genes from one
:rganism are introduced into the genome of an
:nrelated organism. This is a laboratory technique,
:ot the result of natural cross species mating.
.r. problem raised by some people is that the full
.rplications of genetic engineering or modification
i:e unknown.
'Might a gene added to a genome function in
an unforeseen manner, perhaps triggering a
:ongterm problem such as cancer?
* \light an introduced gene for resistance to
adverse conditions, get transferred from a crop
:lant or farm animal into a weed species or into
some predators? t Figure 4, l9 Gene+. cs lab

- Could the genes from a harmful pathogen be


Economic issues related to genetic
.:serted into a harmless organism, such as the
engineering
:.uman gut bacteria E. coli, that then escapes
.:ro the population at large? Such a situation Genetic engineering is a costly technology that
::uld have very serious consequences for human seems to be of most benefit to people of developed
nations. If funds used for genetic engineering
"realth.
were diverted to solving the more basic problems
i::rical issues of housing, health, employment and nutrition
,- :-ere an important overriding principle to be of the poor worldwide, would the money not
:':;::ained, that humans should not tamper with immediately benefit vastly more people?
u.r -:e? Another consideration is that genetically modified
i',:::rists can now manipulate DNA - and thus plants, while offering farmers productivity and
r:::ited characteristics of crops, bacteria and disease-resistance benefits, may ultimately produce
n::: organisms - to give them new combinations infertiie seeds. This means a farmer cannot save
;r' :.raracteristics.This demonstrates that seed from year to year but must buy fresh seed
from the original supplier. This is particularly
"n;.:teristics are inherited and can be altered as
il,-::- ::ed by evolutionary theories. important in poor or developing countries.

CHAPTER 4 CARIBBEAN A(,RICULTURE 149


Benefits of genetic engineering
* Organisms can be produced with increased
resistance to adverse environmental conditions
or improved disease resistance.
* Organisms can be produced that contain
combinations of beneficial genetic material
(genes) that do not occur naturally, for
example, varieties of wheat can be modified to
contain more proteins (glutinins) favourable
for breadmaking.
* High-performance plants can be engineered
that are reliable and have higher yields.
l,'
I
tl,: ,.t Disadvantages of genetic engineering
* Genetically engineered organisms might f Figure 4.20 A cane harvester replaces the emplc' ^-.--
multiply unpredictably, producing totally of many people,
undesirable characteristic.
* The introduction of genetically engineered or
altered organisms into an ecosystem might
TEcH Noto6IcAL, Ic<
disturb natural population balances and
ECONOAAIC AND 50CtO- j," -
disrupt the food web equilibrium, for example, ENVI RONAAENTAL :::
I. predator-prey relationships. ISsUE5 RELATED TO :-
* Displacement or loss of some species might
A6RI.SYsTEMs ..:
occur.
* Super-pests might be created by the rransfer of
TgcnNotoctcAt rssuEt
genes from genetically modified crops to wild L 4i ^ -
L-tttL
species. The danger posed by the human population rc -_-.
environment has two main factors:
I the number of people
MrcnaNrsATtoN 2 the impact of each person on the environme:,.
When there were few people on Earth and
Farm machinery technology was limited, human impact was
There is a general agreement, among scientists restricted to rhe area where they lived. Therefc:= - _. _tr..

who are involved in agriculture, that if farmers the overuse ofthe local resources had few or
are to improve their standard of living, they must no large, longlasting effects. The fundamental
increase their production of not only one or two problem now is that there are so many people a::
crops, but all the crops they grow. One of the best our technology is so powerful that effects are nc
ways to do this is to practise scientific farming longer localised and unimportant.
and this often involves the use of machines. Technology not only increases the use of
In the Caribbean area, there are some limitations resources, but also enables us to affect the
to the use of farming machinery. The main issue environment in many new ways compared with
is that many of the islands are hilly, with limited hunters and gatherers or with people who farm
scope for the use of large machines to any great with simple, wooden or stone tools. For examp.=
extent. Usually, however, there is the possibiiity before the invention of chlorofluorocarbons
of some measure of mechanisation. (CFCs), which are used as propellants in spray
The best strategy for the future seems ro be to cans and as coolants in refrigerators and air
intensify and extensify rhe use of machines on conditioners, we were not causing depletion of
the plains, as well as to explore lhe possibilities the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere.
of finding suitable machines an,i impieme,rr) for similarly before we srarted driving automobiles.
hillsides. there rvas much less demand for steel, little
demand for oil and much less air pollution.
The equation I : P x A x T shows the relationship
between the level of population, the level of
technology, the level of affluence and the human
impact oir the environment.
I: P xAxT I: humanimpact (average
environmental imPact Per
person)
p : population
A : level ofaffluence
T = level oftechnology
An important consequence of the equation is
:hat the addition of each new individual to the
:opulation of an industrialised nation leads, on
average, to a greater effect on the environment
:han does the addition of each new individual to
t Figure 4.2 I Agroforestry can have many advantages.
:he population ofpoor, undeveloped nations.

