New Technologies

for the Exploration

and Exploitation of
Oil and Gas Resources

Proceedings of the 3rd E.C. Symposium

held in Luxembourg, 22-24 March J 988

Volume 2

Graham & Trotman

For the Commission of the European Communities
New technologies for
the exploration and
exploitation of oil and
gas resources
Volume 2
New technologies for
the exploration and
exploitation of oil and
gas resources
Volume 2
Proceedings of the 3rd E.C. Symposium
held in Luxembourg, 2224 March 1988

edited by

E. M i l l i c h
J. P. Joulia
D. Van A sselt
P.A. A rgyris
Commission of the European Communities,
DirectorateGeneral for Energy, Brussels

Published by
Graham IP Trotman
for the Commission of the European Co
PARCEL> " > r.
,ih.
"Np
N.C /EL' ^ Jl.y-otj
IV

First Published 1988 by

Graham & Trotman Limited Graham & Trotman Inc.

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ECSC, EEC, EAEC, Brussels and Luxembourg, 1988

EUR 11704

Organisation of the conference:

Commission of the European Communities
DirectorateGeneral for Energy, Brussels

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 Contents

VOLUME 1

OPENING SESSION

Welcoming address
J. LAHURE, Secretary of State for Economy
Grand Duchy of Luxembourg 3

Opening address
N. MOSAR, Member of the Commission of the
European Communities 5

Keynote speech
CS. MANIATOPOULOS, Director General for Energy
Commission of the European Communities 8

The economic impact of oil prices on exploration and

production activities
B. GARCIA-SINERIZ, Managing Director, Repsol Exploration 12

R&D in the petroleum industry and its financing

J. MEO, Chairman of the Board of Directors
French Petroleum Institute 27

The impact of oil prices in the oil related industry

J. D'ANCONA, Director General, Offshore Supplies Office
Department of Energy of the United Kingdom 47

Round table panel discussion

COMMUNITY SUPPORTED R&D FOR LONG-TERM OIL AND GAS SUPPLY-

NECESSITY OR NONSENSE?

Chairman G.ADAM 57
Vice-Chairman Energy,
Research and Technology Committee
The European Parliament

Panellists: R. DE BAUW 59
Director Oil and Gas
Commission of the European Communities
VI

H.C. DELA UZE 67

President
COMEX

C M . SFLICIOTTI 69
Executive VicePresident
Planning and Development, ACIP

.E. NORTON 71
Managing Director and Chief Executive
BP Exploration Co. Ltd.

G. SIEPMANN 74
Director, Ministry of Economy
Federal Republic of Germany

P. VERMEHREN 77
Managing Director
I. Krger A/S

M. LEBLOND 79
Chairman, GERTH

SUMMARY OF THE ROUND TABLE DISCUSSIONS 81

PARALLEL TECHNICAL SESSIONS

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS: STRUCTURES AND SUBSEA SYSTEMS

Development of a new concept floating production facility (03.180/85)

J.J. Davison and J.R. WILLIAMS, Wimpey Offshore, London 87

COMPASS 2 a cost effective floating production system (03.149/84)

J.P. DENISE AND W.E. ABRAHAM,
Foster Wheeler Petroleum Development Ltd. 96

The development of a BowDP production tanker system (03.194/86)

W. D.M. MORRIS, The British Petroleum Company pic 107

A floating production facility for marginal fields (03.131/82)

A.W. STOKES, Britoil pic 117

TSPS a subsea production system concept for very

deep waters (03.108/81)
M. MAZZON and C. PENNINO,
Tecnomare SpA, Venice, Italy 127

Production riser for 1000/3000 m water depth (03.146/83)

Ph. JOUBERT, Institut Franais du Ptrole 135
 VII

The Poseiden project (03.164/84; 03.172/85)

. DARDE and A. CASTELA, TOTALCompagnie Franaise
des Ptroles, Institut Franais du Ptrole 144

Subsea system for shallow waters (03.179/85)

N.E. OTTESEN HANSE, LICengineering A/S
K.B. OLSEN, Rambll og Hannemann A/S 153

Development of a concrete gravity platform for

waterdepths of 300400 m (03.135/83)
B.J.G. VAN DER POT, Anglo Dutch
Offshore Concrete (AN DOC) 162

The tripod tower platform latest developments (03.139/83)

H. VAN DER HEIJDEN, Heerema Engineering
Services BV 176

Construction and assembly techniques for steel

platform in deep water (03.140/83)
L. BEGHETTO, Tecnomare SpA 185

Platform concept for marginal fields (03.157/84)

K.B. OLSEN, Rambll og Hannemann A/S
. JOERGENSEN, Aalborg Vaerft Offshore A/S 194

ROSEAU a deep water compliant platform (03.147/83)

J.L. LEGRAS, ETPM 204

Unmanned subsea multiphase production system. Industrial

development and application perspectives of boosting machinery
(10.45/84)
E. BENVENUTI, Nuovo Pignone; S. DE DONNO, AGIP;
S. SENNI, Snamprogetti 214

Tension leg platform with high payload for a natural gas liquefaction
plant in water depth of 500 to 1000 m (03.150/84)
H. D. BATSCHKO, Ross Industrie GmbH
H. Backhaus, LGA Gastechnik GmbH 233

Development of a semisubmerged, tensioned concrete

casing for the offshore production of liquid and liquefied
hydrocarbons (03.186/85)
U. KUJATH, LGA Gastechnik GmbH
J.H. RSSIG, Ed. Zblin AG 233

Floating production system for the exploitation of deep water

Mediterranean oil fields (03.183/85)
C. SALA, Agip SpA; R. BRANDI, Tecnomare SpA 248

SEPROS a seabottom production system for LPG and LNG (03.99/80)

H. BACKHAUS, H.D. BA TSCHKO, Blohm & Voss AG;
R. HOLEKAMP, Salzgitter, AG; J.H. RSSIG,
Ed. Zblin AG 255
VIII

PRODUCTION OPERATIONS: EQUIPMENT

Contract No. TH 03.176/85 "New range of completion equipment":

a gas lift macaroni safety valve (03.176/85)
A. BASSE, Merip Oil Tools International 267

S.A.F. a deepwater subsea production system and maintenance

vehicle (03.138/83; 03.201/86)
C. CMIMISSO, Agip SpA; A. CONTER, Snamprogetti SpA;
N.O. LIER, Kvaerner Engineering AS; L. BECCEGATO,
Tecnomare SpA 274

Optimisation of offshore production systems using availability simulation

techniques (03.161/84)
T.J. KEMSLEY, Sheerwey Technology Group Ltd. (STG) 282

The development and early field experience of hydraulic turbine driven

downhole pumps (03.143/83)
A.M.C. SMITH, Weir Pumps Ltd. 292

Oil field testing and improvement of a new three-phase compact

separator (03.153/84; 03.219/86)
J.Y. DEYSSON and M. REYBILLET, Bertin & Cie 304

Offshore oily water treatment/new development in hydrocyclones (03.165/84)

C. SCHRANZ, Total-CFP; C. BEZARD, Alsthom Neyrtec 314

Expert system framework for riser analysis (03.171/84)

J.F. MacNAMARA, University College, Ireland;
R. O'SULLIVAN and P.J. O'BRIEN, Marine
Computation Services 325

Sea tests on risers for floating platforms (03.184/85)

P. CAMPELLI, Agip SpA; A.K. BASU, Brown & Root
Vickers Ltd.; M. BERTA, Tecnomare SpA 335

Static and dynamic properties of a 6 inch 6000 psi flexible pipe for
the offshore market (03.190/85)
V. PERZBORN and J. HYSKY, Neptun Pag-O-Flex GmbH 345

Off-shore flexible hose: the Pirelli F.E.A. approach in structure design (10.39/83)
G. DAMINELLI and F. MANCOSU, Industrie Pirelli SpA;
A. LATO, Treg SpA - O i l and Marine 353

An underwater heave compensated mooring (15.62/84)

R. W. BREWERTON, The Floating Technology Co. Ltd. 363

Development of a subsea wireline system (02.19/84)

C. BAXTER, Advanced Production Technology Ltd. 373
 IX

Permanent mooring of a floating unit in deep waters by means of a

multi-articulated column (14.14/82)
E. DU BOULLAY, EMH 383

Calculation methods for multiphase flows in tubings and risers (10.43/84; 15.39/82)
J. CORTEVILLE, Institut Franais du Ptrole;
P. OZON, Elf Aquitaine; M. BERNICOT, Total-CFP 393

EXPLORATION: GEOCHEMISTRY GEOLOGY GEOPHYSICS

Integrated geophysical survey for hydrocarbons exploration in

Aitoloakarnania: western Greece (01.32/83)
PH.MARNELISandM.LMYRIANTHIS, DEP-EKY 403

Ceorift project (01.34/83)

P. MASSE, Elf Aquitaine 416

3-D seismic survey in the gas-oil field offshore Katakolon (western Greece)
developing low cost techniques (01.38/84)
C. ARMOUTIDIS and M. KAPNISTOS, DEP-EKY 426

The transient electromagnetic sounding method for hydrocarbon and

geothermal exploration (01.59/85)
K.-M. STRACK, H.M. EILENZ, T.H. HANSTEIN, A.W. KOETZ,
M. KRAWIETZ, F.M. NEUBAUER, H. PETRYand P. WOLFGRAM,
Universitt zu Kln and P. WEIDELT, Technische
Universitt Braunschweig 436

Present status in inversion of seismic data (01.42/84)

P. KOLB, Elf Aquitaine 446

Removal of the source waveform from seismic data to obtain higher resolution
of the oil reservoir (01.39/84)
A.M. ZIOLKOWSKI, Delft University of Technology 457

Oblique seismic profile (01.33/83)

S. NICOLETIS, Total-CFP 469

Model based field statics computation and resolution enhancement by integrating

seismic surveys of complementary characteristics (01.37/84)
D. BILGERI, B. BOIARDI, A. CARLINI and
P. STORER, Agip 478

Reservoir multiwell geophysics (01.50/85)

J. DELVAUX, Elf Aquitaine 487

"High performance seismic streamer" interim progress report October 1987

(01.31/83; 01.41/84)
E.A. BOOTH, Britoil pic 495
PIPELINES

Instrumented vehicle for the inspection of pipelines (09.28/85; 10.26/81)

B. BISSO, Syminex 505

Development, testing and experience with an ultrasonic riser pipe inspection

tool (15.52/84)
J.A. DE RAAD, Roentgen Technische Dienst;
M. LIGTHART, Shell Internationale
Petroleum Maatschappij 511

The development and engineering of an internai pipeline alignment pig (09.30/86)

H. ROSEN, H. Rosen Engineering GmbH 528

Development of an integrated pipeline management system (IPMS) (09.24/85)

T. SVENSSON, L.C. LARSEN, P.I. HINSTRUP, DHI-R&H
Pipedata and J.A.A. NIELSEN, Maersk Oil & Gas 537

Submarine pipeline design against hydroelastic oscillations-SVS project (10.38/83)

R. BRUSCHI, G. DE FILIPPI, G. LEOPARDI and
D. MATTIELLO, Snamprogetti SpA 553

Repair sea trials on deepwater pipelines (10.47/85)

M. BRAIT and A. COLOMBO, SNAM SpA 575

Subsea oil loading systems (SOLS) for tankers development and tests
(10.50/85; 15.34/82)
K. WILKE, AEG AG: C.-R. EICHNER, Deminex
and M. STERZENBACH, Thyssen Nordseewerke 583

VOLUME II

NATURAL CAS: PROCESSING STORACETRANSFER

Large diameter constant motion cryogenic swivel joint for.offshore applications

(10.28/81)
G. OVIEVE, FMC Europe SA 597

Liquefied gas offshore loading (10.35/82)

J.P. GHILARDI and Mrs M.A. BAUDEMENT, EMH 604

Development of a scrubbing process for the separation of components from

natural gas; preliminary experimental results (12.10/85)
K. HOVING, W. v. DIJK and G.W.J. WES,
NV Nederlandse Gasunie 614
 XI

Tests on a new type of LPG storage tanks (14.15/82)

J. CLAUDE, SN Technigaz 622

Feasibility study of underground gas storage using nitrogen

as cushion gas (14.17/83)
H. BRO, Dansk Olie & Naturgas A/S 632

Storage of liquid and liquefied hydrocarbons in lined

hardrock caverns (14.20/85)
H. BAUMGRTNER, LGA Gastechnik GmbH;
W. EBELING, Salzgitter AG; H.-J. SCHNEIDER,
Kavernen Bau- und Betriebs GmbH and
S. SEMPRICH, Bilfinger & Berger Bauaktiengesellschaft 642

DRILLING PILING PLATFORMS

System for full automation of tripping integrated in a standard drilling mast

(02.18/84; 02.26/84; 02.29/85)
G. GAZEL-ANTHOINE, Plateformes et Structures Ocaniques 657

New lining technologies for drilling and production equipments: boron

carbide coatings (02.21/84)
P. NISIO, Coating Dveloppement SA 666

Optimization of drilling operations (02.24/84; 02.28/85)

D.M. TRAONMILIN, Elf Aquitaine, D. KADJAR, Total
and B. DU CHAFFAUT, IFP 674

Completion of horizontal drains (02.25/84)

A. SPREUX, Elf Aquitaine and J. LESSI, Institut
Franais du Ptrole 686

Design studies of center column semi-submersible vessels (02.17/83)

G.J. SCHEPMAN and A. GOEDEE, DESDEC 695

Underwater drill for large capacity piles (15.59/84)

Y. LEGENDRE, Solmarine 714

Development of the Hydra-Lok system for application to deepwater jacket

structures (06.19/85)
J.M. LOWES, BUE Hydra-Lok Ltd. 723

The grouted driven pile: an economic alternate for pile foundation in

calcareous sands (06 J 8/85)
H. BARTHELEMY, Solmarine 730

A field investigation into the performance of a piled foundation system for an

offshore oil production platform and
A field investigation into the soil structure interaction of a foundation system
during the early life of an offshore oil production platform (06.14/81 ; 15.35/82)
D.E. SHARP, BP International Ltd. 737
XII

SUBSEA OPERATIONS MARINE TECHNOLOGY

SUBMARINE VEHICLES ENERGY SUPPLY

MARS: the development of a remotely operated submersible vehicle system

(07.45/82; 07.55/85)
K. WIEMER and G.E. MARSLAND, ZF Herion Systemtechnik 751

DAVID: a versatile multipurpose system for remote control or diver assistance

performance; final report (07.51/83)
K. WIEMER and G.E MARSLAND, ZF Herion Systemtechnik 758

Achievements in offshore platform inspection by the PIC remotely operated

vehicle (07.49/83)
D.J. PARTRIDGE, Slingsby Engineering Ltd. 765

SAGA 1. New technologies for a new generation of

autonomous submarines (07.50/83)
D. SAUZADE, Comex 770

Air independent power sources of high energy storage density. The

Brucker-MANN argon diesel and the Bruker C02-diesel (13.07/85)
J. HAAS, Bruker Meerestechnik GmbH 779

Surface-independent subsea energy supply system MOTARK based on a closed

argon cycle diesel engine (13.06/85; 15.56/84; 13.07/85)
H. GEHRINGER, MAN Technologie GmbH 784

Rankine cycle immersed energy source with high-pressure combustion chamber

and constant mass operation (15.55/84)
D. GOFFE, D. GROUSET, C. LEONARD,
H. MARTIN-NEUVILLE, J.C. MULET, C. MORILLON
and D. REBUFFAT, Bertin & Cie 797

Deep diving hydrogenated breathing mixture (15.85/86)

C. GORTAN, X. FRUCTUS, B. GARDETTE and
HG. DELAUZE, Comex 805

ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT

Evaluation of water shut-off treatments for several producing wells (03.174/85)

N. KOHLER and A. ZAITOUN, IFP;
J.-P. MESSINES and J.-P. ZUNDEL, Elf Aquitaine 817

EOR quality scleroglucan (05.78/86)

A. DONCHE, Elf Aquitaine 827

Development of cellulose derivatives for the use as viscosity builders in flooding

media for enhanced oil recovery (05.83/86)
R. KNIEWSKE, K. BALSERand K. SZABUKOWKI,
Wolff Walsrode AG 837
 XIII

Preparation for miscible gas injection on the Creat Alwyn (05.58/94)

G. AUXIETTE, Total-CFP 846

CO2 huff-and-puff to improve heavy oil well productivity, a pilot test in the Pisticci
oil field, Italy(05.40/82)
G. CASSI, G. D'ALI, A. DELLE CANNE and V. GIL,
Agip SpA 858

Surfactants and polymers for enhanced oil recovery from reservoirs with high
salinity brine (05.45/83)
E. CAUSIN and E. ROSSI, Agip SpA;
C. CORNO and E. PLATONE, Eniricerche SpA 868

Emeraude vapeur: an offshore steam pilot (05.42/82; 05.50/83)

B. COUDERC, D. MONFRIN, L. QUETTIER and
B. SAHUQUET, Elf Aquitaine 881

Heavy oil processing: a synthesis of the Asvahl results (05.43/82.; 05.49/83)

J.C. CHARLOT, Elf; J.L. COUDERC, CRD Total
andJ.F. LEPAGEJFP 898

The Veba Combi cracking process - state of the art and perspectives in a low
energy-price environment (05.46/83; 05.67/85)
K. KRETSCHMAR, L. MERZ, K. NIEMANN and
M. RUPP, VebaOelAG 918

The beneficial effects of distillation to sweep efficiency enhancement of steam

drive recovery (05.38/82; 05.64/85)
C.T.S. PALMGREN, J. BRUINING and C.J. VAN DUYN,
University of Delft 930

Glucans for EOR: fermentation and workup (05.72/85)

F.D. MARTISCHIUS, BASF AG 940

DC XII R&D PROGRAMME ON HYDROCARBONS

The fourth R&D programme on non-nuclear energy

Ph. BOURDEAU, DG Xll/E 949

The current R&D programme on hydrocarbons 1985-88

G. IMARISIO, DG XII/E.6 958

Advances in new technologies for the exploration of oil and gas resources:
a review of developments in the period 1985-87
J. MAKRIS, University of Hamburg 966

Improved recovery and completion techniques for oil and gas reservoirs
H.J. DE HAAN, Delft University of Technology 971

Treatment of natural gas and new utilizations enhancing its value

G. DONAT, Gaz de France 977
XIV

Research and development programme for the utilization of heavy oil fractions
C. THONON, Institut Franais du Ptrole 984

The modification of hydrocarbons for improving the combustion in engines

C. PINAMONTI, Technical Consultant 987

Improvement of fuel/engine adaptation

B. LEDUC, Universit Libre de Bruxelles 990

CLOSING SESSION

Working parties' conclusions 995

Closing address
R. DE BAUW, Director Oil and Gas
Commission of the European Communities 1021

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 1027

INDEX OF AUTHORS 1052

 595

NATURAL GAS: PROCESSING STORAGE TRANSFER

Large diameter constant motion cryogenic

swivel joint for offshore applications

Liquefied gas offshore loading

Development of a scrubbing process for the

separation of components from natural gas ;
preliminary experimental results

Tests on a new type of LPG storage tanks

Feasibility study of underground gas storage

using nitrogen as cushion gas

Storage of liquid and liquefied hydrocarbons

in lined hardrock caverns
 597

LARGE DIAMETER CONSTANT MOTION CRYOGENIC SWIVEL JOINT

FOR OFFSHORE APPLICATIONS

G. OVIEVE
FMC Europe SA
Sens, France

Summary

The company FMC has developed a new concept of cryogenic swivel

joint named "constant motion" intended to be the basic component
of various offshore transfer systems for Liquefied Natural Gas
or Liquefied Petroleum Gas. This original concept results in a
performance comparable to that of swivel joint used for onshore
terminals, and ensures a life expectancy compatible both with the
permanence of the motions of the system and the extreme toughness
and reliability required in an hostile environment. A prototype
developed from this concept has been manufactured and successfully
tested.

