Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Slaughtering
It! Birds raised specifically for meat production
hr:ll (broilers) should be ready for the market at eight
lntensive poultry rearing in Guyana weeks or about 2 kilograms (3-4lb) weight.
They may be marketed live or they may be killed,
lmportant considerations in poultry farming plucked and gutted. Dressed birds are sold fresh,
}L There are a number of different options in raising chilled or frozen, whole or in parts, for example, in
:oultry. Some of the more important include: grocery shops.
I
+ lighting
+ debeaking ROLES OF AGRICULTURE
+ egg collection
+ slaughtering. PRODUCTION OF FOOD AND NON-
FOOD MATERIAL', INCLUDING
-rehting AG RO-PROCE55I NG
in poultry sheds should be left on at night
:,r encourage eating and also for increased egg In 1997 according to the Food and Agricultural
::oduction. Organisation (FAO), 29 countries were facing
acute food shortages requiring emergency aid.
E Debeaking
i some poultry flocks, even when the hens enjoy
::iative freedom, they peck at each other and
'-ri,s pecking can lead to deaths. This is known as
More than half were in Sub-Saharan Afuica, where
civil wars or disorder had disrupted normal farm
activities. New sources of food must be found if
food shortages are to be avoided.
t44
output and the wealthier countries are those than Influence may not, however, operate over a
.an afford the highest inputs, giving them the wide range of contexts; for example, a normally
rnaximum yield of profit per person. The poorer influential person might not be able to exert
:ountries have the lower inputs of capital and that influence over the technical aspects of an
;echnology. agricultural production system.
The less developed a country, the lower its gross
The role of agriculture in Caribbean
lomestic product (GDP) and gross national
societies and economies
:roduct (GNP) per capita, and the greater the
:ercentage of it population involved in agriculture. Food production and trade:
The less developed a country, the greater the * provides food (fruits, vegetables and meats) for
rercentage of its GDP/GNP is made up from domestic consumption
"gricultuie.
* provides raw materials (fruits, vegetables and
lhe less developed acountry, the less fertiliser it meats for agro-processing and export
',i'i11 use. * provides materials for animal feed and other
lhe iess developed a country, the less mechanised non-human food uses
:rethods will be used in its farming. * reduces the import bill and the need for a
country to import fruits, vegetables and meats
for domestic consumption.
SOCIAI: I/vtPA(T ON CUTTURE AND
LIFESTYIE Employment generation means that:
Social change involves changes in the structure
* a large percentage of the population (farmers
system. It includes and field workers) are directly employed in the
=d functions of a social agriculture industry
::ranges in the roles, status and patterns of social
::ieraction and functions carried out by groups in * indirect employment is provided in the agro-
--:e community. processing industry
l;ltural change is broader than social change. It * the transport of workers and agricultural
:'.'olves changes occurring in any part of a culture, produce provides employment for workers in the
;-:h as its artforms, its values and beliefs or its transport sector
:::ence and technology. * employment is provided for persons who
l.:ese two types of change are encompassed by the service the agricultural sector, including farm
:=:n socio-cultural change, which is usually seen implements, agrochemicals, veterinary and
:.,-:h as a requirement for technological change and finance sectors.
:.: a consequence. The social impacts of change on
:::rmunities are a cause of much concern.
.:-_::ncies involved in rural development are
ApPTICATION OF
:r:ernai sources ofchange because oftheir TECHNOTOGY TO
::.arionship with local communities. They bring AGRICUITURE
::.proved ideas and practices from various research
,---=rirutions to assist people in improving their
U'E OF AGRO.CHEMICAT'
..-:,'as.
The use of chemicals can make farming a threat to
-':-e approach that has proved quite fruitful in
the environment. Fertiliser, slurry and pesticides
::.:ouraging farmers to adopt new practices is
all contribute to the pollution of the environmental
. -- :ave them visit other farmers outside their
system.
::::munity and sometimes even outside their
: --;:ltry. Fertiliser in the form of mineral compounds, which
contain elements for plant growth, is widely used
---.:luence is theability to persuade others to accept
.:-:'s position and is based more on interpersonal
to produce a healthy crop and increase yields. If
too much nitrogenous fertiliser or animal waste
.--s than on occupying a particular position
'' (manure) is added to the soil, some remains
::. rcr example, the extension and adoption of
unabsorbed by the plants and may be leached out
:'::nology. In rural communities, many persons
by rainfall to contaminate underground water
{,:r influence through institutions such as supplies and rivers.
