Design, Fabrication and Implementation of Electrical Power Supply

of Solar Car
POWER SUPPLY

Description:

Power supply is the circuit from which we get a desired dc voltage to run the other
circuits. The voltage we get from the main line is 230V AC but the other
components of our circuit require 5V DC. Hence a step-down transformer is used to
get 12V AC which is later converted to 12V DC using a rectifier. The output of
rectifier still contains some ripples even though it is a DC signal due to which it is
called as Pulsating DC. To remove the ripples and obtain smoothed DC power filter
circuits are used. Here a capacitor is used. The 12V DC is rated down to 5V using a
positive voltage regulator chip 7805. Thus a fixed DC voltage of 5V is obtained.

A 5V regulated supply is taken as followed:

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.

Smoothing - smoothes the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.

Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

TRANSFORMER

Transformer is the electrical device that converts one voltage to another with little
loss of power. Transformers work only with AC. There are two types of
transformers as Step-up and Step-down transformer. Step-up transformers increase
voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies use a step-
down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage to a safer low
voltage. Here a step down transformer is used to get 12V AC from the supply i.e.
230V AC.

A varying current in one coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic field,
which in turn induces a voltage in a second coil. Power can be transferred between
the two coils through the magnetic field, without a metallic connection between the
two circuits. Faraday's law of induction discovered in 1831 described this effect.
Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric
power applications.
Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885, transformers
have become essential for the transmission, distribution, and utilization of
alternating current electrical energy.[3] A wide range of transformer designs is
encountered in electronic and electric power applications. Transformers range in
size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter in volume to units
interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of tons.

Basic principle of transformer

For simplification or approximation purposes, it is very common to analyze the
transformer as an ideal transformer model as presented in the two images.An ideal
transformer is a theoretical, linear transformer that is lossless and
perfectly coupled; that is, there are no energy losses and flux is completely
confined within the magnetic core. Perfect coupling implies infinitely high
core magnetic permeability and winding inductances and zero net magnetomotive
force.
A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic
flux in the transformer core and a varying magnetic field impinging on the
secondary winding. This varying magnetic field at the secondary winding induces a
varying EMF or voltage in the secondary winding due to electromagnetic
induction. The primary and secondary windings are wrapped around a core of
infinitely high magnetic permeability so that all of the magnetic flux passes
through both the primary and secondary windings. With a voltage
source connected to the primary winding and load impedance connected to the
secondary winding, the transformer currents flow in the indicated directions. (See
also Polarity.)

Ideal transformer and induction law[e]

According to Faraday's law, since the same magnetic flux passes through both the
primary and secondary windings in an ideal transformer, a voltage is induced in
each winding, according to eq. (1) in the secondary winding case, according to eq.
(2) in the primary winding case. [9] The primary EMF is sometimes termed counter
EMF.This is in accordance with Lenz's law, which states that induction of EMF
always opposes development of any such change in magnetic field.
The transformer winding voltage ratio is thus shown to be directly proportional to
the winding turns ratio according to eq. (3). common usage having evolved over
time from 'turn ratio' to 'turns ratio'. However, some sources use the inverse
definition.
According to the law of conservation of energy, any load impedance connected to
the ideal transformer's secondary winding results in conservation of apparent, real
and reactive power consistent with eq. (4).
The ideal transformer identity shown in eq. (5) is a reasonable approximation for
the typical commercial transformer, with voltage ratio and winding turns ratio both
being inversely proportional to the corresponding current ratio.
By Ohm's law and the ideal transformer identity:

the secondary circuit load impedance can be expressed as eq. (6)