INTRODUCTION
The utilization of both offshore natural gas, as well as the asso-
ciated petroleum gases ; the increasing difficulty to build new
terminals in highly populated areas, the need for flexibility of supply
and the necessity to maximize the return on investment are some of the
major concerns of oil and gas companies today. These are good reasons
to make floating plants and transportation systems attractive.
Every possible scheme makes use of one or several transfer systems
between floating supports separated by a variable distance. The essen-
tial component of these transfer systems is the swivel joint which
allows either the use of rigid transfer lines or the reduction of the
bending radius of flexible lines.
Although the harbour installations already include such systems
(called marine loading arms), the small wave motions, the large size of
the tankers and the efficiency of the moorings allowed to ignore the
wave induced motions and the oscillations of the swivels. This is not
the case in the offshore schemes where the wave motions are larger and
the possibility of controlling the ship motions more restricted.
The procedure adopted was to :
- Test the existing designs for continuous motion and determine their
life expectancy and the reasons for wear and damage.
- Determine the solutions to improve the life expectancy.
- Develop a prototype from these solutions and test it.
598

TECHNOLOGY OF THE EXISTING SWIVEL JOINTS (Fig. 1)

Two hundred LNG arms have been manufactured by FMC representing
1200 swivel joints using the conventional Chiksan design with its pa-
tented snap-in ball race feature.
Every swivel joint has three functions which are as follows :
- To turn with minimum friction.
- To carry the fluid with no leakage.
- To carry the external mechanical loads with minimum play or deflec-
tion.
The first function (rotation) is made possible by : one, two or
three ball races (1) ; an external ring called the female part (2) ;
which is rigidly fixed to a flange (3) ; which in turn is welded to the
outside part. The inside ring, called the male part of the swivel (4),
is directly welded to the other outside part.
The two outside parts generally consist of two elbows to form a so
called "style". It is then possible to assemble eg. 3 swivels to form a
multiple joint.
The body of a cryogenic swivel is made of austenitic stainless
steel which is too soft of a material to serve as a bearing for the
ball. For that reason the ball races are made separately from a stain-
less strain-hardened steel, and, because they are cut, they can be
"snapped" into the round throats of the male and female parts.
The second function (tightness) is performed by two lip-type seals
(5) arranged in series such that any slight seepage passing through the
first packing would instantaneously vaporize and create a counter pres-
sure sufficient to reinstate the tightness of the first one.
Another seal (6) protects the inside of the swivel joint both
against impurities and particularly moisture which would freeze when
the swivel is cooled down. It allows also a small nitrogen circulation
which dries up the condensation and creates a small overpressure in the
swivel - additional safety against external ingress.

Figure 1
 599

The third function (load carrying) is realized by the whole assem-

bly. The major emphasis is focused upon the ball bearing. The formula
employed makes use of the concept of ball factor, which represents the
safety against hertzian deformation of the most loaded ball. A ball f ac-
tor of 1.5 is generally found as acceptable.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE LIFE OF THE SWIVEL

Several tests have been carried out to determine what the factors
are which reduced the performances of the swivel, along time, when sub-
jected to continuous oscillations.
The most important conclusion was that the magnitude of the ball
factor as calculated above was not very significant in the life expec-
tancy of the swivel, or, in other words, that oversizing was not the
solution.
Most of the failures were restricted to limited areas of the swivel
where the wear was concentrated. It was obvious that this concentration
came from two combined factors :
-The slackness of the bearing (only a few balls and a small region of
the bearing carry the totally load).
- The nature of the movement (small oscillations).
The slackness of the bearing does not come only from its mounting
(the balls are inserted one by one in a ball hole drilled in one of the
rings) but also because, during the transient phase, the male part
shrinks faster than the female part. The thermal gradients are then also
an indirect cause of the premature failure of the bearing.

DESCRIPTION OF THE RATCHET SWIVEL JOINT CONCEPT (Fig. 2)

Principle :
The ratchet swivel concept is essentially too ball bearings (1)
mounted in series and contained in a common housing (3). Ratchet mecha-
nisms (2^ mounted on each half of the swivel, allow each half to rotate
in one direction only. For example, if the left end of the swivel turns
in the clock wise direction, the right end being still, the central hou-
sing will turn also in the clockwise direction. If, afterwards, the
left end returns to its original position, the central housing, blocked
by the right end, will not move.
Hence, bearings and packings in each half of the swivel :
- Move only in one direction.
- Move only during one half of the oscillation.
A single ratchet swivel is then equivalent to two classical swivels,
but its life may be more than twice because :
- The movement is oriented and so is the surface grain of the wear sur-
faces .
- The balls make revolutions instead of going back and forth.
- The central housing also turns, spreading the wear.
Let us note that, for the central housing, a new cause of fatigue
is created because of the revolutions together with the bending loads
applied. But it is to be considered that the number of revolutions will
be a small fraction of the number of oscillations and that the stress
due to bending is low, owing to the large diameter of the housing.
600

- Figure 2 -

Technical impact of the principle :

Both ball and roller bearings need to be doubled to sustain high
thrust loads and maintain proper alignment in the pressure of*bending
loads. But, the principle itself of the ratchet swivel necessitates
having these double bearings on each side of the swivel to maintain the
alignment. One would then need a four row bearing swivel excessively
long, weighty and expensive.
The problem is solved by using a four point ball bearing which has
the same quality as a double row roller bearing but requires less space.
Its bending rigidity allows one to use it as the reference for the
alignment of the whole swivel.

SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE CRYOGENIC CONSTANT MOTION SWIVEL JOINT

In addition to the constant motion problem, offshore LNG swivels
raised numerous other problems such as :
- Lubrication at cryogenic temperature.
- Service life of cryogenic seals' material.
- Materials used for cryogenic service, not commonly used as structural
material in the offshore environment.
- Thermal shocks at the beginning of the loading.
- External icing due to wind, high humidity and the proximity of sea
water.
- Possible pit corrosion.
We have seen that the transient phase would create improper fits
and improper alignments inside the swivel. In addition, the swivel
should be able to work both in warm, cold and transient conditions.
 eoi
No perfect solution therefore exists and a compromise has to be
found between rigidity and the possibility to adjust the thermal gra-
dients and differential contraction.
One example of this compromise has been to split the rings of the
ball races in order to adjust for the thermal contraction without intro-
ducing slack within the balls.
Another solution has been found to reduce the thermal gradients
called a cryostat (4) shown on figure 2. It is a hollow tube filled with
FVC, interposed between the flow and the swivel body and, of course,
capable of turning with respect to one side of the swivel.
The passage around the end of the cryostat is not closed but is
thin enough to prevent the sudden contact of liquid with the swivel's
body. The empty space being already filled with the flashed vapour.
The flanges are also insulated from the swivel body by a layer of
fiber reinforced epoxy glass.
Another solution, complementary to the cryostat and present in the
prototype, is a helix exchanger (5) in which is injected a flow of ni-
trogen at ambient temperature.

MATERIALS AND TREATMENTS

By far the most widely used materials in the cryogenic industry is
the austenitic stainless steel. It can be considered as ideal for low
temperature because of its excellent toughness at temperature down to
the nitrogen boiling point (-196C).
If the proportional limit is low, 25 ksi (170 MPa), the plastic
range is large and this good ductility allows the steel to sustain the
high thermal shocks during welding or during a LNG loading without rup-
ture but at the price sometimes of uncontrolled and permanent deforma-
tions.
Low carbon grades (less than 0.03 %) are used for the forged parts
to be welded, which reduces the risk of carbide precipitation but fur-
ther decreases the hardness of the material. Lastly the 316L grade,
which includes 2.5 % of Molybdenum, has been selected because of its
higher resistance to pit corrosion, which is frequent in the offshore
environment.
Therefore, the main problems to be solved were :
- The dimensional stability of the pieces after welding.
- The insufficient hardness of the wear surfaces in contact with the
packing.
- The material to serve as a bearing.
To solve the first problem, the welded pieces were stabilized at
400 for 12 hours before machining.
To obtain the required hardness on the packing faces (55 HRC), a
special surface treatment was employed based on carbide powder projec-
tion. The faces then had to be polished to obtain a 16 microinch surfa-
ce finish.
The solution retained for the packings employs radial and facial
lip-type seals made of a compound consisting of reinforced polyethy-
lene. The seals alone justify the high degree of dimensional quality
required for the swivel. Their elasticity has to allow not only for the
manufacturing tolerances but also for their differential contraction and
for the displacements of the faces under cooldown and the applied exter-
nal loads.
The bearing material is an alloy derived from those used for heavy
duty service, and adapted to keep a minimum toughness at low temperatu-
re.
602

TESTS OF THE SWIVEL

The range of utilizations of the swivel joint was too large to es-
tablish a test procedure qualifying the design in all cases.
A more restricted purpose of the test was to determine the poten-
tial problems which could not be anticipated by theoretical studies
(rheoelectric model and finite element analysis), because of three
unknowns :
- The circumferential distribution of the temperatures inside the hori-
zontally positioned swivel, which could produce ovalization and thermal
bending.
- The influence of the outside frost on the radial thermal distribution.
- The efficiency of the insulations and of the nitrogen heating system.
Even the investigation of the purely mechanical stresses lead to
numerous problems and complex models because of the following : nonaxi-
symmetric loading ; the presence of the bearings and clutches ; the
bolts with their tightening preload ; the multiplicity of the interfa-
ces and the large differences in mechanical properties which vary with
the temperature.
The prototype manufactured is a 16 inch bore swivel and the applied
loads are :
- axial : 17 kN
- radial : 70 kN
- bending : 60 kN.m
with an internal pressure of :
- design : 2000 kPa (294 psi)
- test : 3000 kPa (440 psi)
The amplitude of the movements was 5 and their period, expected to
be 6 sec. real world has been reduced to 1.5 sec.
The liquid used was LNG at a temperature lower than minus 150C
with a flow rate of approximately 10 m3/h, therefore much smaller than
in the real world sufficient to maintain the LNG composition and main-
tain its level inside the swivel.

CONCLUSIONS
Theoretical results :
The tests have shown that the frost formation on the external side
of the swivel decreased the thermal exchanges without for that reaching
values as low as those envisaged during the theoretical study. In spite
of that the temperature reached by the bearings as been lower than ex-
pected, but because of a low performance of the cryostat. Those low tem-
peratures reached on the bearings have not anyhow had an incidence on
the function of the bearings.
Technological results :
The conclusions which can be drawn from the tests are as follows :
- Cryostat : average results, the expected functions have been complied
with but with a lower performance that expected. The cryostat is perfec-
tible, in particular by coming back to a "solid" solution, where two
parts would move together with each male nipple.
- Epoxy bolts : satisfactory results since the bolts have not only car-
ried the specified loads but have also been screwed and unscrewed seve-
ral times without damage.
- Bearings : good results exhibited in spite of some problems
occured at the beginning since it has been shown afterwards that 5 mil-
lions cycles have been made without any signs of wear or damage to the
bearing.
 603

- Seals : rather satisfactory results since two sets have been tested
for two millions cycles without damage. Only one set has failed earlier
than expected, after 200 000 cycles, possibly because its inspection has
been unsufficient.
604

LIQUEFIED GAS OFFSHORE LOADING

Mr J.P. GHILARDI and Mrs M.A. BAUDEMENT

E. M. H.

Summary

The CHAGAL system is an offshore terminal for the loading or unload-

ing of fully-refrigerated LPG (-48" C ) . The development works, which
were based on the use of a CALM buoy, included the buoy architecture
and piping arrangement design and the elaboration, fabrication and
testing of prototypes of the system's key components : swivel joint,
sea-lines and flexible hoses which required special design owing to
the service temperature. The test programs which were established
after analysis of the operating conditions have been successfully
completed. The swivel joint was submitted to dynamic test campaigns,
each representing 5 year-operation. 3 hose prototypes were each
submitted to 300 000 or 400 000 bending cycles representing one-year
operation.
The program was then extended towards the development of a similar
system for the transfer of LNG.

INTRODUCTION

In 1982, EMH associated with T0TAL-CFP in a project undertaking the

development of a system allowing for offshore loading and unloading of
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG at -48* C ) .
The starting point of the development project was the existing Single
Point Mooring (SPM) systems which have been used for some years as
offshore oil loading facilities.
The CHAGAL System (CHAGAL stands for "CHArgement de GAz Liqufis")
is based on the same concept - i.e. a structure which stands in open seas
is used for gas transfer and tanker mooring ; the structure and piping
arrangement allows for 360' weathervaning of the tanker -, but the struc-
ture and components are designed to handle low temperatures and explosive
products.
The CHAGAL system offers economical advantages similar to those which
are obtained by the use of SPMs in the offshore oil industry, mainly :
- the investment costs are considerably reduced in comparison with those
of harbour facilities, specially in case of unfavourable coastal envi-
ronments : unconsolidated sea bottom, harsh sea conditions, shallow
waters near the shore,
- the flexibility of installation can lead to important cost saving
concerning the general implantation of the loading facilities,
 605

- safety is increased thanks to the distance between the shuttle tanker

loading point and the onshore refrigeration plants,
- last but not least, the system opens the way to the development of
offshore liquefaction projects for which the offloading of production
was still an unsolved key problem.
The development project was carried out in 3 successive phases :
- Definition of the system concept,
- Definition of operating criteria and dimensioning,
- Design, fabrication and testing of prototypes of the main components.
In 1984, for the last CEE symposium, the two first phases were
completed and a large part of the third phase works were already perform-
ed. Presently, all the components of the system are qualified and
industrially available. Since 1986, EMH has gone even further in the gas
technology field by designing and qualifying a swivel assembly for LNG
transfer.

2. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE CHAGAL SYSTEM

The basic arrangement of the offshore loading SPM and the onshore
storage is shown in Figure 1. The type of SPM which has been selected for
the development project is the well-known Catenary Anchor Leg Mooring
(CALM buoy). The transfer between the onshore plant and the tanker is
carried out by means of the following components :
- sea-bed pipelines connected to a PLEM (Pipe Line End Manifold),
- flexible risers between the PLEM and the buoy,
- CALM buoy piping which includes a swivel joint,
- floating hose strings from the buoy to the tanker.
Remark : The CALM buoy was selected as the mooring structure because
it can be applied to a large range of environmental data but the
specific components developed could be integrated to whatever system
may be required for the production and site data.

3. OPERATING CRITERIA AND DIMENSIONING

Capacity : Considering a 75000 eu.m tanker capacity and a loading

duration of 20 hours, including mooring and cast-off operations, the
design of the system has been based on a 5000 m3/h loading flow rate.

Temperature : According to the design specifications for LPG tankers

a minimum service temperature of -48* C is considered.

Operating procedures : Although there are no rules specifically

applicable, the extrapolation of existing codes requires
- bleeding-off and inerting of the mobile parts of the handling system,
- keeping the sea-lines and underwater risers in cold conditions between
two loading operations,
- installation of a return vapor line to send back to the onshore re-
liquefaction plant the b o i l - o f f gas resulting from vaporization during
loading.
Based on the aforementioned c r i t e r i a , model calculations, using accu-
rate quantification of the total transportation losses were carried out.
As a result, the system which has been designed is defined by the flow
diagram Figure 2. I t includes :
- two LPG sea-lines, 20" diameter, fully-insulated,
606

- two LPG f l e x i b l e r i s e r s , 16" diameter, f u l l y - i n s u l a t e d ,

- two LPG floating hose strings, 16" diameter, f u l l y - i n s u l a t e d ,
- one vapor return-line, 12" diameter
- one b i - f l u i d swivel j o i n t .
4. BUOY STRUCTURE AND ARRANGEMENT

The characteristics of the f l u i d necessitated large modifications of

the CALM buoy architecture and arrangement compared to a classical o i l
buoy, particularly from the following points of view :
- selection of s t e e l ,
- piping arrangement,
- selection of the equipment.