: -::non livelihood, marciage, family and religion.
i
''' i " i!9l?k":f1l-"*i:lti:9, j
(fungicides) and molluscs (molluscicides). Toda,. fi!{n-
,t
!
: ^,
Algae ard other autotrophs :
there is a general recognition ofthe dangers of
the excessive use of pesticides, both to humans
and to the environment. There is evidence that
[,., ''. ] multiply i
pesticides can, in some circumstances, be used
!l nutflents
rt
;
;
selectively, to deal with particular outbreaks of
to system and i
t' Argae and autotrophs ,ru ,p o*yg.n : pests, with no significant loss of productivity
removes more
, 'l i:
i
:i . rnd begin
and heorn to die offoff i oxygen
I
1
when compared with their more indiscriminate
use.
i'% Concerns over pesticides have mostly centred or
i* ;J
*Aerobic decomposers (bacter a)
" "-1"4 multrply and use Lp even more ox/gen
"
trd _I_ _-
: synthetic chemicals, but the earliest pesticides
were extracted from plants.
Pesticides
Economic importance of pesticides
Pesticides and herbicides are added ro crops ro
control pests, diseases and weeds. Estimates t Figure 4.)7 Spray ng pesticides, using a protective mas<
suggest that, without pesticides, cereal yields
DDT acts on the nerves of insects, causing rapid
would be reduced by 25To after one year and 45Vo
death. It is effective in low concentrations and,
after three years.
at first, this poison was not seen as toxic to
Pesticides are substances used to control humans, Between the years 1939 and 1945, DDT
organisms considered harmful to agriculture or was used particularly for the control of malaria,
horticulture, or organisms involved in disease by killing mosquitoes. DDT does not break
transmission. They are like biocides (chemicals down easily and stays lethal for years. Scientists
design to kill organisms). Most pesticides act started to discover organo-chlorine insecticide
146
in other animals in the food chain. The problem Modern pesticide use
arose because organo-chlorine insecticides are The economic value of crops and the potential for
fat-soluble and accumulate in fatty tissues. They extensive loss, requires reliable, easy-to-use and
migrate to animals at the top of the food chain. relatively cheap means of controlling pests. This
They were found to be extremely toxic to many means is offered by pesticides.
animals in high doses and were also found to The risks associated with pesticide use have led to
interfere with the fertility of many animals. Public a better form ofpest control than the widespread
concern arose due to the large numbers of cases of use ofpesticides. The system is called integrated
ivildlife poisoned by the use of DDT pest management (IPM) and involves combining
Health risk to humans methods such as:
Workers who have to apply pesticides may be at a * varying cultivation methods
:articular risk; additionally, the public at large is at * the rotation ofcrops
:isk from residues in food resulting from excessive
* minimal well-targeted applications of selected
:se ofpesticides.
pesticides
Herbicides * use of a biological control system, such as
otherwise harmless insects that prey on
.:itially, it appears that herbicides, which were
the pests, or targeted parasites such as tiny
:jective as weedkillers in low doses, left only
nematode worms.
residues in the soil and were generally
':.ort-lived It is likely to take some time for these techniques
--ir harmful to animals. Some dangers due to
-:rbicide toxicity have subsequently emerged, but to become more widely accepted and, in the
-:: ecological harm done by herbicides is due not meantime, pollution by pesticides will increase.
:: :heir toxicity but to their efficiency. Disastrous See student's essay on effects of agricultural chemicals
:::iogical damage occurs when herbicide spray on pate I 64 at the end of the chapter.
:-.::s onto hedgerows and meadows, while the
;e-:berate reduction of weeds on roadside verges
u-": railways has reduced the population of wild
ANIanAI AND PTANT BREEDING
.,:-.','ers and the insects that depend on them. Plants are more important than animals as food
sources because of their mode of nutrition and
ksticides today their consequent location in the food chain.
l:l:ern about the longterm consequences of The objective of plant breeding is to increase plant
:i;.ri pesticides has arisen, for several ecological yield by positively increasing the size of the plant,
'grs::'ls. or by selectively increasing the edible parts of
- i;:aying to eliminate pests, such as aphids on the plant, or by the selection and development of
ii:eat, may also kill the predators that control disease resistant varieties.