the apparent load impedance referred to the primary circuit is derived in eq.
(7) to be equal to the turns ratio squared times the secondary circuit load
impedance.
Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of
high permeability silicon steel. The steel has a permeability many times that of free
space and the core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current and
confine the flux to a path which closely couples the windings. Early transformer
developers soon realized that cores constructed from solid iron resulted in
prohibitive eddy current losses, and their designs mitigated this effect with cores
consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires.[56] Later designs constructed the core
by stacking layers of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained in use.
Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non-conducting layer of
insulation.[57] The transformer universal EMF equation implies an acceptably large
core cross-sectional area in order to avoid saturation.
The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly elliptical paths that
enclose little flux, and so reduce their magnitude. Thinner laminations reduce
losses,[54] but are more laborious and expensive to construct. Thin laminations are
generally used on high-frequency transformers, with some of very thin steel
laminations able to operate up to 10 kHz.
One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved stacks of E-
shaped steel sheets capped with I-shaped pieces, leading to its name of 'E-I
transformer'. Such a design tends to exhibit more losses, but is very economical to
manufacture. The cut-core or C-core type is made by winding a steel strip around a
rectangular form and then bonding the layers together. It is then cut in two,
forming two C shapes, and the core assembled by binding the two C halves
together with a steel strap. They have the advantage that the flux is always oriented
parallel to the metal grains, reducing reluctance.
A steel core's remanence means that it retains a static magnetic field when power is
removed. When power is then reapplied, the residual field will cause a high inrush
current until the effect of the remaining magnetism is reduced, usually after a few
cycles of the applied AC waveform. Overcurrent protection devices such
as fuses must be selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass. On transformers
connected to long, overhead power transmission lines, induced currents due
to geomagnetic disturbances during solar storms can cause saturation of the core
and operation of transformer protection devices.[
Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses by using cores made with
low-loss high-permeability silicon steel or amorphous (non-crystalline) metal
alloy. The higher initial cost of the core material is offset over the life of the
transformer by its lower losses at light load.

RECTIFIERS

A rectifier is a circuit that converts AC signals to DC. A rectifier circuit is made

using diodes. There are two types of rectifier circuits as Half-wave rectifier and
Full-wave rectifier depending upon the DC signal generated.

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which

periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one
direction. The process is known as rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a
number of forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, copper and
selenium oxide rectifiers, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and
other silicon-based semiconductor switches. Historically, even synchronous
electromechanical switches and motors have been used. Early radio receivers,
called crystal radios, used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire pressing on a crystal
of galena (lead sulfide) to serve as a point-contact rectifier or "crystal detector".
Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of
DC power supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems.
Rectification may serve in roles other than to generate direct current for use as a
source of power. As noted, detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers. In gas
heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of a flame.
Because of the alternating nature of the input AC sine wave, the process of
rectification alone produces a DC current that, though unidirectional, consists of
pulses of current. Many applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies for radio,
television and computer equipment, require a steady constant DC current (as would
be produced by a battery). In these applications the output of the rectifier is
smoothed by an electronic filter (usually a capacitor) to produce a steady current.
More complex circuitry that performs the opposite function, converting DC to AC,
is called an inverter

Rectifier losses

A real rectifier characteristically drops part of the input voltage (a voltage drop, for
silicon devices, of typically 0.7 volts plus an equivalent resistance, in general non-
linear)and at high frequencies, distorts waveforms in other ways. Unlike an ideal
rectifier, it dissipates some power.
An aspect of most rectification is a loss from the peak input voltage to the peak
output voltage, caused by the built-in voltage drop across the diodes (around 0.7 V
for ordinary silicon pn junction diodes and 0.3 V for Schottky diodes). Half-wave
rectification and full-wave rectification using a center-tapped secondary produces a
peak voltage loss of one diode drop. Bridge rectification has a loss of two diode
drops. This reduces output voltage, and limits the available output voltage if a very
low alternating voltage must be rectified. As the diodes do not conduct below this
voltage, the circuit only passes current through for a portion of each half-cycle,
causing short segments of zero voltage (where instantaneous input voltage is below
one or two diode drops) to appear between each "hump".
Peak loss is very important for low voltage rectifiers (for example, 12 V or less)
but is insignificant in high-voltage applications such as HVDC.
Rectifier Application
The primary application of rectifiers is to derive DC power from an AC supply
(AC to DC converter). Virtually all electronic devices require DC, so rectifiers are
used inside the power supplies of virtually all electronic equipment.
Converting DC power from one voltage to another is much more complicated. One
method of DC-to-DC conversion first converts power to AC (using a device called
an inverter), then uses a transformer to change the voltage, and finally rectifies
power back to DC. A frequency of typically several tens of kilohertz is used, as this
requires much smaller inductance than at lower frequencies and obviates the use of
heavy, bulky, and expensive iron-cored units.
Rectifiers are also used for detection of amplitude modulated radio signals. The
signal may be amplified before detection. If not, a very low voltage drop diode or a
diode biased with a fixed voltage must be used. When using a rectifier for
demodulation the capacitor and load resistance must be carefully matched: too low
a capacitance makes the high frequency carrier pass to the output, and too high
makes the capacitor just charge and stay charged.
Rectifiers supply polarised voltage for welding. In such circuits control of the
output current is required; this is sometimes achieved by replacing some of the
diodes in a bridge rectifier with thyristors, effectively diodes whose voltage output
can be regulated by switching on and off with phase fired controllers.
Thyristors are used in various classes of railway rolling stock systems so that fine
control of the traction motors can be achieved. Gate turn-off thyristors are used to
produce alternating current from a DC supply, for example on the Eurostar Trains
to power the three-phase traction motors.