. Structural steel
The grade and the low temperature toughness of the steel were selec-
ted according to the temperatures which can be reached in case of LPG
spillage in the different parts of the buoy. For example, the buoy body
(except the bottom) is in Mg-Ca steel which has a -55*C toughness
Charpy V) of 41 Joules.

. Piping arrangement
The general arrangement of valves and piping was designed to avoid
any gas accumulating in a closed area. All the valves are in the open air,
low-temperature seals ensure the tightness of the central well.
. Selection of the equipment
In order to achieve the maximum reliability and safety, the following
principles were adopted :
- use of fail-safe valves on the PLEM,
- control of the operation data : valve position, pressure and tempera-
ture, gas detection,
- large self-sufficiency of the system,
- selection of the electrical equipment according to the hazardous areas
as defined by the agreement of the BUREAU VERITAS.

5. DESIGN, FABRICATION AND TESTING OF MAIN COMPONENTS'PROTOTYPES

The key components of the system are :

- the swivel j o i n t ,
- the sea-lines,
- the f l e x i b l e hoses.
Their development represented the most extensive work of the project.
Obviously, although the prototypes were designed and fabricated
according to a specific project as mentioned before, they could be easily
adapted, to some extent, in order to meet with other operational require-
ment, without affecting the avail i bi l i ty of the system.

5.1. Swivel Joint

Gener aJ_ Concejrt

The swivel j o i n t ensures the continuity of the f l u i d lines between
the buoy body and the turntable. A modular-type concept was retained to
enable the complete separation of the l i q u i d and gas paths in order to
avoid problems due to d i f f e r e n t i a l stresses and allow easier operation.
 607

As each stage works independently, their design and testing can be

carried out separately. The liquid path is of the in-line type while the
gas path is of the toroidal type. Because of the boil-off gas temperature
(about 0" C) no development work was required for the latter and the work
presented only concerns the liquid path.

Design
The LPG swivel consists of :
- a stainless steel internal tube for liquefied gas transfer,
- a stainless steel external sleeve made of two parts linked by the roller
bearing,
- an insulation barrier provided between the internal pipe and the sleeve,
- sets of primary and secondary seals.
The outstanding features can be summed up as follows :
- the roller bearing works at the ambient temperature,
- the primary tightness barrier is performed by two levels of specially
designed lip seals,
- the space provided between the two barriers can be monitored for the
detection of any leakage, pressure variation or temperature fall. In
case of leakage of the primary barrier, a counterpressure could be
generated in this space to balance the liquid pressure and limit the
leakage flow rate.

Finite element calculations were carried out to determine the

temperature distribution in the swivel and consequently the overall
dimensions and the insulation thickness.

Manufacture and Testina f_a_p.otoye (Figure 3)

A full scale ifT" swivel prototype was fabricated. The testing program
was established after analysis of the yaw motions of a tanker moored on a
CALM buoy and of the temperature cycles resulting from the loading
sequences and procedures. A fiveyear operation period (standard duration
life of seals) was considered.
This program, besides preliminary and static tests, includes 8
sequences of 10000 cycles (40" of double amplitude each). Table 1 gives
the detailed dynamic test program.
Three series of dynamic tests were necessary for the selection of
adequate primary seals. The third campaign was fully successful and the
whole dynamic test program was performed with a negligible amount of
leakage at the primary barrier level. Moreover the temperature distribu
tion which was recorded by thermocouples fitted in the swivel proved the
adequacy of the thermal calculation. The main results are shown in
Figure 4.

5.2. Subsea Pipe

GeneraJ_ Coneept_
A double integrity concept has been selected with an insulating foam
layer provided in between the two steel pipes. To cope with differential
thermal contraction, two different means are possible : either the inner
pipe is free to contract by providing expansion hoops, or its contraction
is prevented by anchors. In the present case, the second solution was
considered as the best as the thermal stresses at 48" C are acceptable.
608

Destri
Figure 5 shows the design o f the p i p e . The use o f 20" and 26" steel
pipes provides space f o r a 2 l / 2 " - t h i c k l a y e r of i n j e c t e d polyurethane
foam. The two pipes are t i e d together by regularly-spaced welded cast
braces which thus prevent the thermal c o n t r a c t i o n of the inner p i p e .
In order t o avoid cold spots due t o the braces' thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y ,
the brace areas are covered w i t h two h a l f c y l i n d r i c a l foam s h e l l s
protected by a s t e e l sleeve welded t o the external p i p e .
F i n i t e element c a l c u l a t i o n s were c a r r i e d out t o v a l i d a t e the design
concept, t o determine the design of the braces and t o check the stress
. distribution.
The main r e s u l t s are :
- external surface pipe temperature : 8.7* C f o r 10" C water temperature
- maximum stresses i n the inner pipe :
. at brace connection : 251 MPa )
y i e l d s t r e n
. in current section : 210 MPa ) g t h : 3 5 8 MPa

F a b r i c a t i o n and testing of a p r o t o t y p e
As i t was d i f f i c u l t t o t e s t a f u l l scale prototype i n actual s e r v i c e
c o n d i t i o n s (-48* C inner temperature w i t h f u l l y - r e s t r a i n e d edges), i t was
chosen t o v a l i d a t e the F.E.M. analysis which had been c a r r i e d o u t . The
f o l l o w i n g scheme was adopted f o r the study :
- f a b r i c a t i o n of a reduced scale prototype (10 1/2" diameter, 12 m long)
i n c l u d i n g 2 braces,
- analysis (F.E.M. c a l c u l a t i o n s ) of t h i s model in order t o determine
temperatures and s t r e s s e s ,
- t e s t i n g of the prototype at low temperature and recording of tempera-
t u r e s and stresses d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
- comparison of the r e s u l t s w i t h the F.E.M. a n a l y s i s .
A f t e r a 22.5 bar h y d r a u l i c t e s t , the prototype was set up on a pur-
p o s e - b u i l t t e s t r i g t o check the F.E.M. analysis and t o i n v e s t i g a t e the
p i p e ' s behaviour i n damaged c o n d i t i o n s simulated by ingress of pressurized
water i n the i n s u l a t i o n foam l a y e r .
The t e s t r i g , shown i n Figure 6, included mainly :
- a pool i n which the prototype was immersed,
- a c o o l i n g system using methanol r e f r i g e r a t e d t o - 4 0 " C by LN2 c i r c u l a -
tion,
- an a c q u i s i t i o n data system t o record i n f o r m a t i o n of stress and tempera-
t u r e gauges.
The t e s t i n g program which was applied t o the prototype i s defined i n
Table 2.
The most s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s of the t e s t i n g program can be summed up
as f o l l o w s :
a. The temperatures and stresses measured in steady s t a t e were i n
accordance w i t h the r e s u l t s of the f i n i t e element computations.
b. In damage c o n d i t i o n s i m u l a t i o n , no i c e formation was observed at
the external surface and the ingress of water did not s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t
the thermal and mechanical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the p i p e .
c. No stress surge was observed during the quick cooling-down phase.

The successful completion of the t e s t i n g program, together w i t h the

development of f a b r i c a t i o n procedures, prove the f e a s i b i l i t y and the
r e l i a b i l i t y of the design concept.
 609

5.3. LPG Flexible Hoses

The f l e x i b l e hose strings are to be designed to sustain the dynamic

loads induced by swell, current and buoy motions. In the particular case
of LPG transfer, the hoses must also have good mechanical characteristics
at low temperature together with a good resistance to gas diffusion.
Although fullyrefrigerated LPG hoses were already available, they
were intended for onshore applications only. In particular, no dynamic
testing at low temperature had been performed on f u l l s c a l e prototypes.
Therefore, in 1984 a development program was i n i t i a t e d in collaboration
with hose manufacturers to design, manufacture and test 16" LPG floating
prototype hoses.

resijn_CMteria_ and Hp^e_A ceptancei Jests

Two manufacturers supplied prototypes, designed for a 48* C working
temperature and 1.5 MPa working pressure, that had successfully undergone
preliminary acceptance tests including longduration l i q u i d propane tests
and burstpressure tests at 48" C.

Dynami e s t i n at_lw_temeratue
These two main line prototypes and one f i r s t o f f the buoy prototype
were submitted to cyclic bendingtest programs established from the
analysis of the hose string motions over one year.
During the t e s t s , the 10 mlong hoses were submitted to an internal
pressure of 1.5 MPa of isopentane refrigerated to 48* C and bending
cycles were applied at a frequency of 7 cycles per minute.
The mainline prototypes underwent more than 300 000 cycles 80 000
of which at a bending radius as small as 3.5 meters without any dete
r i o r a t i o n . The f i r s t o f f the buoy prototype underwent 400 000 cycles
250 000 of which at bending radii between 2.6 and 3.1 m.

6. CONCLUSION AND EXTENSION OF THE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

The successful completion of the development program allowed to

consider the implementation of a project to design and i n s t a l l at sea a
CHAGAL buoy prototype in order to bring the concept to an industrial
stage. For economical reasons, t h i s project has not been brought to an end
but i t s development was extended in another way.
Since the end of 1985, EMH has undertaken the design and the q u a l i
fication of a cryogenic swivel j o i n t for the transfer of LNG at sea. This
swivel includes a liquid path which has been qualified by two test
campaigns at 160* C and 196" C respectively, and a vapor path designed
for 120* C which is under test at 160* C.


TABLE 1

LPG SWIVEL JOINT - DYNAMIC TESTING PROGRAM

| TESTING CONDITIONS | NUMBER OF CYCLES * |

| | 1 SEQUENCE | 8 SEQUENCES |

I 1. AMBIENT CONDITIONS : . room temperature 1 1 650 | 13 200 |

(Berth Vacancy . 1.5 barg 1 1 1
I Simulation) . N2 gaseous | 1 1

| 2. COLD CONDITIONS : . -48* C I 7 700 | 61 600 |

I (Tanker Loading . 15 barg | | 1
1 Simulation) . Forane 22 (liquid) 1 1 1
I 3. WARMING UP : . between -48* C and 1 600 | 4 800 |
I (Bleeding-off and room temperature 1 1 1
I Inerting Simulation) . vapor pressure of | 1 1
| Forane 22 between I 1 1
I -48' C and room 1 1 1
I temperature 1 1 1

| TOTAL NUMBER OF CYCLES 1 9 950 | 79 600 |

* 1 cycle = 40* (20* each way)

180* rotations every 20 000 cycles

TABLE 2

SUBSEA PIPE
TESTING PROGRAM

Test fluid methanol cooled by LN2

Test temperature -50* C
Test pressure 1 barg / 15 barg

Normal Operating Conditions

Total duration 48 hours
Number of pressure cycles (1 barg / 15 barg) 19
Number of temperature cycles (ambient / -50" C) 16
(including 10 quick cooling-down cycles)

Simulation of Damage Conditions

Total duration 56 hours
Number of pressure cycles 20
Number of temperature cycles 15
(including 10 quick cooling-down cycles)
 611

FIGURE 1
CHAGAL GENERAL CONFIGURATION

"" CHAGAL
TOTALIEMH

MlMMfttlKM
*mw I " ~
JOUI W
1
. Jr s
1 ' le . >
'V '.
iVyl
" 1

1
m
tre IO*AC(

HUO Ml UMI

ONSHORE TERMINAL d EkJ H pf

M* lM(s| "ft ! lIMHUUi NOUS | | IilOAIUIC H i l l IPC CaMII* I
FACILITIES tao ouaiioto

FIGURE 2
PRINCIPLE FLOW DIA GRA M OF LPG CA RRIER LOA DING USING A CA LM BUOY
612

FIGURE 3
SWIVEL JOINT UNDER TEST

-t

high d*ntlty PVC loam

FIGURE 4
LPG SWIVEL JOINT
molitura (Ightnau M a i
TEST RESULTS

L u k Flow Hal
MEAN: 17 cmVm
MAX: JOOcm'/m

ttghtn M l primar/ banier

at LPG temperatura
 613

FIGURE 5
LPG PIPE DESIGN CONCEPT

*T*,rvyp!mymmm

TEST BENCH FOR LPG

HOSE QUALIFICATION

iftffTfffinl'
FIGURE 6
TEST BENCH FOR LPG HOSE QUALIFICATION
614

DEVELOPMENT OF A SCRUBBING PROCESS FOR THE SEPARATION OF

COMPONENTS FROM NATURAL GAS; PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

HOVING, W. v. DIJK and G.W.J. WES

N.V. Nederlandse Gasunie

Summary

Preliminary experimental results were obtained on the development

of an efficient and compact scrubbing process for the removal of
unwanted components from natural gas, such as CO2, H2S, heavy
hydrocarbons (e.g. aromatics). The novel aspect of this process is
the direct injection of the absorption fluid into the gas stream in
co-current flow. In contrast to conventional countercurrent
scrubbers this process design allows high gas flows in a compact
installation.
Model experiments were performed to determine rate of mass transfer
in a co-currently operated absorber (C02-removal from natural
gas, using water as absorption fluid). An intensive gas-liquid
contact and therefore a high rate of mass transfer can be obtained
at high gas velocities (vg > 20 m/s). Moreover,
liquid-gas-separation experiments have shown that the finely
dispersed liquid droplets can effectively be separated from the gas
stream in a separator, developed by Gasunie. Efficiencies higher
than 99.5* were obtained.
In addition, various absorption solvents were compared in a stirred
cell reactor with respect to C02-absorption capacity and
absorption rate. It is concluded that absorption fluids based on
Methyldiethanolamine are the most suitable solvents for bulk
C02-removal from natural gas.

INTRODUCTION
Characteristic for natural-gas-treatment processes are the
voluminous gas streams to be treated. These processes can be divided
into partial separation of components present at relative high
concentrations in natural gas (e.g. bulk removal of C0 2 ) and an almost
complete removal of components present at relatively low, but still
undesirable concentration (H2S, heavy aromatics).
Various commercial gas-"sweetening" hydrocarbons processes (BASF,
Selexol, Sulfinol etc.) are generally applied in countercurrent
scrubbers. An advantage of a countercurrent absorption column is the
high number of separation stages that can be achieved. In this way, very
high purity levels can be obtained. The disadvantage however, is that
the gas flow rate is limited in order to prevent flooding (maximum about
0.1 m/s). Treatment of voluminous gas streams therefore results in large
diameter absorbers. Moreover, in the current commercial processes there
is usually a target to obtain very low impurity levels.
The results presented in this report are part of ongoing research
on the development of a new efficient and compact gas scrubbing process
 615

for the removal of specific unwanted components from natural gas, such
as CO2, H2S, heavy hydrocarbons. The new process should be suited to
treating voluminous gas streams and to perform bulk separations (e.g.
bulk C02-removal). This is realised by direct injection of the
absorption fluid into the gas stream. Gas and liquid flow with high
velocity through one or more parallel tubes with a relatively small
diameter (compared to commercial absorbers) in co-current flow. To
achieve an intensive gas-liquid contact and thus a high rate of mass
transfer, high gas velocities should be used. After the absorption has
taken place, the gas and liquid have to be separated. After
regeneration, the absorption fluid is reinjected into the gas stream.
In the first part of the project attention is focussed on
C02-removal from natural gas. Experiments were performed in two types
of test units:
- The "co-current-absorption unit".
The rate of mass transfer has been investigated in the co-currently
operated contacting zone.
Furthermore the efficiency of the Gasunie gas-liquid separator has
been measured.
- A stirred cell reactor: Boti) equilibrium (absorption capacity) and
kinetic data have been determined for various absorption fluids
suitable for C02-removal from natural gas.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AMD RESULTS

1. CO2-MASSTRANSFER MEASUREMENTS IN THE " CO-CURRENT ABSORPTION UNIT"

Experiments were performed with water as absorption fluid and
Groningen-gas (81.3% CH 4 , 14.3* N 2 , 2.9% C 2 H 6 , 0.9% C0 2 , 0.6%
C$). A schematic diagram of the co-current absorption unit is given
in figure 1. The rate of C02~absorption has been determined under
various operating conditions. From mass balance considerations it is
obtained that the C02-content of the process water depends on the
distance from the liquid injection point according to (assumption: no
axial dispersion):

c = Cf + (C - (t) . e- x in which:

k a A R T 0r
= (1 + _)
eL He 0 G

(See list of symbols)

At various distances from the liquid injection point

process-water-samples were taken via a system of 6-way valves. The
C02-content was determined using a titration method described by
Blauwhoff (ref. 1).
The absorption fluid can be injected into the gas stream using
either spray nozzles or just forced convection. During all experiments
the liquid flow rate was kept constant (0^ = 1 - 2 m 3 /h). The
results, presented in figure 2, were obtained at 20 bar operating
pressure, with actual liquid-gas-volume-ratios varying between 0.1 - 2%,
at various gas velocities, both with and without atomization. Figure 2a
shows that the distance needed to reach equilibrium sharply decreases
with increasing gas velocity. Using atomization this distance is further
616

reduced, particularly at lower gas velocities. Figure 2b shows the

influence of gas velocity on lc.a, which is a characteristic value for
the rate of mass transfer. At gas velocities above 20 m/s a dispersed/
bubble flow regime has been observed and k.a exceeds 0.2 sec 1 .
For comparison, for conventional countercurrent scrubbers k.a is
normally much lower than 0.1 sec 1 .
Possible mechanisms for this behaviour are, amongst others, better
dispersion and/or reduced droplet size as a result of increased
turbulence. A more detailed discussion of the mechanism at this point
would be speculative. Anyway, it can be concluded that a high rate of
mass transfer can be obtained at high gas velocities.