EcoNO/v\IC
Socro-rNvr RoNMENTAI l55u Es
Many communities depend on natural resources
lo- Some agricultural policies help stabilise markets by
,etting minimum prices for most farm products. If
for some aspects of their sustenance and
subsistence. These include food, fibre, firewood
:he market price falls below this level, the surplus
and water. Agriculture, while contributing to
.s bought and put into storage. To prevent foreign
the livelihood of communities, may reduce
:roduce from undercutting prices, import tariffs
the availability or value ofnatural resources
.:e placed on imported foodstuff.
to communities. This may occur, for example,
through the pollution of water bodies such as
Effect of global marhets
'.\hen prices rivers, decreasing their usefulness to communities.
are fixed for a particular foodstuff, Agriculture can therefore pose a potential threat to
:-:e fluctuation of exchange rates can determine the sustainable livelihood of these communities.
::mand levels, because the fluctuations can cause
:.:e commodity to become expensive, which leads
It is important that consideration is always
given to ecological values when decisions about
:rnsumer markets to seek cheaper imports. The
agricultural practices are being made, to avoid
:-red price market will decline and farmers may be
consequences that are, at best, unintended and, at
:-':ced to cease production.
worst, destructive or dangerous. A basis for such
Agroforestry decision making is to look at the four categories of
justification:
.:-,lroforestry is the land-use system undewr which
,.':ody perennials (usually evergreen trees) are 1 utilitarian justification
:. iberately planted on the same land-management 2 ecological justification
-:it as agricultural crops or animals. Trees become 3 aesthetic justification
i :rajor component of a multi-crop production 4 moraljustification.
;-,srem that compares to a natural multi-layer
; -- -- Utilitarian justification deems some aspects of
:,f,SVStem.
the environment as valuable because they provide
C-\a - -
l-rs type of farming is sustainable for several individuals with economic benefit or are directly
-:1SOnS.
1- < necessary to their survival; for example, the sea is
* Organic waste from livestock can be used to valuable to fishermen.
:ertilise crops and trees. Ecological justification is based on the value of
* perennials: some factor that is essential to the support of life
"\body
can be used as windbreaks for crops on a larger scale, even though it may not benefit an
a provide timber for farm infrastructure and individual directly, for example, the mangrove.
possibly for sale Aesthetic justification has to do with the
a help in preventing soil erosion appreciation of the beauty of nature.
a provide shade for animals in open pastures.

CHAPTER 4 CARIBBEAN AcRICULTURE I5I


Moral justification implies that various aspects
of the environment have a right to exist and that
it is a moral obligation to allow them to continue
or help them to iersist.

Agricu lru r aI technologres


Systems of farming have already been discussed.
However, within the various systems, a wide
range ofdifferent technologies are being applied.
Some are traditional and therefore tried and
tested. Others are much more experimental
and may prove to be useful, or may ultimately
be abandoned. Some technologies are only t Figure 4.22 Contour ploughing
appropriate when applied in particular locations
or under specific conditions. Crop rotation
No-tillage or conservation farming This is the term applied when several differen:
In no-tillage farming, the land is not ploughed crops are planted successively in the same fie,:
and the remains of the previous crop such as the with the field occasionally left fallow or planre:
root system, bind the soil together. Special with a cover crop.
machines are used for planting. These inject seeds Crop rotation is effective because different n:,t;
and fertilisers into slits made in the soil and apply of crop remove different nutrients from the sc..
herbicides. By a careful choice of crops, nutrient levels c;
be maintained or improved. In some rotarion
Advantages of conservation tillage systems, a fallow period is allowed when no c:::
* It reduces levels of soil compaction and or only a cover crop, is grown. The vegetation
erosion. that grows on a fallow field is ploughed under.
* It increases the amount of organic matter in the to add to soil fertility. Leguminous plants are
soil. often used as cover crops because their roots
* It improves the water-holding capacity of soil. fix nitrogen from the atmosphere. This reduces
the requirement to use expensive nitrogenous
* It increases the number of crops per season and fertilisers.
the yields from those crops.
As the successive crops in a rotation system
* It is less expensive than conventional tillage,
are ofdifferent species, the pests and diseases lntegra
because it requires less labour, fuel and
associated with a species do not get a chance l: The ain
equipment.
build up, so pesticide use can be reduced. :onrain
Disadvantages of conservation tillage a:-rificiai
Advantages of crop rotation
* The lack oftilling can decrease soil aeration
* It improves soil fertility. Jisruprir
and promote pest infestation. Irpicallr
* It controls pests and diseases. ,-tr replac
Contour ploughing + It controls weeds. nregrare
Contour ploughing is a system in which land is * It occupies farm labour throughout the year. t rhe us,
ploughed along topographic conrours, so thar the
furrows are as horizontal as possible.
* It maintains income throughout the year. predari
pests
The purpose of contour ploughing is ro reduce Disadvantages of crop rotation + rhe pla:
surface water run-off and so reduce soil erosion. * Farm equipment available and used to cultiva:* reduce
Contour ploughing is often combined with strip one crop might not be the same as is requirec plant
farming. for production of another, so more equipmen: + no-rili c
In traditional ploughing, the ploughed furrows is needed and machinery can stand idle.
natural
may run downhill and form channels for water to * It can be difficult to find anorher crop rhar \.{'i-. soil
flow off the land. Ploughing along the contours provide the same economic returns, especialir' + the appl
can greatly reduce erosion. in commercial farming. chemicar
earlier a;

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