:r:er pests, or the bees that pollinate fruit trees. The principle of plant breeding is the combining of
* --. ;esticides may kill the natural enemies of the superior genes.
:es: species more effectively than they kill the Human choice and preference are important
:e;:. rhen the pest, once it is re-established, may factors in the economics of both plant and animal
rF:lme even more of a problem in the absence breeding. Plant breeding is carried out very largely
:i.:s natural predators and parasites. by crossing different varieties and then selecting
't'&s: :opulations may eventually become progeny with particular features from which to
ri:::ant to pesticides. Repeated low doses of breed further.
lx::jdes kill susceptible individuals but leave Plant breeders are looking for qualities in the
; :i3",i. :gsistant organisms unharmed. It is from progeny such as:
'i]*:i: :esistant forms that a new population is
* fast spring germination and/or growth
ry;la:-.shed.
* growth response to natural or chemical
,F ic*.:;es of the pesticides may accumulate in fertilisers
:"r.ri::jiis and other animals and be harmful to
::e: ?esticides have been shown to accumulate
* dwarf stem growth, in cereals, for example, and
- enhanced leaf growth
'- : ;l-e, causing manv deaths.
* efficient capture of solar energy
GTNETIc ENGINEERING
Genetic engineering or recombinant DNA
technology is the manipulation of the
genetic material (genes) of an organism. The
genes contain information that controls the
characteristics of an organism. Genes can be
manipulated both inside and outside of cells. T:.=
process is referred to as in vivo, meaning,inli.fe
or in vitro meaning 'in glassware' respectively. !:hical is:
_:
An example of genetic engineering is the .- -aar6
r.rgrL ^-
<rl
f Figure 4. l8 Plant breeding under controlled condttions manufacture of insulin by a bacteriu m (E. Coti) . :t:.:ntaine;
The bacterium does not naturally have the gene:_: - )'tt16)
Common terms used in plant and animal code for production of insulin. However, by the
breeding :,::enrists c
use of recombinant DNA technology, the DNA
* Variety: A genetically distinct population ---.erired ci
sequence for the manufacture of insulin is
::l'ler orga:
within a plant species. incorporated into ro the DNA of E. Coli. An :: characrer
* Pure line: A plant variety produced by example of genetic engineering in plants is the
--.aracterisl.
intensive self-fertilisation, so that the progeny production of varieties of tomatoes with resista:::= ::edicted br
to virus attack, or resistance to insect attack.
r48
Environmental concerns related to genetic One argument in favour of genetic engineering is
that scientists may be able to help preserve some
of the rarer and endangered species by increasing
Genetic engineering techniques and their possible
genetic variability or by overcoming some of the
future applications raise enormously important
less adaptive genetic characteristics resulting from
economic, environmental and ethical issues. genetic drift.
Early in human history, people began manipulating
On the other hand, they might inadvertentiy
the genetic constituents of organisms by
create super pests, predators or competitors for
the selection of plants and animals as they
endangered species.
began to practise agriculture. The breeding of
improved domesticated species of plants and Newly created organisms can lead to benefits,
animals involves artificial selection and natural
but we must be careful not to release into
hybridisation between related species. In artificial the environment new strains that might have
great reproductive potential and could become
selection, genetic modification occurs when
unexpected pests.
organisms with favourable characteristics that are
genetically controlled are permitted to breed and
:he progeny they produce are similarly selected.
Those with favourable characteristics are used as
:urther breeding stock, and so on.
Today, a new type of genetic manipulation
:an be used, known as genetic engineering or
recombinant DNA technology. Genes from one
:rganism are introduced into the genome of an
:nrelated organism. This is a laboratory technique,
:ot the result of natural cross species mating.
.r. problem raised by some people is that the full
.rplications of genetic engineering or modification
i:e unknown.
'Might a gene added to a genome function in
an unforeseen manner, perhaps triggering a
:ongterm problem such as cancer?