2. LIQUIDGAS SEPARATION EFFICIENCY OF THE GASUNIESEPARATOR

For efficient use of the cocurrent gasscrubbing process, loss of
absorption fluid should be minimized. This requires an efficient
separation of the finely dispersed liquid droplets from the gas stream.
To determine the liquidgas separation efficiency of the Gasunie
separator, a special reservoir with level indication was installed
(figure 3) in the cocurrent absorption unit. The process water was
injected from this reservoir and the water that accumulated in the
separator was recollected here, after the experiment. From the loss of
liquid processwater and the amount of water evaporated to the gasphase
during the experiment, the efficiency of the scrubber can be easily
calculated:

2 100*.
L
inj * L evap

The amount of water evaporated during the experiment can be calculated

from the amount of gas used and the saturation concentration of water in
the gas under experimental conditions. This saturation concentration was
experimentally verified. The results are shown in figure 4, where the
separation efficiency of the Gasunieseparator is plotted as a function
of gas velocity at 11 and 30 bars. For gas velocities below 50 m/s the
separation efficiency exceeds 99.5%. At increasing gas velocity a slight
efficiency decrease can be observed. Defining 99% as the lowest
acceptable efficiency, the results show that the liquidgas separation
of the Gasunieseparator is sufficient to allow application within the
cocurrent gasabsorption process.

3. C0?ABS0RPTI0N/DBS0RPTI0N EXPERIMENTS WITH VARIOUS ABSORPTION FLUIDS

For the application in the cocurrentgasscrubbing process the
next two factors, concerning the absorption fluid have to be considered:
absorption capacity;
absorption rate.
To compare various solvents with respect to these absorption
properties, absorption/desorption experiments were performed in a
stirredcell reactor with constant volumes of liquid and gas. This unit
is schematically illustrated in figure 5. Both absorption capacity
(equilibrium) and kinetic data could be obtained from pressure versus
timecurves via absorption (pressure decrease) and/or desorption
(pressure increase with time) experiments. Results were obtained for
several absorption fluids based on ethanolamines, shown in figure 6
 617

(absorption capacity versus C02~partial pressure) and table 1 (kinetic

data).
The absorption rate constant (k in Bee -1 ) is a function of
C02-partial pressure. During an absorption experiment it is observed
that k slightly increases with decreasing C(>2-pressure. Therefore an
average k-value, over several absorption experiments was calculated.
From table 1 it can be seen that these average absorption rate
constants (k (sec-*) of the various solvents do not differ
significantly. It appears to be difficult to select the optimum
absorption fluid on the basis of these differences in absorption rate.
The selection of the optimum absorption fluid on bases of the
equilibrium curve is also difficult, since the specific application for
C02~removal from natural gas has not been determined yet. (The
equilibrium pressures of C0 2 in absorption stage and regeneration
stage still have to be determined.)

For bulk separation of CO2 (e.g. 25 vol.% CO2 back to 5 vol.%)

absorption solvents based on MDEA are preferred, particularly since:
1. The absorption capacity at higher equilibrium pressures of C0 2 is
relative high compared to the other ethanolamine-solutions.
2. The regeneration of MDEA is relative easy (lower temperature and
higher pressures can be allowed) compared to the other ethanolamine
solutions.

CONCLUSIONS
- The technical feasibility of the co-current gas-scrubbing proces has
been demonstrated. High absorption rates can be achieved at high gas
velocities.
- The liquid-gas separation efficiency of the 'modified
Gasunie separator' is sufficiently high for application within the
co-current gas-scrubbing process.
- MDEA based absorption fluids are best suited for bulk C02~removal
from natural gas.

(1) Blauwhoff, P.M.H., Selective absorption of H2S from sour gases by

alkanolaminc solutions. Thesis 1982. University of Twente, The
Netherlands.
(2) Handbook of Chemistry and Physics CRS Press, Inc. 1976-1977.
(3) Westerterp, K.R. et al. Chemical Reactor design and operation; le
press, Manchester. John Wiley and Sons, 1983.
(4) Versteeg, G.F., Mass transfer and chemical reaction kinetics in
acid gas treating processes. Thesis. University Twente, The
Netherlands, 1986.
(5) Perry, H.H. and Chilton, C.H., Chemical Engineers' Handbook 1973.
McGraw Hill.
618

SYMBOLS
a specific gasliquid contact area m2/ra3
A area cross section of the tubing m?
Cg CC>2concentration in liquid at injection point mol/m3
C (^concentration in liquid at distance mol/m3
et ((^concentration in liquid at equilibrium mol/m3
He Henry coefficient C02water J/mol
k mass transfer coefficient m/s
L
out amount of liquid separated by the scrubber m3
L
inj. amount of water injected in installation
L
evap. amount of water evaporated to gasfase
separation efficiency modified Gasuniescrubber
total pressure bar or N/m2
P02 partial pressure CO2 bar
0L liquid flow rate mJ/s
0Q gas flow rate m 3 /s
R gas constant J/mol
temperature
v. gas velocity m/s

C,out

i! cocurrent gailiqid contacting leccin

cf
4
(13 length; 0.075 diameter)

F
L,in

liquid lupply tank (2a)

*Xl

Fig. 1. Cocurrent absorption unit

 .
k
k. (."') Diftance CO
reach
equilibrium
(m)

0.3 2a

0.2
/ \
(higher Chan)
/ \ o
\ \
\ ^ without
0.1 wich \ spraynozzlei
aprayuozzlea / ' with \
ipraynozzles
\
\Q
y r without ipraynorzles . (tiprter.cbn.).
y
-OZT
* *> v
. (/a) i u + u u ,_,.,
Noce: The diacance co reach equilibrium was calculaced from Che k.avaluea
which were experimencally decermined.

Fig. 2. Effect of gas velocity on: a. r a t e of mass t r a n s f e r (k.a.)

b . distance to reach equilibrium

CD

CO
 620

Cas,out
cocurrent Ras absorption seccin
Gas,in

gas-liquid contacting zone Gasunie

separator

injection
buffer

drain
. injection-reservoir
with level indication

F i g . 3. Cocurrent gas absorption and gas l i q u i d s e p a r a t o r u n i t

t o determine e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e Gasunie s e p a r a t o r

Efficiency (Z)
100 ..

99,5,
-o 30 bar
II bar
-o ^

o^
99,0

gas velocity (m/s)

' 1 I I I I > I
10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 80
Fig. 4. Effect of gas velocity on liquid separation efficiency
of the Gasunie separator
 Liquid
Supply

CO,-gas-supply
Fig. 5. S t i r r e d c e l l reactor

Fig. 6. CO2-absorption capacity (equilibrium) curves a t 40 C

Table 1: CC^-absorption r a t e constants
(40C)
k (10 m/s)
H?0 3.5
MEA 20
MDEA 15
03
TEA 15 ro
622

TESTS ON A NEW TYPE OF LPG STORAGE TANKS

Jean CLAUDE
Head of Development
S.N. TECHNIGAZ

Summary

Since twenty years SN TECHNIGAZ has developed technics for storage,

transportation and handling of liquefied gases. In particular
SN TECHNIGAZ has successfully applied the membrane concept to LNG
storage tank. With this experience, SN TECHNIGAZ has decided to
develop a technology equivalent for LPG. CFP TOTAL decided to join
this development program. Together, the Companies have built a pilot
tank, the capacity of which is 2000 cu.m. and they have tested this
storage tank in 1985-86. The technology applied in this storage tank
is described and its main advantages are listed. Then the pilot unit,
built in Dunkirk (France), is presented with the main equipments
installed around : process units, safety units. The fourth part
Introduces the tests performed in the storage tank and it gives the
main results of these tests. The conclusion describes the potential
application of this new technology.

INTRODUCTION
1972 : TECHNIGAZ built two refrigerated ethylene storage tanks : one
of 14000 cu.m. in Gonfreville (France), the other of 8000 cu.m. in Lavera
(France). These two storage tanks are built according to the membrane
technology : a prestressed concrete outer shell, an insulating system
applied on the internal wall of the concrete shell and Including a
tightness membrane ; the membrane developed by TECHNIGAZ for LNG carrier
application.
1987 : The second phase of the LNG receiving terminal in Pyeong Taek
(South Korea) is put on stream : this terminal includes 4 storage tanks of
100000 cu.m. capacity each and built with the same technology.
Between these two dates, TECHNIGAZ has studied and built many plants
in France and abroad : LNG carriers, LNG storage tanks for Gaz de France
(Montoir de Bretagne), industrial plants for LPG ; among them the
refrigerated propane/butane terminal in Le Havre, the most important one
in France, can be noticed. All these realisations, mean that our Company
has always sustained a big effort of development.
Between these two dates, also, the safety rules have changed. Some
types of storage tanks, single metallic wall tank for example, used for
LPG storage, would be no more considered in many countries. The operators
want to get fully safe plants and the storage tank is one important
clement in such a plant. With its own experience In membrane technology
and with the new requirements for safety TECHNIGAZ have decided to develop
a membrane system available for LPG storage tank : the CMS system was born.
At the beginning of this development, CFP TOTAL has expressed its interest
in this new technology and the two companies have decided to build a pilot
tank based on this technology. This is the subject of this paper.
 623

1. PRESENTATION OF THE TECHNOLOGY

Before describing the GMS system, the existing technologies for LF6
storage tank should be briefly introduced.

1.1. Existing technologies for LPG storage tanks

There are three main types of tanks which are used for LPG storage :
- The self-supporting single metallic wall tank (figure 1.1.) : it is the
first type of tank which has been built for LPG. The tank is scantled to
support the hydrostatic pressure of liquid and the gas pressure. The bottom
of the tank is supported by a concrete slab. The insulation is put on the
outside of the metallic tank.
This type of tank is cheap, but it shows several disadvantages : the
external insulation is damaged quite quickly, due to weather conditions,
the protection against external hazards is poor (fire, shock,
earthquake) ; if any leak occurs in the metallic tank, the product goes
directly to atmosphere.
- The self-supporting double metallic wall tank (figure 1.2.) : in this
case, a second metallic envelop is put around the tank described
hereabove. The inner tank can be opened ; in this case the roof of the
outer tank includes a suspended ceiling to support insulation. This type
of tank is more expensive than the previous one : but the outer envelop
is only a protection for the insulation ; it is made of carbon steel and
it is not scantled to resist to hydrostatic pressure and low temperature.
Moreover, the insulation is under gas (in case of a suspended ceiling).
- The self-supporting double metallic or metallic/concrete wall tank
(figure 2.1.) : this tank includes two envelops which can resist to
hydrostatic pressure and to low temperature. The outer envelop is made
either of low carbon steel or of concrete. This last solutions offers a
good protection against external risks. The insulation is put between the
two envelop and therefore it is under gas. This makes inerting and gas
freeing operation quite difficult.

1.2. The GMS system (figures 2.2. and 3)

LPG storage tank, built according to this system, would include :
- An outside prestressed concrete tank : the slab can rest directly on
ground, if the soil conditions are sufficient (in this case there is an
electrical heating in the slab) or it can be put on piles. The thickness
of the skirt is adjusted according to the external risks which are
considered (shock, fire). The cupola includes a reinforced metallic skin
which ensures the gas tightness for this part of the tank and which is
used also as a concrete form.
- The insulation : it is made of prefabricated foam panels. The foam is of
closed cell type and is either PVC or PU. The thickness of the foam is
determined according to the boil-off requirement of the operator. The
panels are glued on the inside of the concrete wall ; previously the wall
is coated with a water vapour tight product. The panels are joined
together to make a continuous insulating system.
- The primary barrier : it is made of a composite material, the name of
which is Triplex. It has been developed by our Company. Triplex is made
of an aluminium foil (giving the tightness property) between two glass
cloths (giving the mechanical characteristics). This product has been
developed to be used as a secondary barrier in the insulation system of
LNG carrier : it is approved for service temperature as low as - 162C.
The primary barrier is glued on the panels during their prfabrication.
When the panels have been put in place in the tank, the continuity of the
primary barrier is ensured by triplex joints glued on the triplex of two
adjacent panels.
624

- The suspended ceiling for the insulation of the roof of the tank.
With this system, the advantages of the membrane system are fully kept :
an insulation space completely closed and kept under nitrogen which
allows a permanent monitoring of the primary barrier during operatiqn
of the tank : even if a small leak occurs on the primary barrier the
Increase of nitrogen sweeping rate can avoid the decommissioning of
the tank.
a low thermal inertia which decreases gas consumption during cool down
operation.
an easiness for cooling down and warming up operations which can be
made quickly and without special care.
the stresses in the insulation system during operation are low,
especially in the primary barrier (the triplex) ; this avoids any risk
of crack propagation.

2. THE PILOT TANK

In order to show the industrial feasibility of the GMS system and its
reliability, CFP TOTAL and TECHNIGAZ have decided to build a pilot tank. It
has been installed inside the refinery of CRD TOTAL France in Dunkirk
("Raffinerie des Frandres"). As the refinery has no refrigerated product,
refrigeration/reliquefaction units have been provided.

2.1. The storage tank (figure 3)

The capacity of the tank has been fixed at 2000 cum. in order to be
representative of an industrial storage (a membrane type storage tank is
not limited in capacity but a typical industrial volume may be
50000 cu.m.).
As the soils conditions were good, the concrete slab has been built on
the ground and an electrical heating has been fitted in the slab. The
thickness of the skirt has been fixed at 40 cm and it has been made with a
sliding form. The metallic cupola has been built on the bottom of the tank
and it has been lifted with air. The concrete tank has been hydro-
pneumatically tested according to the French regulation. The typical
dimensions of the tank are :

! External diameter (concrete) 16.08 m !

1 Internal diameter (concrete) 15.28 m !
! Height of the skin (concrete) 12.60 m !
! Liquid height 11.20 m !
! Thickness of the concrete skin 0.40 m !
I Thickness of the concrete slab 0.50 m !
! Thickness of the insulation 100.00 mm !
! Nominal filling 2,000.00 m3 !
I Volume in operation 1,950.00 m3 I
! Minimum working temperature - 50.00 "C !
! Maximum pressure in service (gas phase) 300.00 g/cm2 !
! Maximum specific gravity of the product 0.60 !
1 1

The inside face of the concrete wall has been covered with a
bi-composant polyurethane vapour barrier.
The insulation panels have been bent during fabrication due to the
little radius of the tank ; this operation would not be necessary on a
 625

larger tank. Two foams have been used for the panels : PVC (density
40-45 kg/m3) and P (80-100 kg/m 3 ). The densities of the foams have not
been determined by the loads in the pilot tank but they are representative
of foam qualities used in industrial tanks.
The triplex joints have been glued with the vacuum bag method. The
quality of the gluing of these joints has been checked with an ammonia
test : this method is widely used in nuclear industry and it has a very
high sensitivity. In general it is used to check welding ; the pilot tank
has been used to calibrate the method on glued joints.
The tank is equipped with the following lines coming into the tank
through the cupola. Mo hole is made in the tank under liquid level.

!
! a filling line 0 3" !
I an unloading line 0 3" !
! an aspiration gas line 0 6" !
! a return liquid line 0 3" !
1 a flare line 0 6" !
! a vent line 0 6" !
1 a nitrogen injection line In the insulation space !
1 a nitrogen extraction line !
1

2.2. The refrigeration/reliquefaction units (figure 4)

These units have been designed in order to make the following
operations :
- refrigerating product (butane or propane) coming from the refinery : the
flow rate is 4 T/hr for propane and 11 T/hr for butane. The butane is
directly flashed in the tank.
- rellquefaction of flash (during loading operation) and of boil off gas.
- warming up of the product when it is sent back to the refinery ; the
storage tank is emptied with a removable submerged pump.
The pilot tank is equipped with all the safety and measurement devices
which are found on an industrial storage. A control room and an electrical
station have been built. All these components have been located according
to the French Regulations ; In the same way the fire fighting systems
(hi-ex foam, spraying water) have been determined with these Regulations.

3. THE TESTS (figure 5)

When all the erection work has been achieved, a global air tightness
test has been performed on the storage tank and the result has shown that
the tank could be operated. The tank was lnerted and put under gas. A first
filling has been made with butane : we have proceeded step by step in order
to check the behaviour of the insulation system under gas and under liquid.
The highest liquid level, 11.2 m, has been kept during several days. No
defect appeared and the tank has been emptied.
The tank has been gas freeled, lnerted and put under air in order to
make in inspection after this first filling. The state of the insulation
appeared fully satisfactory. It has been decided to proceed to a filling
with propane. The highest liquid level has been kept several days. The
product temperature was - 45C.
During these two tests, the gas detection system has worked well ;
this system takes samples of the nitrogen in the insulation system, it
detects any trace of butane or propane. Samples are taken in 14 points in
626

the insulation space. The gas concentration has always been kept at a low
level, with a nitrogen sweeping rate of approximately 1 Nm3/hr for
1000 m 2 of insulation ; this is the rate which is generally used for LNG
membrane system storage tanks.

4. THE RESULTS OF THE TEST

These tests have been performed fully satisfactorily. They have shown
several facts :
- the first one is that a very good tightness level can be reached with a
primary barrier the continuity of which is made by gluing. This is a
great advantage of the system : if any leak occurs on the primary barrier
during operation of the tank, the repair could be made without any flame
after the decommissioning of the tank. The safety of this repair
operation would be much more greater than the one with a welding.
- the confirmation that a membrane storage tank is operated very easily :
very quick cooling down and warming up ; the possibility of operating the
tank at high gas phase pressure. On the site of Dunkirk, this allowed a
reduction of the power of the refrigeration unite, for the flash could be
more important during loading.
- the confirmation also that the fully closed insulation space is a very
important safety factor : the gas freeing of the tank is very easy. Two
times, after a complete filling of the pilot tank, we entered in it. This
has been performed in a fully safe way, fulfilling all the rules applied
by a refinery in such storage for worker protection.