Half-wave Rectifier: It is the rectifier circuit that rectifies only half part of the AC
signal. It uses only a single diode. It only uses only positive part of the AC signal to
produce half-wave varying DC and produce gaps when the AC is negative.
Full-wave Rectifier: It is also called as Bridge Rectifier. A bridge rectifier can be
made using four individual diodes, but it is also available in special packages
containing the four diodes required. It is called a full-wave rectifier because it uses
the total AC wave (both positive and negative sections).
SMOOTHING

Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the

DC supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying
DC voltage from the rectifier is falling. The diagram shows the unsmoothed varying
DC (dotted line) and the smoothed DC (solid line). The capacitor charges quickly
near the peak of the varying DC, and then discharges as it supplies current to the
output. Here a capacitor of 330uF is used as a smoothing circuit.
 After resistors, capacitors are the second most common component found in
the averageelectronic project. Capacitors serve many purposes. They can be used
to remove traces oftransient (changing) current ripple in a power supply, to delay
the action of some portion ofthe circuit, or to perform an integration or
differentiation of a repeating signal. All theseapplications depend on the ability of
the capacitor to hold an electrical charge for a predetermined time.

Capacitors come in many more sizes, shapes, and varieties than resistors,
though only a small handful are truly common. However, most capacitors are made
of the same basic stuff: a pair of conductive elements separated by an insulating
dielectric (see Fig. 5-9). This dielectric can be composed of many materials,
including air (in the case of a variable capacitor, as detailed in the next section),
paper, epoxy, plastic, and even oil. Most capacitorsactually have
many layers of conducting elements and dielectric. When you select a capacitor for
a particular job, you must generally also indicate the type, such as ceramic, mica,
or Mylar.

Capacitors are rated by their capacitance, in farads, and by the breakdown

voltage oftheir dielectric. The farad is a rather large unit of measurement, so the
bulk of capacitors available today are rated in microfarads, or a millionth of a
farad. An even smaller rating is the Pico farad, or a millionth of a millionth of a
farad. The micro in the term microfarad is most often represented by the Greek mu
() character, as in 10 F. The Pico farad is simply shortened to pF. The voltage
rating is the highest voltage the capacitor can withstand before the dielectric layers
in the component are damaged.

For the most part, capacitors are classified by the dielectric material they
use. The mostcommon dielectric materials are aluminum electrolytic, tantalum
electrolytic, ceramic, mica, polypropylene, polyester (or Mylar), paper, and
polystyrene. The dielectric material used in a capacitor partly determines which
applications it should be used for. The larger electrolytic capacitors, which use an
 aluminum electrolyte, are suited for such chores as power supply filtering, where
large values are needed. The values for many capacitors are printed directly on the
component. This is especially true with the larger aluminum electrolytic, where the
large size of the capacitor provides ample room for printing the capacitance and
voltage. Smaller capacitors, such as 0.1 or 0.01 F mica disc capacitors, use a
common three-digit marking system to denote capacitance and tolerance. The
numbering system is easy to use, if you remember its based on Pico farads, not
microfarads. A number such as 104 means 10, followed by four zeros, as in
100,000or 100,000 Pico farads. Values over 1000 Pico farads are most often stated
in microfarads. To make the conversion, move the decimal point to the left six
spaces: 0.1 F. Note that values under 1000 Pico farads do not use this numbering
system. Instead, the actual value, in Pico farads, is listed, such as 10 (for 10 pF).

One mark you will find almost exclusively on larger tantalum and aluminum
electrolyticis a polarity symbol, most often a minus () sign. The polarity symbol
indicates the positive and/or negative lead of a capacitor. If a capacitor is polarized,
it is extremely important that you follow the proper orientation when you install
the capacitor in the circuit. If you reverse the leads to the capacitorconnecting
the positive lead (called the anode) to the ground rail instead of the negative lead
(called the cathode), for examplethe capacitor may be ruined. Other components
in the circuit could also be damaged. Fig. 5-10 shows some different capacitor
packages along with their polarity markings.