* \light an introduced gene for resistance to
adverse conditions, get transferred from a crop
:lant or farm animal into a weed species or into
some predators? t Figure 4, l9 Gene+. cs lab
who are involved in agriculture, that if farmers the overuse ofthe local resources had few or
are to improve their standard of living, they must no large, longlasting effects. The fundamental
increase their production of not only one or two problem now is that there are so many people a::
crops, but all the crops they grow. One of the best our technology is so powerful that effects are nc
ways to do this is to practise scientific farming longer localised and unimportant.
and this often involves the use of machines. Technology not only increases the use of
In the Caribbean area, there are some limitations resources, but also enables us to affect the
to the use of farming machinery. The main issue environment in many new ways compared with
is that many of the islands are hilly, with limited hunters and gatherers or with people who farm
scope for the use of large machines to any great with simple, wooden or stone tools. For examp.=
extent. Usually, however, there is the possibiiity before the invention of chlorofluorocarbons
of some measure of mechanisation. (CFCs), which are used as propellants in spray
The best strategy for the future seems ro be to cans and as coolants in refrigerators and air
intensify and extensify rhe use of machines on conditioners, we were not causing depletion of
the plains, as well as to explore lhe possibilities the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere.
of finding suitable machines an,i impieme,rr) for similarly before we srarted driving automobiles.
hillsides. there rvas much less demand for steel, little
demand for oil and much less air pollution.
The equation I : P x A x T shows the relationship
between the level of population, the level of
technology, the level of affluence and the human
impact oir the environment.
I: P xAxT I: humanimpact (average
environmental imPact Per
person)
p : population
A : level ofaffluence
T = level oftechnology
An important consequence of the equation is
:hat the addition of each new individual to the
:opulation of an industrialised nation leads, on
average, to a greater effect on the environment
:han does the addition of each new individual to
t Figure 4.2 I Agroforestry can have many advantages.
:he population ofpoor, undeveloped nations.
EcoNO/v\IC
Socro-rNvr RoNMENTAI l55u Es
Many communities depend on natural resources
lo- Some agricultural policies help stabilise markets by
,etting minimum prices for most farm products. If
for some aspects of their sustenance and
subsistence. These include food, fibre, firewood
:he market price falls below this level, the surplus
and water. Agriculture, while contributing to
.s bought and put into storage. To prevent foreign
the livelihood of communities, may reduce
:roduce from undercutting prices, import tariffs
the availability or value ofnatural resources
.:e placed on imported foodstuff.
to communities. This may occur, for example,
through the pollution of water bodies such as
Effect of global marhets
'.\hen prices rivers, decreasing their usefulness to communities.
are fixed for a particular foodstuff, Agriculture can therefore pose a potential threat to
:-:e fluctuation of exchange rates can determine the sustainable livelihood of these communities.
::mand levels, because the fluctuations can cause
:.:e commodity to become expensive, which leads
It is important that consideration is always
given to ecological values when decisions about
:rnsumer markets to seek cheaper imports. The
agricultural practices are being made, to avoid
:-red price market will decline and farmers may be
consequences that are, at best, unintended and, at
:-':ced to cease production.
worst, destructive or dangerous. A basis for such
Agroforestry decision making is to look at the four categories of
justification:
.:-,lroforestry is the land-use system undewr which
,.':ody perennials (usually evergreen trees) are 1 utilitarian justification
:. iberately planted on the same land-management 2 ecological justification
-:it as agricultural crops or animals. Trees become 3 aesthetic justification
i :rajor component of a multi-crop production 4 moraljustification.
;-,srem that compares to a natural multi-layer
; -- -- Utilitarian justification deems some aspects of
:,f,SVStem.
the environment as valuable because they provide
C-\a - -
l-rs type of farming is sustainable for several individuals with economic benefit or are directly
-:1SOnS.
1- < necessary to their survival; for example, the sea is
* Organic waste from livestock can be used to valuable to fishermen.
:ertilise crops and trees. Ecological justification is based on the value of
* perennials: some factor that is essential to the support of life
"\body
can be used as windbreaks for crops on a larger scale, even though it may not benefit an
a provide timber for farm infrastructure and individual directly, for example, the mangrove.
possibly for sale Aesthetic justification has to do with the
a help in preventing soil erosion appreciation of the beauty of nature.
a provide shade for animals in open pastures.
152