5. CONCLUSIONS
With the pilot plant, CFP TOTAL and TECHNIGAZ have confirmed the
feasibility of the GMS system. The construction of the storage has shown
that the erection of the insulation system can be slightly improved (for
example by fastening the panels with studs on the concrete call ; gluing
mastic will be kept.
The operation of the tank has shown that industrial glue has reached
such a level that the tightness of a primary barrier can rely on it. The
gas detection system has demonstrated efficiency (it is already operated on
LNG membrane storage tanks). This efficiency can be increased by improving
the gas detection network inside the insulation space.
With these improvements, the GMS storage system can be proposed for an
industrial tank ; this system takes benefit of all our experience in the
field of membrane technology applied to LNG and ethylene storage (ships and
land storage tanks). The system has a first industrial reference : the
pilot tank in Dunkirk.
 627

METALLIC TANK SINGLE ENVELOPE (Fig 1.1)

OUTSIDE INSULATION SUSPENDED CEIUNS

VAPOR BARRIER /
MECHANICS PROTECTION

( ? ) FOAM P.U INSULATION

METALLIC TANK
( T ) SUSPENDED CEILING
(LOW TEMPERATURE STEEL)

( 7 ) CARBONE STEEL CUPOLA

METALLIC TANK DOUBLE ENVELOPE ( Fig 1 . 2 )

OPTION A OPTION:
INNER CUPOLA SUSPENOEO CEIUNS

KILLED STEEL
O CONCRETE SLAB
OUTER TANK
CARBONE STEEL
( T ) PE RLITE INSULATION
V i / OUTER TANK
S\ BOTTOM INSUI
INSULATION
( T ) SUSPE NDE D CE ILING
FOAMSLASS BRICKS
628

METALLIC TANK
DOUBLE ENVELOPE METALLIC/CONCRETE (Fig 2 . 1 )

..-
G>-

fc^fcrt
' l ' i '
t
' ' . ;
i I ' I 'T

:~ ]
( 7 ) CONCRETE SLAB ( 7 ) FOAM RU INSULATION

BOTTOM INSULATION
FOAMGLASS BRICKS
( ? ) PERLITE INSULATION

( ? ) CONCRETE OUTER TANK

KILLED STEEL
OUTER TANK

( ? ) METALLIC CUPOLA

MEMBRANE TANK (Fig 2.2)

a^vsi^^:rffQ

CONCRETE SLAB
. TIGHTNESS
1
PRIMARY BARRIER

INSULATION ( s ) SUSPENDED CEILINS

PRESTRESSINS
CONCRETE STRUCTURE
( ? ) METALLIC CU POU
 629

GMS PILOT

SUSPENDED
CEILINS
PROTECTION
COATING

SPIT FIXATION

TRIPLEX JOINT

INSULATING P A N E l _
TRIPLEX RE -COVE HNC

CONCRETE /
VAPOR BARRIE R CLOTNE O

Fig 3
 w
o

I
>

5
m
r- o
__ rn -n
> 33
o m
-n
5
Z <D
m
>
 631

OPERATION TESTS DIAGRAM

I TANK LEVEL Im)

STAGE

10

M


Ml
O
S

ia


Hl

'I
I 1

ii
I

TIME

Rg : 5
632

FEASIBILITY STUDY OF UNDERGROUND GAS STORAGE

USING NITROGEN AS CUSHION GAS

H. bro
Reservoir Engineering Department
Dansk Olie & Naturgas A/S, DENMARK

SUMMARY

This paper gives an overview of the investigations carried out in

order to evaluate the feasibility of using nitrogen as cushion gas
for a gas storage project in Denmark. Two potential storage zones
have been studied, a nitrogen gas reservoir and a deeper aquifer. In
both cases, it seems to be feasible to use nitrogen as part of the
cushion gas, thereby reducing the storage costs considerably.

1. INTRODUCTION
Dansk Olie & Naturgas A/S is a stateowned company which owns and
operates the natural gas transmission system in Denmark (figure 1). The
gas is produced from 4 offshore fields in the Danish sector of the North
Sea and flows to shore through a 220 km (137 miles) pipeline of 0.76 (30
inches) diameter.

The transmission system has been established in the period 19821986

at a total cost of about 7.5 10 DKK (equivalent to about 1.0 10'
US$.

Storage capacity for peakshaving and emergency supplies will be

provided by a salt cavern storage (LI. Torup) which is presently under
construction in the northern part of Denmark.

As part of a continuing exploration for underground gas storage,

investigations have been carried out in 19811985 on an anticlinal struc
ture near the town of Tender in the southern part of Denmark (figure 1).
Two potential storage zones have been studied, a nitrogen gas reservoir
and a deeper aquifer (figure 2). The aquifer contains initially no gas,
but it has been considered to inject nitrogen and use that as part of the
cushion gas in order to reduce the cushion gas costs.The paper gives an
overview of the studies performed with emphasis on the potential gas mix
ing problems in connection with storage of natural gas in the nitrogen
reservoir.

The European Economic Community has given financial support to the

studies. (Project TH 14.17/83 Nitrogen Filled Geological Structure at
Tnder for Storage of Natural Gas).

2. OVERVIEW OF INVESTIGATIONS AT TNDER

Prior to the start of the gas storage investigations, seismic sur
veys had been carried out in the area, and 3 wells, Tender1, 2, and 3
 633

FIGURE 1. THE DANISH NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSION SYSTEM.

DEPTH T0NDEH-5 TNDER-4 T0NDER-3

, . tu) complalloft)

NITROGEN SANDSTONE
RESEflVOIB HIGH
POROSITY PERMEABILITY

PERFORATED INTERVAL
O 3000m

FIGURE 2. RESERVOIR SCHEMATIC

634

(figure 2) had been drilled for hydrocarbon exploration purposes. The

wells TnderI and 2 have been plugged while the well Tnder3 was kept
open for further testing in connection with the gas storage studies. The
gas storage investigations were initiated in 1981, comprising the follow
ing activities:

1981/82 Production testing of the nitrogen zone 1 and 2 in the well Tn

der3.

1983 Drilling of two wells, Tnder4 and 5.

1983 Production testing of nitrogen reservoir in the well Tnder4.

1984 Water injection testing of aquifer in the well Tnder5.

1984 Gas mixing test of zone 2 of the nitrogen reservoir in the well
Tnder3.

1984/85 Feasibility Study.

The total cost of the investigations was about 47 10 DKK (equiva

lent to about 6.6 10 US$).

The feasibility study included an evaluation of the potential prob

lems associated with the use of nitrogen as cushion gas. The rest of the
paper will give a description and discussion of this evaluation.

3. EVALUATION OF GAS MIXING

The gas mixing problems were evaluated for both potential storage
reservoirs, the aquifer and the nitrogen reservoir.

3.1 GAS MIXING IN AQUIFER

The evaluation was made by means of a twophase 3dimensional reser
voir simulator ("TRIMIS"), which is able to compute the reservoir pres
sure and gas composition as a function of time and space for a gas/water
reservoir where the gas phase consists of two gases with different pro
perties. The computer simulations were carried out by the consulting
firm SOFREGAZ on behalf of Dansk Olie & Naturgas A/S (1). The results
indicated that up to 10% of the total gasinplace could be nitrogen
without causing too high concentrations of nitrogen in the produced gas.
This means that about 20% of the cushion gas could be nitrogen instead
of natural gas, since the ratio (working gas)/(cushion gas) is estimated
to be about 1.0 for this storage reservoir.

3.2 GAS MIXING IN NITROGEN RESERVOIR

The evaluation for this reservoir comprised the following activi
ties:

a) a field gas mixing test

b) test interpretation using computer simulation
c) simulation of a full scale gas storage project.
 635

)
dDfcrdCDIiml
\1' ^ dulul

(DJ

UMT
UOMO MT* OOI TANNS

^1 ) AMOOM TUM

MTHoat WCH*O* wLEHCan

C3 H l 11 tPt CTItO Hf I

aiHOTt coNTRoi i*f m iu.vt

MM* u rm VAIVI

FIGURE 3. SCHEMATIC FOR GAS MIXING TEST.

mol %

Hydrogen 0.010
Helium 0.217
Nitrogen 99.739
Argon 0.031
Carbon o x i d e <0.0001
Carbon d i o x i d e 0.0006
Hydrogen sulphide 0.00
Methane 0.0011
Ethane e t c . 0.00
Sum 9 9 . 9 9 9

TABLE 1 . I N I T I A L C OMPOSITION OF RESERVOIR GAS

636

3.2.1 GAS MIXING TEST

The objective of the gas mixing test was to determine the disper-
sion characteristics of zone 2 in the nitrogen reservoir in order to
provide a basis for estimating the gas mixing under a full scale storage
operation.

The test was carried out by injecting pure nitrogen with a tracer
gas (argon) into zone 2 in the well Tander-3 and subsequently producing
the well until all the injected gas had been recovered. A schematic of
the test equipment is shown in Fig. 3. The gas composition at the well-
head was monitored continuously during the entire test by means of a
mass-spectrometer. Furthermore, gas samples were taken at the wellhead
every hour for laboratory analysis. The initial composition of the reser-
voir gas is shown in Table I.

The main test data are shown in Figure 4, 5, and 6.

Due to operational problems, it was impossible to keep the tracer

gas concentration at a constant level during the injection periods. This
introduced some difficulties and uncertainties in the interpretation of
the argon concentration data. Fortunately, concentration data for two
other gases, helium and methane, could also be used in the test analysis
because these two gases were present in small amounts in the reservoir
gas but not in the injected gas.

3.2.2 TEST INTERPRETATION

The test interpretation was based on the radial convection-diffusion
equation:
C 1 g C C
rD v
sr~r sr < -37> - sr
where

C concentration
t - time
r - radius
V - flow velocity (- Darcy velocity/porosity)
D - dispersion coefficient

The dispersion coefficient D was assumed to be a function of flow

velocity:
D - aV + D 0

where a and D 0 are constants.

Two simulators were used for the test interpretation:

a) CONVDIF which is a rather simple program developed by Dansk Olie &

Naturgas A/S specifically for this job. The program can simulate
mixing of two fluids in a radial model with one layer and incompres-
sible flow.
 637

production Injection / production rate.

Nm' / h

j 1800
S
5.1200

10 12 M 16 18 20 22
Nm1 Ih
iniection Uma Idaysl

short term test

^
production
1
mol * A r .

8 computed (CONVDIF)
a.0.8

10 12 14 18 20 22
mol % Ar.
injection time (days)

FIGURE 4. GAS MIXING TEST.

INJECTION/PRODUCTION RATES AND ARGON CONCENTRATION AT WELLHEAD.
638

FIGURE 5. SHORT TERM TEST. CONCENTRATION OF HELIUM

AT WELLHEAD DURING THE PRODUCTION PERIOD

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
(days)

mol % C H 4

1.11x10-'
1.0x10"
initial concentration
0.8x10"' In reservoir gas
, / measured
0.8x10-'
0.7x10"'
0.6x10"'
computed (SWIP)
0.5x10"'
0.4x10"'
0.3x10"'
0.2x10"'
0.1x10"'
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 16 19 20 21
(days)

FIGURE 6. LONG TERM TEST. CONCENTRATION OF HELIUM AND METHANE

AT WELLHEAD DURING THE PRODUCTION PERIOD.
 639

b) SHIP, which is a large 3 dimensional, 1phase simulator originally

developed by INTERCOM? for U.S. Geological Survey (2,3) for simula
tion of mixing in ground water reservoirs. The program was modified
by Dansk Olie & Naturgas A/S in connection with the gas storage
study in order to allow the reservoir fluid to be highly compres
sible (gas).

CONVDIF was used for many of the initial computer runs because it
requires very little computer time compared to SWIP. SWIP was mainly used
to study effects of layering and partial completion.

The simulations with CONVDIF were carried out with the following
reservoir characteristics (radial model):

(h) (0) 1.3 m

where

h reservoir thickness (m)

0 gas filled porosity (fraction).

The simulations with SWIP were made based on the following reservoir
data for a radial model:

Layer Thickness Gasfilled Horiz. gas Vert.gas

no. (m) porosity permeability permeability
(mD) (mD)

1 3.5 19% 81 4
2 3.5 19% 81 4
3 4 10% 45 1.8
4 4 10% 45 1.8

The well was perforated only in the upper layers no. 1 and 2.

The injection/production rates as shown in Fig. 4 were 'converted to

reservoir volumes using a gas expansion factor of 140.7 Nm 3 / reservoir
m (148.7 SCF/res. ft 3 ).
3

A large number of simulations were made using different values of

the constants a and D 0 . The best fit with the test data (see Figure 4,5,
and 6) was obtained with the following values:

a (m) D 0 (m2/h)

short term test 0.010 0.012

long term test 0.100 0.010

Comparison of the short term and the long term test results clearly
indicates a "scale effect", which means that a larger value of "a" must
640

be used for similation of gas mixing during large scale storage opera
tions. This "scale effect" is well known from numerous laboratory expe
riments and field experiments made by the ground water industry (4).

3.2.3 SIMULATION OF GAS STORAGE

Reservoir simulations were carried out for a case where 230 10
Nnr of natural gas was assumed to be stored in zone 2 of the nitrogen
reservoir. The program SWIP was used to simulate a 25 year injection/pro
duction history of the gas storage. Several sensitivity runs were made,
but the final evaluation was based on the following dispersion constants:

a 3.0 m
D 0 0.0 m2/h

These values were estimated by extrapolation of the mixing test

results. The extrapolation was based on the radius of the injected gas
bubble, which was estimated at:

Short term test: approx. 10 m

Long term te'st: approx. 30 m
Gas storage : approx. 500 m

Fig. 7 shows the computed concentration profile in the reservoir at

selected points in time.

Based on the simulations it was concluded that about 140 10 Nm^

corresponding to 60* of the total gas could be produced and injected
every year without causing too high concentrations of nitrogen in the
produced gas.

4. CONCLUSIONS
The studies performed indicate that:

in the aquifer up to 20% of the cushion gas could consist of ni

trogen instead of natural gas

natural gas can be stored in the nitrogen reservoir without se

rious mixing problems provided that less than 60% of the natural
gas is cycled every year.

It should be noted that these results have not been verified by

actual field experience as the gas storage has not yet been constructed.
Furthermore, the results are based on the specific reservoir characteris
tics of the two zones studied so they may not be representative for other
potential storage zones.

REFERENCES

LABAUNE, F. and J.E. Knudsen, Inert Gas in Tender Aquifer Storage: A

Complete Preliminary Computer Study. SPEpaper no. 16863. Society of
Petroleum Engineers, Annual Conference in Dallas, U.S.A., September
1987.
 641

2. U.S. Geological Survey. A model for calculating effects of liquid

waste disposal in deep saline aquifers. June 1976, 263 p. (Water
Resources Investigations 76-61).

3. U.S. Geological Survey. Revision of the documentation for a model

for calculating effects of liquid waste disposal in deep saline
aquifers. July 1979. (Water Resources Investigations 79-96).

4. MOLZ, Fred.J., Oktay Guven, and Joel G. Melville. An examination of

scale dependent dispersion coefficients. In: GROUND WATER Vol. 21,
No. 6, U.S.A., 1983, p. 715-725.

Mol % natural gas

150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550

DISTANCE FROM STORAGE WELL (m.l

FIGURE 7. COMPUTED CONCENTRATION PROFILES FOR STORAGE OF 230 X t 0 " Nm3

OF NATURAL GAS IN NITROGEN RESERVOIR.
642

STORAGE OF LIQUID AND LIQUEFIED HYDROCARBONS

IN LINED HARDROCK CAVERNS

BAUMGA'RTNER, Hugo LGA Gastechnik GmbH, Remagen, FRG

EBELING, Wolfgang Salzgitter AG, Berlin, FRG
SCHNEIDER, Hans-Joachim Kavernen Bau- und Betriebs GmbH,
Hannover, FRG
SEMPRICH, Stephan Bilfinger + Berger Bauaktiengesell-
schaft, Mannheim, FRG

Summary

Lined hardrock caverns have the-advantage that the product stored

can be kept separate from the biosphere. However it is necessary
for the selected construction materials and the stored product to
be chemically and biologically compatible. In rock formations
with less stable rock the lining can also undertake certain
load-bearing functions both during the construction phase and in
the final condition. For this reason lined hardrock caverns are
suitable structures for the storage of hydrocarbons for central
European conditions. Within the scope of the project for the
development of such lined storage caverns, first of all the
essential basic data on the storage products, the ground, the
construction engineering, the plant engineering and the operation
were worked out for such structures. Using the example of a model
plant the technologies coming into question were applied and/or
developed. The lining system has a decisive role here. Finally a
desiqn for a pilot plant was carried out, by means of which the
prepared concepts could be checked for their functions on a 1 : 1
scale.