VOLTAGE REGULATION

Voltage regulators produce fixed DC output voltage from variable DC (a small

amount of AC on it). Normally we get fixed output by connecting the voltage
regulator at the output of the filtered DC. It can also used in circuits to get a low
DC voltage from a high DC voltage (for example we use 7805 to get 5V from
12V). There are two types of voltage regulators
1. fixed voltage regulators (78xx,79xx)
2. Variable voltage regulators (LM317)
In fixed voltage regulators there is another classification
1. Positive voltage regulators
2. Negative voltage regulators
POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATORS:
This includes 78xx voltage regulators. The most commonly used ones are 7805 and
7812. 7805 gives fixed 5V DCvoltage if input voltage is in (7.5V-20). You may
sometimes have questions like, what happens if input voltage is <7.5 V or some
3V, the answer is that regulation won't be proper. Suppose if input is 6V then
output may be 5V or 4.8V, but there are some parameters for the voltage regulators
like maximum output current capability, line regulation etc. won't be proper.
Remember that electronics components should be used in the proper voltage and
current ratings as specified in datasheet. You can work without following it, but
you won't be able to get some parameters of the component.

NEGATIVE VOLTAGE REGULATORS:

Mostly available negative voltage regulators are of 79xx family. The mainly
available 79xx IC's are 7905,7912 1.5A output current ,short circuit protection,
ripple rejection are the other features of 79xx IC's.

Many of the fixed voltage regulators have 3 leads and look like power transistors,
such as the 7805 (+5V 1A) regulator shown on the above. If adequate heat sinking
is provided then it can deliver up to maximum 1A current. For an output voltage of
5v-18v the maximum input voltage is 35v and for an output voltage of 24V the
maximum input voltage is 40V.For 7805 IC, for an input of 10v the minimum
output voltage is 4.8V and the maximum output voltage is 5.2V. The typical
dropout voltage is 2V.
TOTAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF POWER SUPPLY
Types of power supply
DC power supply
A DC power supply is one that supplies a constant DC voltage to its load.
Depending on its design, a DC power supply may be powered from a DC source or
from an AC source such as the power mains.

AC-to-DC supply
Some DC power supplies use AC mains electricity as an energy source. Such
power supplies will sometimes employ a transformer to convert the input voltage
to a higher or lower AC voltage. A rectifier is used to convert the transformer
output voltage to a varying DC voltage, which in turn is passed through
an electronic filter to convert it to an unregulated DC voltage.
The filter removes most, but not all of the AC voltage variations; the remaining AC
voltage is known as ripple. The electric load's tolerance of ripple dictates the
minimum amount of filtering that must be provided by a power supply. In some
applications, high ripple is tolerated and therefore no filtering is required. For
example, in some battery charging applications it is possible to implement a mains-
powered DC power supply with nothing more than a transformer and a single
rectifier diode, with a resistor in series with the output to limit charging current.

Linear regulator
The function of a linear voltage regulator is to convert a varying DC voltage to a
constant, often specific, lower DC voltage. In addition, they often provide a current
limiting function to protect the power supply and load from overcurrent (excessive,
potentially destructive current).
A constant output voltage is required in many power supply applications, but the
voltage provided by many energy sources will vary with changes in load
impedance. Furthermore, when an unregulated DC power supply is the energy
source, its output voltage will also vary with changing input voltage. To
circumvent this, some power supplies use a linear voltage regulator to maintain the
output voltage at a steady value, independent of fluctuations in input voltage and
load impedance. Linear regulators can also reduce the magnitude of ripple and
noise on the output voltage.
AC power supplies
An AC power supply typically takes the voltage from a wall outlet (mains supply)
and lowers it to the desired voltage. Some filtering may take place as well.
In modern use, AC power supplies can be divided into single phase and three
phase systems. "The primary difference between single phase and three phase AC
power is the constancy of delivery." AC power Supplies can also be used to
change the frequency as well as the voltage, they are often used by manufacturers
to check the suitability of their products for use in other countries. 230V 50 Hz or
115 60 Hz or even 400 Hz for avionics testing.