1. THE AIM OF THE PROJECT

In 1984 an accident with catastrophic results occurred in Mexico
City when an overground LPG tank caught fire and exploded. But not
only stricter safety requirements but also reasons of environmental
protection mean that the underground storage of hydrocarbons nowadays
is becoming of growing importance as opposed to the conventional
storage in aboveground tank farms.
Even today hydrocarbons are stored in underground rock and salt
caverns. The salt caverns, which are relatively inexpensive to create,
are however geographically limited to locations with suitable salt
deposits and they therefore cannot be put into practice everywhere.
Rock caverns present an alternative. Such rock caverns have already
been realized, especially in Scandinavia, where they have been used
for the storage of crude oil and liquid gas. Due to the geological and
hydrologinal situation in Scandinavia, a design concept was chosen
which has become known as the "Scandinavian Storage Concept".
The storage product is retained in an unlined cavern by means of
a so-called hydrodynamic water seal while by controlled pumping off of
 643

seepage water from the deepest point of the cavern, a seepage water
gradient is created directed towards the cavern on all sides which is
intended to prevent the penetration of the stored product into the
rock formation.
This storage concept is dependent on a series of prerequisites
which restrict its application particularly in heavily populated
central and southern European areas. The rock must possess a high
stability which permits the tunnelling of relatively large cavern
cross-sections without any supporting measures. The water bearing of
the rock may only fluctuate very little over the whole year. The
permeability of the rock should not be too great in order to keep the
drainage in the storage cavern to an economically feasible level.
During drainage in unlined rock caverns a certain amount of the
stored hydrocarbons is also pumped off. The treatment of this water/
hydrocarbons mixture requires additional measures whereby in
particular the purification of the water from aromatics involves
considerable technical measures.
Due to the contact with the seepage water the stored hydrocarbons
are also polluted with bacteria and fungi which leads to a
decomposition of the stored product in the aerobic environment. For
certain mineral oil products, on which high demands are placed
regarding purity and product stability such as kerosine, this type of
storage is ruled out.
Serious problems of the hydrodynamic sealing concept lie in a
possible negative influence on the groundwater quality. This has led,
for example in the Federal Republic of Germany, to the prohibition of
hydrocarbon storage in unlined caverns for reasons of environmental
protection because extremely strict standards are placed on the purity
of these waters due to the extensive use of groundwater and surface
water as drinking water.
In order to avoid the disadvantages listed above the present
project involves the development of a "Central European Storage
Concept" using lined hardrock caverns.
The main task of this lining is to keep the stored product
separate from the rock surrounding the cavern and the groundwater
which is perhaps present. As a consequence the lining must be
effective as a seal over a long period. The prerequisite for this is,
in turn, the chemical and biological compatibility between the
selected construction materials and the stored product. Furthermore
the lining must also guarantee the stability of the cavern not only
during the construction stage but also in final condition due to the
only limited stability of the rock in Central Europe. Finally an
appropriate lining system must permit the long-term monitoring of the
functions it is intended to perform.
As the stored product does not come into contact with the seepage
water or the rock, there is no danger of contaminating the subsoil or
of polluting the stored product.
Using a cavern lining as an additional sealing barrier against
the geological barriers of the rock and the seepage water results in
the technical progress over the Scandinavian Concept as summarized
below:
- higher geotechnical and ecological safety potential,
- location not limited regarding geological or hydrological
conditions, but can be used over a wide-ranging geographical area,
- many-sided application for different stored products by adapting
the lining to the particular product.
644

The processing of the project was carried out in three stages:

- In a first stage the basic design data were compiled for the
modules relevant to this development project.
- The second stage provided for the combination of these modules to
design concepts with a view to a large-scale model plant.
- Finally, the third stage involved the design for a pilot plant on
a small scale.
The following report contains the essential results obtained to date.
The development work is scheduled to be completed during 1988.
2. BASES FOR THE DESIGN OF LINED ROCK CAVERNS
2.1 General
During the first project stage the essential work involved the
basic data for the design of the modules necessary for lined rock
caverns for the storage of hydrocarbons. In particular, this involves
details on the products intended to be stored and the underground
conditions surrounding the cavern. In addition, the present
construction engineering insofar as it is relevant here in regard to
construction materials, designs and construction methods was
documented in the form of state of the art reports. Finally the
relevant areas of plant engineering and process engineering were
compiled and explained.
2.2 Storage products
With a view to a development orientated towards practical
application, an analysis of requirements was prepared for the various
liquid and liquefied hydrocarbons.
For the Federal Republic of Germany the total requirements for
liquid hydrocarbons in 1990 will be approx. 100 million tonnes. This
includes the following:

40
m
c 35.

c
o
30

25. Heating Oil
te
iL
20
f
Petrol
D i e i e l Fuel
15
C

E 10

Gasoline
3
5

( Kerosine

0.
990 1995
year

Fig. 1: Mineral oil requirements in the Federal Republic of

Germany
 645

- light heating oil 31 million t/a

- petrol 22 million t/a
- diesel fuel 16 million t/a
- straight-run gasoline 10 million t/a
- kerosine 3 million t/a
Appropriate comparative figures also result for other European
countries. Even if the requirement for light heating oil and petrol
drop by the year 2000 (Fig. 1 ) , then there will still be considerable
amounts for all the above mineral oil products.
Therefore in the processing of the project all of the above
liquid hydrocarbons are considered as possible storage products. A
series of product specifications was prepared for these. In addition,
for each product the safety-relevant data were compiled with regard to
firefighting, transport, danger class, behaviour of mixture with air
and water, together with guidelines for the working areas.
An appropriate analysis of requirements was also prepared for the
liquefied hydrocarbons. For Western Europe there is a requirement to
1990 for 30 millions tonnes of liquid petroleum gas (LPG).
The LPG is used as a household fuel (27%), industrial fuel (30%), as
fuel for combustion engines (1356) and as a basic material for further
chemical processing in industry (30%). In particular the processing of
the project views the following liquefied hydrocarbons as possible
storage products:
Chemical formula
propane C 3H3
propene C 3H6
-butane C 4 H 10
c H
isobutane 4 io
1-butene C 4H8
The essential technical and safety-relevant data were also compiled
for these hydrocarbons.

2.3 Representative rock formations

The selection of the geological formations suitable as storage
caverns was carried out in consideration of some available rock
formations in C entral Europe in connection with the above-mentioned
analyses of requirements. The following rock types were found in the
possible locations:
- Ramsau dolomite
- anhydrite
- slate
- Keuper sandstone.
Comparable rock formations are present in neighbouring European
countries.
Various characteristic data were compiled for the stated rock
types. These include geological, hydrological, rock mechanical,
gothermie and morpholic characteristic quantities. It is however
essential in addition to simulate the rock using idealized models for
the construction engineering considerations. Only then can engineering
observations in the form of stability investigations or similar be
prepared. Fig. 2 shows as an example an approriate model for slate.
This is characterized by an anisotropic stress-strain behaviour of the
intact rock and by jointsets, which are almost always present in
slate, with lower strength compared with the intact rock itself.
646

Young modulus E, - 2-5000 SchlstosKy

(anisotropic) V # ^ C-1-2MN/ID2

Fig. 2: Model for slate based on rock mechanical data

2.4 Structural engineering

In this section construction materials, structural elements and
construction methods are described insofar as they can be of relevance
to lined rock caverns.
Caverns with the dimensions required here are not stable in the
above-mentioned subsoil conditions without additional supporting
measures.
The cavern wall must therefore be strengthened using shotcrete
and anchors as early as the construction stage. This method of
construction has been used in almost all of the underground opening
structures created in the Federal Republic of Germany in recent years.
As in this case however the shotcrete is intended to be a long-term
supporting element, higher demands must be placed here on the
construction material. Rock anchors support the load-bearing effect of
the shotcrete.
In view of the load-bearing effect in the final operating condition
only corrosion-protected permanent anchors may be used.
A further development module is the drainage in the vicinity of
the cavern wall. In this way greater seepage water pressures are to be
kept away from the lining. The design elements available include
fleece, nap-pattern sheeting, structured mats and locally arranged
drainage holes. Previous shotcrete is also a possibility as a suitable
material.
With the help of rock grouting qualities of rock mechanics and
hydrology can be influenced. These include:
- increasing the rock stability
- preventing erosion
- lowering the rock permeability
- reducing the seepage water pressure.
In the design a distinction is made between contact grouting,
consolidation grouting and impermeable grouting.
In view of the sealing materials for the wall lining an
examination of the market was undertaken into the products presently
available in consideration of criteria such as chemical resistance,
 647
resistance to tearing and stretching, permeabiiity as well as simple
and non-hazardous working properties. Three unplasticized polyethylene
foils from different manufacturers were selected for more detailed
investigation in regard to lining systems. In the group of direct
coating materials, products were included in the preselection which
are based on epoxy-plastic compounds. In addition a special steel
nap-pattern sheeting which is affixed directly to the concrete using a
2-component polyurethane adhesive appears to meet the requirements.
The various materials are currently being tested on specially
developed testing equipment for their fissure overbridging
capabilities.
Independent of the reliability of the sealing materials used, the
wall structure must demonstrate a leakage monitoring system with a
locating facility for possible defects. It is therefore recommended to
use a double-walled sealing system, in which the cavity between the
walls provides the possibility of leakage monitoring.
The rock excavation activities are carried out in general by
drilling and blasting. In order to avoid to the greatest extent any
loosening of the cavern wall as a result of blasting and the related
increase in water conductivity it can however be advisable to use a
road header for the outer part of the cavity cross-section. In less
solid rocks the complete excavation by a road header can also be the
most economic solution. The installation of the lining elements should
be carried out as far as possible by the gunning technique; this is,
at least, valid for the concrete and when using epoxy-plastic
compounds.
In order to dimension the necessary supporting measures detailed
stability analyses are required. Nowadays in addition to the
conventional gravity method numerical computation procedures are also
available, which permit a sufficiently exact determination of the
essential parameters influencing the stability:
- location and dimensions of the cavern
- ground relationships, including
- geometry of joint sets
- stress-strain behaviour
- primary stress status
- water conductivity
- type and extent of the supporting measures
- construction conditions, such as partial excavation
- loads caused by the operational mode.
The cited influences are predominantly dependent on a
three-dimensional load transfer. As a result a method of computation
must also satisfy this requirement. As the numerous parameters however
evade for the most part an exact determination, these must be
introduced into the computation with their limits and in consideration
of the probability of their occurrence.

2.5 Plant engineering and operation

The basic operations of a storage cavern include the loading and
unloading of the storage products. Accordingly the plant engineering
must be designed for the loading and unloading of the caverns. In
addition, a series of other peripheral components are required which
must all be integrated into the plant engineering and operational
practice:
- cavern plant
- pumping station and manifold
648

-
pipeline station
-
ship discharge station
-
loading and unloading station for rail tankers
-
loading station for road tankers
-
discharge system
-
additive plant
-
tank farm for additives, concentrated identifying substances,
mixed material, residues, polluted water, oil sludge, foaming
agents
- firefighting plant.
Before a storage plant can come into operation, it must be ensured
that all essential construction and acceptance works have been carried
out in accordance with the design and that the operating personnel
have been trained.
This means inter alia that the complete plant is completely piped
and that all necessary pressure tests and tests on the seals have been
successfully completed and documented.
The individual storage products are supplied via pipeline, inland
waterway tankers or rail tankers. The distribution to the particular
cavern to be loaded always takes place in the central manifold,
whereby the simultaneous charging of several caverns with different
products is possible.
With loading by pipeline the storage medium is firstly fed to a
pressure reducing station in which the long-distance pipeline pressure
is reduced to the manifold pressure. The unloading of the waterway
tankers is carried out by using fixed land-based pumps and/or
compressors, which discharge the product form the ship by means of
suction or by compression. Loading from rail tankers is carried out at
the loading station by means of pumps which are installed for
transporting the product. The intake lines of the pumps are connected
to the rail tankers by means of hoses.
The cavern is filled via the relevant loading line, the manifold and
the intake line.
In all cases a calibrated throughput measurement will be carried
out. Once loading is completed all stop valves will be returned to
their normal positions and the pressure in the pipework will be
released with the help of the discharge system. During unloading the
product flows from the cavern through the unloading line and the
central manifold via pressure increase pumps to rail or road tanker
stations. Via degasser, filter, throughput measuring unit and loading
boom the product reaches the appropriate rail or road tanker. In this
way there exists the possibility of adding certain additives or
identifying substances to individual products by means of dosing pumps.
During shut-down of the plant for a longer period or for
conversion or repair work which involves the removal of parts of the
pipework, then the complete plant must be emptied and freed of gas.
The atmosphere in the pipes is to be checked for freedom from product
and gas before permission is given to start the works. In certain
circumstances the complete pipework has to be purged with nitrogen and
maintained at slight nitrogen overpressure.
The inidivual caverns, machines and pipework systems are equipped
with measuring devices for the local monitoring of pressures,
temperatures and liquid levels. Temperature governors, filling level
governors, transmitters, control valves, pressure switches, level
switches and throughput measuring devices will be installed for
measurement and control purposes. The devices are to be specially
selected for the particular operating conditions. Finally the design
 649

must also take into account the supply engineering. Mainly this
includes supplying the plant with electricity, water, a ventilation
system and communication equipment.

2.6 Safety analysis

In order to be able to evaluate the safety potential of the plant
in respect of meeting the specified demands, it is necessary to
determine individually the potential external influences and the
potential internal breakdowns and to evaluate overall their
interdependencies and effects on the personnel, the equipment and the
environment.
A differentiation has to be made when considering external
influences between:
- rock movements
- earthquakes
- a i r c r a f t crashes
- sabotage.
Possible internal breakdowns can include:
- damage to the wall of the cavern such as for example damage to
the internal seal or to the remaining tunnel system
- damage to operational equipment with the relative supply
equipment, such as:
- breakdown in the public power supply system
- breakdown in the low-pressure manifold
- breakdown of storage chamber devices
- breakdowns within the central machine room
- breakdown in the product pipeline system
- breakdown in the central control room
- breakdown in the ventilation equipment
- breakdown in the emergency water supply.
The prerequisites and the measures to prevent breakdowns for these and
other circumstances are to be set out. Only then is it possible to
gain a comprehensive insight into the safety standards which must be
achieved.
3. CONCEPT OF A MODEL PLANT
The next stage of the work involved the preliminary design of a
model plant. This model plant was to serve to store a longer-term
supply of liquid and liquefied hydrocarbons.
The location of the model plant was selected as the Rhine
Schiefergebirge, a low slate mountain range lying to the left and
right of the river Rhine. The plant is located inland with the result
that there is no unloading facility for ships. Instead of this the
products will be delivered by rail in tankers.
The distribution of the products is carried out both by rail
tankers and road tankers. This presupposes that the location of the
plant has access to a reliable public road network and to a public
railway line.
From the possible storage products listed in section 2.2, the
following storage media were selected for the model plant:
- liquid hydrocarbon : kerosine
- liquefied hydrocarbon : propane C3H0
The products will be supplied, stored and discharged in liquid form.
A storage capacity of 100,000 m 3 is intended for each product,
divided up into 3 storage caverns each with a volume of 35,000 m .
The storage caverns have a clear profile of the following dimensions:
650

Length : approx. 135 m

Width : 15 m
Height : 20 m.
Fig. 3 shows the planned underground plant with a total excavated
volume of 230,000 m 3 with its layout. From this figure it can be
seen that the underground structures are located below as steep a
hillside as possible in order to achieve the desired overlying ground
with relatively short distances. Access to the caverns is via two
shafts, which have local wider sections to accommodate the operating
equipment of the plant. The main part of the pipes will be led along
the main access shaft. The second access shaft is intended essentially
for emergencies.

Fig. 3: Rock cavern plant with a storage volume of 200,000 m 3

The storage caverns will be discharged via 30 filling points into

rail tankers and via 15 filling points into road tankers. The plant
includes compressors and pumps, a control room with the monitoring
equipment and the low-voltage switchgear. Although the low-pressure
manifold is to be installed underground aboveground installation of
the further equipment is more practical. In this way difficulties for
personnel and expenditure on ventilation and similar are dispensed
with.
Due to the required spacing between the process buildings and the
loading stations, aboveground surface area requirements amount to
approx. 5 - 10 ha in total.
 651

For reasons of rock mechanics the cavern cross-section was

selected as a horse-shoe shape with rounded corners in order to keep
any possible peaks in stress of the rock excavation as low as
possible. Furthermore it seemed sensible for reasons of stability to
have the cavern axes running normal to the strike of the slate, which
results in all six caverns being located parallel to each other.
The distances from each other depend on the bearing capacity of
the remaining rock pillars and on possible effects on neighbouring
caverns in the event of breakdowns. The distance should however not be
less than 1 1/2 times the cavern diameter. The distance of the caverns
from the valley floor is determined by the required overlying ground
between the cavern roof and the surface of the terrain.
The lining system represents an important structure element for
the underground cavern. The design of this lining assumed two
important prerequisites:
- the caverns will be excavated in slate which is stable without
any additional costly measures,
- the slate surrounding the caverns has such a low rate of
permeability that practically no great amounts of groundwater
enter the caverns from more distant groundwater tables.
The lining system must undertake the sealing function between the
sored product and the rock as well as the stability of locally
resticted rock sections which tend to loosen. The following lining
svstem was selected for the model olant (Fia. 4 ) :

rock anchor

reinforced shotcrete with

groundwater drainage syatem

Polymer coating

__7 2 layers of e p o x y - r e s i n

permeable shotcrete with

leakage control system
Polymer cement concrete

Fig. A: Double-walled lining system with leakage monitoring

capability

- An external, structurally reinforced shotcrete shell serves as

levelling course for the irregularly shaped excavated surface and
as stability in conjunction with the rock anchors which may be
required. Any mountain water arising will be led off with the
help of drainage lines.
- The surface of the shotcrete receives a levelling course onto
which a synthetic resin impregnation is applied.
652

- The following layer consists of non-reinforced pervious shotcrete

in which the leakage monitoring lines are installed.
- A further layer consists of a polymer shotcrete with a low
elastic modulus, which overbridges any fissures arising in the
above-mentioned layers. In addition it also ensures the necessary
smooth and non-porous surface for the application of the internal
sealing layer.
- The actual internal seal is an epoxy-plastic layer applied in two
layers.
The lining system selected here satisfies the requirement for a
double-walled system by means of the various layers and by using the
rock surrounding the cavern as a geological barrier.
The selected underground plant was compared with a conventional
overground plant of similar size. Here a plant with 20 tanks, each
with a capacity of 10,000 m 5 , was assumed. Guidelines determined
that the spacing between the tanks above ground must be at least
100 m. In this case the surface area requirement of the complete plant
is approx. 60 - 80 ha. The personnel required to operate the plant
represents a main cost factor. On a three-shift system a total of
between 30 and 40 employees are required depending on the type of
aboveground plant.
The result of the comparison shows that in regard to the
evaluation of the investment parameters such as surface area
requirements and plant structures as well as personnel costs, the
underground plant has clear economic advantages. If one also takes
into account parameters such as acceptance by the population,
capability of protection, environmental compatibility and extension
possibilities, then these parameters, which can be evaluated
qualitively, speak in favour of an underground plant.

4. DESING OF A PILOT PLANT

The third stage of the development project provided for the
design of a pilot plant. The aim of this pilot plant was to be able to
test the functional principle of a lined rock cavern on a scale of
1 : 1 . The absolute size of the storage volume is here of subordinate
importance and was determined in this case at 100 m3.
On the basis of the state of knowledge of the geological
formation of the Ramsau dolomite worked out in section 2, the
constructional elements of the pilot plant were designed and
dimensioned quantitively. Fig. 5 shows the structural concept of this

_ 4,0 J..0 A - A
concrete_plu
lining system

jeakage control system

\geotechnical measurements

Fig. 5: Geometry of the pilot plant

 653

Itti
Hilen l i a u a i l (irti Jir visiti

5> bo t Larai
oround m 1er i l
SO '^'100
p r t u u r t t n j a l ISbir
> >}>ixnmm

Tarv IM

^.yr tLrt*!
cavern
diiaittr J
Itngih D

outer chamber \ concrete plug prmurriji air

Fig. 6: Plant engineering for the pilot plant

pilot plant. For the final design of the lining system, the results of
the material investigations referred to above must first be awaited.
Similarly the plant engineering was conceived with regard to the
planned test programme (Fig. 6 ) . This test programme provides
initially for a loading of the cavern with water at internal pressures
of between 1 and 10 bars. Subsequently there is an appropriate
pressure test with air before finally longterm tests are carried out
with liquid fuel and liquefied gas.
The tests are to be accompanied by a comprehensive measuring
programme, the results of which will be stored, printed and plotted by
means of data collection equipment. The geotechnical measuring
programme provides for measurements of stress, water pressure,
temperature and expansion in the rock as well as in the shotcrete
lining. The proof of the tightness of the lining will be given by
measurements of pressures, temperature, filling levels and by means of
various sensors.
Finally lists of all works were compiled and detailed cost
estimates prepared for all works affecting the pilot plant.
 655

DRILLING - PILING - PLATFORMS

System for full automation of tripping

integrated in a standard drilling mast

New lining technologies for drilling and

production equipments : boron carbide coatings

Optimization of drilling operations

Completion of horizontal drains

Design studies of center column semi-submersible

vessels

underwater drill for large capacity piles

Development of the Hydra-Lok system for application

to deepwater jacket structures

The grouted driven pile: an economic alternate

for pile foundation in calcareous sands

A field investigation into the performance

of a piled foundation system for an offshore
oil production platform
and
A field investigation into the soil structure
interaction of a foundation system during the
early life of an offshore oil production platform
 657

5Y5TCH FOR FULL AUTOMATION OF TRIPPING

INTEGRATED IN A STANDARD DRILLING HAST

G. GAZEL-ANTHOINE
General manager
Platefornes et Structures Ocaniques

SumniHry

During the course of the following projects:

- TH 02.13/84 Device for lifting control
- TH 02.26/84 Automation of Phase I drilling
- TH 02.29/85 Automation of Phase II drilling
the following were developped:
- an automatic drawworks control system
- various powerized handling tools
- an integrated system associating these tools to the control of the
drawworks, and whose purpose is to extract all drill pipes of the
drill string without any intervention other than checking that the
assembly is operating correctly.
This system has incured:
- increasing of personnel safety by keeping people far from moving
loads and equipment.
- increasing well safety during tripping and drilling operations.
These operations are conducted with precision and a high vigilance
level.
- easy recording of penetration parameters with a good repeatability
of measurement procedure.

1. DIRECT DIGITAL DRAWWORKS CONTROL SYSTEM

In terms of the drawworks, it could be said that the idea began with
the following general observations:
Considering that, every day, we use pushbutton-operated elevators
which stop to the nearest millimeter under perfectly satisfactory operating
and safety conditions, it is difficult to understand why an alternative to
operator control of drilling device drawworks has not been developped,
especially since the operator is not always in a convenient position to see
what is going on.
When we analyze the problem, it is not as simple as the case of an
elevator, but all the elements required to create a sufficiently reliable
automatic control system are in fact available.
We have tried to follow as closely as possible the manner in which a
driller operates, and, at the beginning, to not modify the electrical and
mechanical devices used, in order to avoid complicating the comparative
evaluation of the reliability of the new system in relation to the existing
one.
With this reasoning in mind, i.e. for the control of drawworks drive
motors, we went as far as using potentiometers that were strictly identical
to those used in the foot throttle.
The diagram hereafter shows the components making up the drawworks
control process.
658

The basic control parameter is the movement of the travelling block:

we wanted to stop the block at well-defined heights, and speed control (up
or down) must be related to the altitude if stoppage is to be precise and
without any jerking at these predetermined heights.
A speed and position detector was therefore installed on the block,
which is in fact a rotation detector for one of the pulleys of the crown
block (sensor 1 ) .
The altitude of the points of
,SENSOR 1 stoppage is determined step by step,
in accordance with the progression
of the phases making up a trip in or
trip out cycle. ,
The altitude of the lower points of
stoppage does not vary: it is a few
decimeters above the rotary table.
In the top position, the
altitude of stoppage is
more difficult to
d e t e r m i n e , since the
length of the drill pipes,
and consequently of the
stands, are not constant.
The lengths of the stands
must therefore be stored
in memory. Therefore, we
could not limit ourselves
to an e 1 e v a t o r - t y pe
e l e c t r o h y d r a u l i c system.
This required a
man-machine d i a l o g u e
i n c l u d i n g data exchange,
the storage of the numbers
in the memory, and
management of these data
s o t h a t t h e y c a n be
r e t r i e v e d when needed.
I f you w a t c h a d r i l l e r
working, you can see t h a t
he a l m o s t c o n t i n u o u s l y
monitors the suspended
w e i g h t . When s o m e t h i n g is
encountered during the t r i p i n , the
weight i s reduced. When something i s
hooked onto i t during the t r i p o u t ,
the weight increases.
The suspended weight has t h e r e f o r e been acquired by measuring the
t e n s i o n of the dead l i n e , using the system u s u a l l y provided f o r t h i s
(sensor 2 ) .
Through the use of optical detection for the tool joints (sensor 3),
we provided ourselves with the means for correcting the differences that
could arise either from using a wrong length of the drill pipe, or from any
shift in the position measurement system (elasticity of the line, sliding,
etc.). Evidently the tool joints and the casing protectors should not be
confused.
 659

These constraints and a few others, which will discuss later, called
for the use of a computer that could control a screen and keyboard unit, o
larye read/write memory and a bulk memory, and that could be programmed
with a high-level language. We used the Series 9U00 from Hewlett Packard.
This computer interprets the data gathered and governs the speed of
the hook by delivering the appropriate control signals to the friction
brake, to the electromagnetic brake, to the D.C. motors and their clutches.
The last two items are controlled, in manual mode, by means of control
currents, and, in the automatic-controlled mode, they are actuated hy
transmitting identical control currents.
Actuation of the band brake requires the installation of an actuator
fed by a hydraulic unit, which will replace the hand and the weight of the
driller.
We will come back to this late on when discussing the components of
the band brake actuator for safety purpose.
It should be noted that the automatic drawworks control system poses
no new complications. It requires practically no modifications to the
actual drilling device, and the space that the various components take up
is quite small.
It can be instantly declutched at both the hydraulic and electrical
levels, and if desired, within 30 seconds at the mechanical level (rod of
actuator pulled out of band brake lever).
This declutching is required to carry out non-standard operations
which must be controlled manually.

2. RELIABILITY - SAFETY AND EFFICIENCY

One of the major justifications of the product is the improvement that
it brings in terms of safety, and any objections to it, even implicit ones,
arise from the doubts remaining in users minds regarding the difficulty, or
even the impossibility, of having a system that offers both a safety and an
efficiency comparable to a drawworks which is directly operated by the
driller.
Let us first look at the problem of SAFETY, which is obviously
fundamental.
Generally speaking, the system 3 designed so that, in case of a fault
- any type of fault it moves immediately into safety stoppage, i.e.
100% band brake, 100% electromagnetic brake, Oui motors and open clutch.
A risk analysis of the entire system has been made. Here we will only
examine the failure of the stoppage, whose consequences can be quite
serious.
Let us first state that apart from the operator himself the
conventional braking device operated in manual mode for drawworks 3 very
simple, and that it is so clearly oversized that the level of safety that
it offers is quite high.
New system-controllod sloppage involves:
- measurement of the position of the travelling block
- computer processing of this value
- sending of a control signal to an actuator acting on the conventional
device, which applies the brake bands on the rims of the drums.
Comparatively to conventional operation, it can be seen that the
device replaces only, but totally, the driller.
Failures may arise at sensor, transmission, computer and actuator
levels.
Failure of the position sensor is countered by the doubling of this
sensor and the systematic comparison at computer level with the indication:
if the difference between the two sensors shows nn abnormal drift, a safety
stoppage is engaged.
660

Computer f a i l u r e i s also covered by the safety stoppage system, which

i s e n t i r e l y e x t e r n a l to the computer. The stoppage system which i s always
ready to act i s n e u t r a l i z e d by an order coning from the computer, f o r a
C.2-second time delay. I f t h i s n e u t r a l i z a t i o n order disappears, the sdfety
stoppage goes i n t o e f f e c t .
For the band brake
a c t u a t o r shown i n t h e
drawing, t h i s i s made up
o f an a c t u a t o r d i r e c t l y
a c t i n g on the brake l e v e r .
An o l e o p n e u m a t i c s p r i n g
applied to the rear side
o f the a c t u a t o r causes
100% t i g h t e n i n g o f the
b r a k e ( 1 0 0 kg on t h e
lever).
The s i g n a l , sent by the
computer, c o n t r o l s the
brake opening
back-pressure by means of
a servovalve.
Safety stoppage leads to
t h e z e r o back p r e s s u r e
s i g n a l and opens the EVT
v a l v e . S i n c e t h e two
orders are routed through
two d i f f e r e n t cables, the
order has total
redundancy.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , it is
certain that, for example
the hydraulic declutching
device which is required
for easy return to manual
mode, itself introduces
potential failure sources.
We will not develop this any further here. It is a question of
standard electrohydraulic devices' whose level of reliability is controlled
through the use of redundancy or hiqh-reliability components.
Once safety is guaranteed, the requirements in terms of RELIAILITY
are relatively modest: a 1000 hours MTBF meets practical requirements
providing reparation would be easy and not time consuming. The reliability
of component is coherent with the oabjective and experience shows easily
that such a rate could 'be achieved.
The experience shows also that there are no induced time losses and
that the speed during tripping remains comparative to the hand operated one

3. DESCRIPTION OF OPERATIONS
Once we know how to stop the travelling block at a suitable height, we
can describe the chain of phases for a trip-in cycle, as shown in the
diagram hereafter.
- The basic operations carried out by drillers are carried out in a more or
less nanual manner.
- The driller checks that the operation has heen correctly carried out.
- Through "validation" the driller reactuotes the controlled lifting
function which will automatically bring the elevator to the altitude
required for the next basic operation.
 661

- And so on.

To speak in more concrete terms,

a trip-in cycle takes place as follows

TIME
%

o CE

l
gz
<lJ TRIP IN
_l >n
UJO
in
Autaaatically-controlled
Basic operations carried out
moveaent phases of block manually

1- the string descends (by 27 )

3- the string is put onto the slips
(0.10 m)
5- Empty block is brought back up (26 m
to retrieve the next stand)
7- the stand is lifted (1 m)
9- the pin is lowered into
the box (0.10 m)
11- It is lifted to remove
the slips (0.10 m)
Next cycle resumes at step 1
2- the slips are inserted
the driller "validates"
4- the elevator is opened and
the driller "validates"
6- the elevator is closed on
the prepared stand and the
driller "validates"
8- the stand is stabilized
above the string and the
driller "validates"
10- joint is made and the
driller "validates"
12- the slips are oxtracted
and the driller "validates"
662
4. COMPLETE POWERIZATION OF THE FLOOR AND MAST
Now the tasks carried out by roughnecks on the
drilling floor or at the racking platform can be
carried out with powerized tools.
If the tool is completely autonomous, i.e. it
carries out the entire task triggered by a simple
startup signal, it can easily be included in the
previously analyzed sequences. The drawworks computer
sends the startup signal for the tool and, upon
receiving, the end-of-operation signal, interprets it
as the validation previously sent by the driller.
As powerized tools, the robotization test being
carried out on the ELF 8 drilling rig uses:
- Pneumatically-controlled BLM GILPACK power slips.
These slips, installed on inclined ramps, are
self-blocking, just like manual slips. They cannot
be deactivated when they are loaded.
- The BLU, model 2G, BILK spinning and torque power
wrench is equivalent to the already known model I.
It offers the additional capability of carrying out
a chained sequence made up of forward - break out -
spinning out - backward movements (or forward -
spinning in - make up - return). If necessary, the
height
of the
STABBING machine i s s e I f - a d j usted.
The i n s t a l l e d m o d e l o n l y
h a n d l e s D . C . s up t o 8 1 / 2
inches.
When the device has freed the
o p e n i n g f o r the jaws a n d / o r
come to the backward p o s i t i o n ,
i t sends an e n d - o f - o p e r a t i o n
signal.
SPINNING The motorized e l e v a t o r i s
of a standard model, American
manufactured, and modified f o r
the requirements at hand.
S i m i l a r t o t h e case o f t h e
s l i p s , i t cannot he opened when
TORQUE l o a d e d and moves t o w a r d
complete c l o s i n g as soon as the
opening s i g n a l disappears and a
d r i l l pipe i s present i n the
c e n t e r o f the e l e v a t o r . The
device i s f i t t e d w i t h a l o c k i n g
position detector.
The p i p e - h a n d l i n g system
i s the BILSTAB from BLU. I t
includes:
- A s t a b i l i z e r arm located at
the top of the BILK,
- A lower BILSTAB, which
BLM fifllL I3L supports the stand during
handling and stores i t on the
set-back,
 663
- An upper BILSTA3 fitted with a fork which guides the stands in the racks
at monkey board level with opening or closing the locking fingers of the
stored stand.

UPPER Positions :

a ready to transfer
BILSTAB
b transverse racking

WX+X+yxfa
4- 4 4 4 + 4- + + +
Li + + + 4 4- 4 4-
+ + 4 4 4 4- 4 +

+ + 4 + 4 4 4 +
H + 4 4 + 4 4 4 -t

1 f 4 4 4 + + 4 4 4

1 ++ 4 + 4 4 4 4 4
L+ + + + 4 + + 4 4
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 +

In semiautomatic mode, this device also operates in chained sequence

mode: opening/closing of fork, movement of stabilizer arm, rotation and
translation of upper and lower GILSTAI. In this mode, the storage position
on the setback is determined by the operator.
In fully automatic mode, the drawworks computer determines the storage
position.
In addition, the pipehandling system is fitted with a certain number
of endoftravel devices which indicate the position of the various system
components.
Finally, the rig onto which all this quipement is installed in fitted
with a BRETFQR power swivel from ACB ALSTHII ATLANTIQUE. The tilting of the
power swivel is included in the process, at the level of handling of the
stands. It makes it possible to increase the rate of work of the PUS and
facilitates automatic closing of the elevator.
The whole of the tools discussed above, carries out dll the tasks,
previously carried out manually, performed on the floor and racking
platform.
We should say that we have forgotten to furnish the mud saver bucket,
but we can easily correct this oversight later.
664

5. FULLY INTEGRATED AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM OF TRIP I\ AND OUT

If we take into consideration the automaticallycontrolled drawworks
trip in sequence, which we discussed ahove, it is obvious that Lhe computer
can, instead of the driller, start up powerized tools as long as these
operate in pushbutton mode, which is the case for most of the tools
presented here. Similarly, the ends of operation detected >it tool level can
be interpreted as the driller validations, needed with manual tool.
The following did yram
BILSTAB
g ives a symbolic
UPPER ARM r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of system
components.
The communication between
the t o o l s and the computer
is symbolized in the
diagram. I t uses a coded
l a n g u a g e . Une c h a n n e l
corresponds to the s t a r t u p
orders f o r the t o o l s and
to the d r i l l pipe storage
l o c a t i o n s . The o t h e r
channel r e t u r n s tu t h e
computer the p r o g r e s s i o n
and a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f
t a s k s r e q u e s t e d o f the
^ t o o l s . Knowledge of t h i s
p r o g r e s s i o n makes i t
possible to have c e r t a i n
overlap between drawworks
m o v e m e n t s and floor
operations:
The empty block can thus
go b a c k d o w n d u r i n g
d r i l l pipe s t o r a g e .
The HI L approach can
take place during the up
c y c l e o f t h e s t r i n g so
t h a t i t can be terminated
b e f o r e the s l i p s are
inserted.

6. ADVANTAGES
T h e c o n t r o l of t h e
drawworks, as well as the
integrated system that we
have just discussed, offer
a certain number of advantages which we would like to discuss here.
The first advantage is the increase in personnel sofety.
Unfortunately, it cannot be denied that workstations on the floor and at
racking platform are dangerous.
The proximity of heavy suspended weights, the weight of the Lools used,
represents a high risk for personnel. As the weight and forces involved
increase with the development of motorization, the reduction of accidents
occurence is overtaken by cost increase of their consequences.
Reduction of risk would entail keeping all personnel at a distance fro:a
these tools. As this was impossible with the equipment that has been
available up to now, the risk is today ineluctahle.
 665

Most incidents involving block to block and fall of travelling block

on the floor arise out of human error. Experience shows that these
incidents are not extremely rare and that their consequences are very
costly. The vigilance, the quick response of the automatic control system,
and the reliability of the equipment used will reduce this significantly.
Rig time savings: although we are still in a probatory period, with
the down speeds being limited to values lower than those used by good
operators, and the overlap between operations not yet implemented, we will
increase the overall handling speed, if only from the fact that the effects
of fatigue will not be felt.
Well safety: apart from accidental drops of the string in the hole,
which it should be possible to reduce insofar as they result from an error
that has already been indicated, the precise control of up and down speeds
should eliminate the risks of swabbing provided of course that suitable
instructions have been given to the system.
The accuracy of speed governing obtained with the electromagnetic
brake makes it possible to limit the use of the band brake to speeds lower
than 0.1 m/sec, while it is very difficult to control this brake by hand
due to its very high time constant (2 seconds) and the material
impossibility for the operator to use the electromagnetic brake when both
his hands are on the band brake lever.
With accurate knowledge regarding the lengths in place, a casing-liner
jonction can, for example, be lowered by reducing the speed at the level of
each casing point.
With all the capabilities for processing and storage in memory that a
computer offers, it is even possible to keep close account of work of the
accumulated fatigue of each pull drill pipe of the train. Here the
difficulty would be more in terms of coming to an agreement regarding the
manner in which the accumulated fatigue must be represented.
Since all the data involving the equipment making up the drill string
effectively in place are available, the mechanical or hydraulic
characteristics of this string can be calculated at any point during the
operation, and its composition printed out.
The system measures and records the untightening torques for tool joints.