Switched-mode power supply

In a switched-mode power supply (SMPS), the AC mains input is directly rectified
and then filtered to obtain a DC voltage. The resulting DC voltage is then switched
on and off at a high frequency by electronic switching circuitry, thus producing an
AC current that will pass through a high-frequency transformer or inductor.
Switching occurs at a very high frequency (typically 10 kHz 1 MHz), thereby
enabling the use of transformers and filter capacitors that are much smaller, lighter,
and less expensive than those found in linear power supplies operating at mains
frequency. After the inductor or transformer secondary, the high frequency AC is
rectified and filtered to produce the DC output voltage. If the SMPS uses an
adequately insulated high-frequency transformer, the output will be electrically
isolated from the mains; this feature is often essential for safety.
Switched-mode power supplies are usually regulated, and to keep the output
voltage constant, the power supply employs a feedback controller that monitors
current drawn by the load. The switching duty cycle increases as power output
requirements increase.
SMPSs often include safety features such as current limiting or a crowbar circuit to
help protect the device and the user from harm.[2] In the event that an abnormal
high-current power draw is detected, the switched-mode supply can assume this is
a direct short and will shut itself down before damage is done. PC power supplies
often provide a power good signal to the motherboard; the absence of this signal
prevents operation when abnormal supply voltages are present.
Some SMPSs have an absolute limit on their minimum current output. They are
only able to output above a certain power level and cannot function below that
point. In a no-load condition the frequency of the power slicing circuit increases to
great speed, causing the isolated transformer to act as a Tesla coil, causing damage
due to the resulting very high voltage power spikes. Switched-mode supplies with
protection circuits may briefly turn on but then shut down when no load has been
detected. A very small low-power dummy load such as a ceramic power resistor or
10-watt light bulb can be attached to the supply to allow it to run with no primary
load attached.
The switch-mode power supplies used in computers have historically had
low power factors and have also been significant sources of line interference (due
to induced power line harmonics and transients). In simple switch-mode power
supplies, the input stage may distort the line voltage waveform, which can
adversely affect other loads (and result in poor power quality for other utility
customers), and cause unnecessary heating in wires and distribution equipment.
Furthermore, customers incur higher electric bills when operating lower power
factor loads. To circumvent these problems, some computer switch-mode power
supplies perform power factor correction, and may employ input filters or
additional switching stages to reduce line interference.

Programmable power supply

A programmable power supply is one that allows remote control of its operation
through an analog input or digital interface such as RS232 or GPIB. Controlled
properties may include voltage, current, and in the case of AC output power
supplies, frequency. They are used in a wide variety of applications, including
automated equipment testing, crystal growth monitoring, semiconductor
fabrication, and x-ray generators.
Programmable power supplies typically employ an integral microcomputer to
control and monitor power supply operation. Power supplies equipped with a
computer interface may use proprietary communication protocols or standard
protocols and device control languages such as SCPI.
Uninterruptible power supply
An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) takes its power from two or more sources
simultaneously. It is usually powered directly from the AC mains, while
simultaneously charging a storage battery. Should there be a dropout or failure of
the mains, the battery instantly takes over so that the load never experiences an
interruption. In a computer installation, this gives the operators time to shut down
the system in an orderly way. Other UPS schemes may use an internal combustion
engine or turbine to continuously supply power to a system in parallel with power
coming from the AC. The engine-driven generators would normally be idling, but
could come to full power in a matter of a few seconds in order to keep vital
equipment running without interruption. Such a scheme might be found in
hospitals or telephone central offices.
High voltage power supply
A high voltage power supply is one that outputs hundreds or thousands of volts. A
special output connector is used that prevents arcing, insulation breakdown and
accidental human contact. Federal Standard connectors are typically used for
applications above 20 kV, though other types of connectors (e.g., SHV connector)
may be used at lower voltages. Some high voltage power supplies provide an
analog input that can be used to control the output voltage. High voltage power
supplies are commonly used to accelerate and manipulate electron and ion beams
in equipment such as x-ray generators, electron microscopes, and focused ion
beam columns, and in a variety of other applications,
including electrophoresis and electrostatics.
High voltage power supplies typically apply the bulk of their input energy to
a power inverter, which in turn drives a voltage multiplier or a high turns ratio,
high voltage transformer, or both (usually a transformer followed by a multiplier)
to produce high voltage. The high voltage is passed out of the power supply
through the special connector, and is also applied to a voltage divider that converts
it to a low voltage metering signal compatible with low voltage circuitry. The
metering signal is used by a closed-loop controller that regulates the high voltage
by controlling inverter input power, and it may also be conveyed out of the power
supply to allow external circuitry to monitor the high voltage output.
Electric Vehicle power supply

Electric vehicles are those which rely on energy created through electricity
generation. A power supply unit is part of the necessary design to convert high
voltage vehicle battery power.