7. AUTOMATIC DRILLING AND DRILL OFF TEST

The informations and resources used by the Drawworks Control System
enable control of the weight on bit: either directly to keep it constant,
or by modulating it so as to keep the pressure drop in a bottom motors at a
constant level.
The system records continuously the evolution of rotary torque and mud
pressure loss and rate of penetration and can detect in some case dulling
and balling of tool.
When we find out how to optimize the RPM and WOB, using the surface or
bottom parameters directly available, we will be able to follow up the
optimized values for weight and RPH, with the possibility of the computer
carrying out these optimization operations.
While waiting for this stage of progress, on request, system carry
out drill off tests which explore the rate of penetration over a weight
range determined by the operator.
The ease with which this information is obtained and the high
repeatability of the follovz-up procedure should at least make it possible
to create a data base that is reliable and complete enough to enable valid
statistical interpretation.


NEW LINING TECHNOLOGIES FOR DRILLING AND PRODUCTION

EQUIPMENTS :
BORON CARBIDE COATINGS

Dr. Pascal NISIO

COATING DEVELOPPEMENT S.A.

SUMMARY
New lining technologies are suitable to deposit hard coatings on
various substrates . In order to coat drilling and production
equipments, the feasability of boron carbide deposition by Low
Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition is demonstrated on
cemented carbide and steel substrates. A deposition phase
diagram is reported at low temperature (1000 K). The interaction
betwen W-C-Co and B-Cl-H systems is envisaged, with special
attention to elemental interdiffusion. The physical, mechanical
and tribological properties are described, with reference to other
ceramics. Some preliminary interesting results of on-cell tests of
lined cemented carbide tools are finally presented.

1 . AIM OF THE PROJECT

This project consists in developing - on drilling and production
equipments - a method of deposition of a product presenting
mechanical characteristics superior to those of tungstene carbide
(resistance to abrasion and shocks) and slightly inferior to those of
synthetic polycristalline diamond, of equivalent cost or less expensive
than tungstene carbide.

2 . BORON CARBIDE COATINGS (BXC2)

2 . 1 Lininp conditions
Boron carbide coatings are prepared within a "hot wall" reactor
(figure 1) by Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD), from a gas mixture of
BCI3, CH4 and H2(l). The pressure is comprised between 100 and 1000
Pa (Low Pressure CVD) and the temperature ranges from 1200 to
1350 K. The deposition occurs by reduction of BCI3 by H 2 and reaction
with CH4 near the substrate.

2 . 2 Characterization of deposited solids

* Phase diagram : The diagram on figure 2 shows the
deposition areas in temperature/composition coordinates. At high
temperature, the general aspect of the conventional diagram
 667

established from melted or sintered products is conserved (2). At

lower temperature, by mean of CVD process , the main deposition
areas correspond to the rhomboedral B13C2 solid solution, a tetragonal
phase B50C2 and the two-phase compositions + B13C2 and B13C2 +
B 5 0 C 2 . This diagram differs from that presented previously at
atmospheric pressure and high flow rates (3). The simultaneous
decrease of these two parameters results in the shift of deposition
areas toward low temperatures. The domains have also expanded
along the C% axis, allowing a B50C2 single phase area to appear and
making the amorphous phase at high carbon content disappear.
* Interaction between B-Cl-H and W-C-Co systems : The
metallographic cross sections observation of coated WC-Co substrates
shows three distinct areas (figure 3) : an outer deposit of boron
carbide, an intermediate layer of altered substrate called "underlayer"
and the bulk cemented carbide .
The formation of the underlayer is related to an important boron
diffusion within the interphase of the cemented carbide (metallic
cobalt, tungstene and carbon in solution). Then, boron slowly diffuses
within the tungstene carbide grains. Consequently, coronas of
tungstene borides (W2B5, WB4 + Co in solution) develop around
tungstene carbide grains (4). The resulting interphase is composed of
brittle phases containing boron, carbon, cobalt and tungstene. A
secondary cobalt migration to the surface is observed (< 0.5 % Co), but
it does not affect the coating properties.
This analysis of element migration during the deposition leads to
define several parameters , such as low Co-content of substrate or
high C/B ratio in the vapor phase, in order to minimize the interaction
between B-Cl-H and W-C-Co systems. Another solution consists in the
interposition of a diffusion barrier between the cemented carbide
substrate and the boron carbide deposit (5).
* Physical, mechanical and tribological properties : The
hardness of boron carbide coatings is function of the carbon content as
shown in figure 4, betwen 4 and 20 % atom carbon . Boron carbide,
which maximal hardness is 5800 Hv, is much more harder than other
coatings (table I).
The very low elastoplastic coefficient of B X C2 coatings, in
comparison with other ceramics (figure 5), implies an excellent wear
resistance.
The Young modulus and the elastoplastic coefficient of B X C2
coatings have been determined by an indentation method (with a
variable load). The Young modulus varies between 340 and 400 GPa,
in function of the chemical composition (the maximum modulus at
668

13.3 %C corresponds to B13C2) and the deposition temperature (texture

effects).
Friction coefficients and wear analysis have been studied by
mean of a ball-on-plane tribometer with an alternative movment (4).
Several friction couples have been tested, as shown in figure 6. The
lowest friction coefficient obtained, F m =0.12, is given by B13C2/B13C2
couples. At the beginning of friction (figure 7), the coefficient quickly
decreases from 0.4 to 0.12 , corresponding to a reduction of roughness.
Then the friction coefficient remains stable. After 4000 frictions, it
increases slowly up to 0.22, probably in relation to the formation of a
third oxidized phase. However, wear remains very weak during these
experiments.

3 . ON-CELL / ON-SITE TESTS OF BxC2 COATINGS

3 . 1 Rock drilling : On-cell drilling tests have been performed
with a 5 cm drill bit equiped with 5 WC-Co inserts of "stratapax" type
and the following parameters : W.O.B = 2.08 kN; R.P.M = 750; flow-rate
= 40 1/mn. Tests were run in granite. It seemed not easy to obtain
results similar to those provided by the polycristalline diamond (R.O.P.
= 50 cm/mn, drilled length = 1 8 m). The drilling results with uncoated
or BXC2 coated WC-Co inserts are given below:
uncoated WC-Co inserts : R.O.P = 10 -> 6 cm/mn
drilled length : 1.1 m
coated WC-Co inserts : R.O.P = 93 -> 30 cm/mn
drilled length up to R.O.P = 50 cm/mn : 3.15 m
BxC2"Coated WC-Co inserts give better results than uncoated
ones. New drilling tests with new insert geometries and better
mechanical properties are now being envisaged in soft rocks.

3 . 2 Drilling/production nozzles
* 10/32 drilling nozzles have been tested on-cell during 5 h with
a 1% sand containing mud and flow-rates between 100 and 140 m/s .
Wear was only observed on tungstene carbide nozzles, while B X C2
coated ones remained intact.
* Tests of sanding nozzles have been performed to compare the
wear resistance of several materials. The first results (figure 8)
indicate that Bj3C2-coated WC-Co nozzles have a lifetime 30 times
longer than uncoated ones.

4 . CONCLUSIONS
The properties presented in this paper indicate that boron
carbide coatings are particularly adapted to friction and abrasive
wear. Indeed, their properties are better than other hard and wear-
resistant ceramics like alumina or silicium carbide. The chemical
 669

properties permit applications within corrosive environment (H2S for

instance) even at high temperature (up to 500 C).
The results of this project could attract different manufacturers
of oil equipment within the drilling and production domains, for:
- specific cutting tools,
- tool-joints, providing the on-steel deposition technique,
- different components of production equipment (nozzles,
valve seats and caps...).
- parts presenting stable dimensions versus severe
environment (corrosion and abrasion).

REFERENCES
(1) Patent N 84.10290 (Coating Dveloppement). "Procd de
ralisation de revtements de carbure de bore et revtements
obtenus".
(2) LARTIGUE, S. (1986). Elaboration par CVD et caractrisation de
dpts de carbure de bore. Application au revtement de l'acier.
Thesis, Grenoble.
(3) VANDENBULCKE, L. and VUILLARD, J. (1981). J. Less Common
Met. 82, 49; 7th Int;Symp. on boron, borides and related
compounds, Uppsala, Sweden.
(4) REY, J. (1987). Thesis to be submitted, Limoges.
(5) LARTIGUE, S., CAZAJOUS, D. and MALE G. (1986). Dpts
chimiques en phase vapeur de carbure de bore sur carbure de
tungstne fritte et sur acier.
Exhaust to
the pumps

Vacuum gaudge

Resistor

Sample
holder
Radiation
shelves Power supply

Gas mixture Inlet

Fig. 1 - "Hot wall" CVD reactor.
670

3000 _. T(K)

2500-

2000.

1500

1000_

20 30

C (at.*/.)

Fig. 2 : Phase diagram in the B-C system

1-B + B 13 C 2 ; 2-B 13 C 2 3-B13C2 + C
4-B50C2; 5- B J O C 2 + B 13 C 2 ; 6-BI3C2 + "X"
7-"X"; 8- "X" + C

Fig. 3 - Cross-section observation of a WC-Co

substrate coated with boron carbide.
1 - Boron carbide coating.
2 - Underlayer(altered cemented carbide).
3 - Bulk cemented carbide.
 671

6000 .

o 5000

4000
E
~>3000

X 2000

? 1000

1 1 "

10 15 20
Atom carbon %

Fig. 4 Evolution of BX C 2 hardness in function of carbon content.

.9
.8 q
*

i .7

ss :
_,

S .4 .
fa : oil 9
0: Q
: ;
.1 : ju
vi
;
: )
Tf
: ISJ:
>

Fig. 5 Comparison of elastoplatic

coefficients of several ceramics.
672

Ball B13C2

Pline B13C2
0.6 .

0.4 .

0.2 .

0 M (S CX .
U O
o
S IOm ) (O

m
to m <
Fig. 6 Friction coefficient of several ceramics couples
determined by ballonplane tribometry in dry air.

Fig. 7 Evolution of the friction coefficient of a couple

B13C2/B13C2 during 480 cycles.
 673

.3
particles : Si C
flowrate : 3.4 g/s
Speed : 23 m/s
uncoated WCCo
.2

Bl 3C2 coated WCCo

1 1 1 1 1 1
4 6 10
Time (hours)

Fig. 8 Wear evolution of WCCo sanding nozzles.

Table I Ceramics hardness

Vickers hardness (kg/mm 2 )

Ceramics Hardness
0 5000 10000
(kg/mm2)

TiC 30003200 III

TiN 17002000
TB2
SiC
30003500
30003500
III111
S3N4 18002000 III
hBN 600900 III
A1203 20002400 mi
adiamond
Diamond
20004000 III
900010000
B13C2 35005800 y/////
674

OPTIMIZATION OF DRILLING OPERATIONS

D.M. TRAONMILIN, D. KADJAR and B. DU CHAFFAUT

Groupement Europen de Recherches Technologiques
sur les Hydrocarbures (GERTH)
(ELF AQUITAINE, TOTAL and IFP)

Summary
From 1984 to 1987 the European Economic Community sponsored the
research and development project "Optimization of Drilling Operations".
The main results obtained from this joint effort of Elf Aquitaine, Total
and Institut Franais du Ptrole concern the mechanics of the drill
string, the borehole and the drill bit while drilling in the rotary mode
or with a downhole turbine. These results consist in an improved knowledge
of :
- the Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA) directional behaviour in deviated wells,
- the transmission of weight and torque from the surface drilling rig to
the drill bit,
- the relationships between the" weight applied to the drill bit and the
resulting torque.
The basic ideas which prevailed when initiating this research where
that :
- the reduction in drilling costs could come from the drilling phase
itself, since it takes up to 30 % of the drilling operations time,
- this reduction had to come from a better knowledge of drilling
mechanics,
- the commercial availability of Measurement While Drilling (MWD) devices
made it possible to obtain downhole data previously not measurable.
The results are now available either in the form of computer software,
in-company brochures or published technical papers.

1 - INTRODUCTION
The project "Optimization of Drilling Operations" started in 1984 with
the idea that cost reductions were necessary in drilling operations. The
project was then built around open hole operations. The reason is that
drilling new hole takes up to about 30 % of the total drilling operation
time.
A second idea was that progress would come from a better understanding
of the physics of drilling. Physics here are opposed to the many past
attempa to identify phenomena through statistics. These have shown their
value but are soon limited due to the typically large dispersion of
drilling data.
The third idea was that the commercial availability of Measurement
While Drilling (MWD) devices would help in understanding downhole
phenomena and verifying hypotheses.
The three subjects chosen and studied throughout the project,
completed in 1987 are :
- the Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA) directional behaviour,
- the transmission of weight and torque from the drilling rig to the drill
bit,
- the study of Warren's model of the roller cone bit torque.
 675

To provide the project group with real field data, logging campaigns
were organized on a number of wells. In 1984 and 1985 a specialized team
recorded both surface and downhole data on the following wells :
- in Holland : well L4A4,
- in Indonesia : wells HT 231, HK 556, HGB 379, HO 246 (HANDIL Field),
- in France : wells SFT 15, MZS 4,
- in Norway : wells 25/4-A4, 25/4-A6, 25/4-A9 and 25/4-A5 (HEIMDAL Field).

2 - BOTTOM HOLE ASSEMBLIES DIRECTIONAL BEHAVIOUR

The main result of this part of the project is the construction of
three-dimensional computer models of the lower part of the drill string,
i.e. the bottom hole assembly (BHA). These models are aimed at predicting
the directional behaviour of BHAs (ORPHEE 3D model) and at analysing their
vibratory modes (BHA 3 model) in the three dimensions of space.
To reach these results the project group started from two-dimensional
models which had shown good performance. These predicted satisfactorily
the behaviour of rotary BHAs in inclination (1, 2, 3). What missed to
complete the control of the directional behaviour was a prediction of
azimuth changes (Fig. 1). The research followed then two lines of
thought :
- going to three dimensions, finite element, real time simulators of the
BHA dynamics,
- approaching the dynamics through modal analysis of BHAs.
The first approach started with writing a computer programme
simulating BHAs by finite elements, statically, in three dimensions
(Fig. 2). This was the preliminary step to writing a code simulating the
BHA dynamically in three dimensions along time steps. An original
algorithm was developped to take into account the BHA to wall contact (4).
This contact was represented dynamically as a succession of short shocks
(Fig. 3). The equations modelling these shocks introduced the friction
coefficient between wall and BHA. The output values of the bit side-forces
obtained from the model happened to be quite complex functions of time
(Fig. 4 and 5). However the time average of the bit side-force was very
close to the static two dimensional inclination force obtained from the
previous 2D models. This gave the idea of attempting a generalization of
this to the azimuth bit side-force, while using a quasi-dynamic friction
coefficient (Fig. 6). From this point the work went on with the ORPHEE 3D
static model, which could run on a HP 9000 minicomputer, while the full
size dynamic model requires a mainframe. The performances finally obtained
with field data concern two fields, HEIMDAL in Norway and HANDIL in
Indonesia. For HEIMDAL, using a constant overgauge and a constant friction
coefficient, the model simulated 83 % of the inclination gradients within
0,15/10 m and 54 % of the azimuth gradients within 0,05/10 m. For
HANDIL, with the overgauge taken as a function of the rate of penetration
and a constant friction coefficient, the model simulated 65 % of the
inclination gradients within 0,15/10 m and 57 % of the azimuth gradients
within 0,1/10 m. These figures have been obtained while performing a
post-interpretation. Much better results in inclination can be obtained if
a BHA is selected using the model. In such a case a slight safety margin
can be taken and each BHA is selected to drill with an inclination
gradient slightly above the needed one. The performance then can be
adjusted in many cases to the exact trajectory either by controlling the
penetration rate or by reaming one or more times before adding joints.
676

Still, the quality of the prediction needs improvement. Calibration of

the model to a given field through overgauge and friction coefficient does
not account for the anisotropic structure of rock. The next step is
introducing rock anisotropy in the hole bottom to bit face reaction. This
work is conducted by the GERTH in the item MAITRAJ of the EEC sponsored
project "Optimized drilling for cost reduction".
The second approach started with the idea of analysing the influence
of vibrations on the directional behaviour of drill strings. To do this a
three-dimensional model has been programmed on a HP 9000 minicomputer.
This model allows to perform the modal analysis of BHAs with a complete
choice of the boundary conditions at each node. Further work is necessary
to verify correlations between directional performance and the presence of
given modes.
To support these two lines of research a laboratory bench is being
built this year. It has been designed to model BHAs at a reduced scale,
and the material has been chosen for conservation of the mechanical laws
applicable to BHAs. When construction is completed it is planned to verify
a number of hypotheses concerning BHA side-forces and vibratory modes,
also within the MAITRAJ project.
So as to extend the validity of BHA models to turbines, bench
measurements have been analysed to find how the rigidity of turbines could
be modelled. Based on this a number of real turbine runs have been
simulated to compare computed side-forces and real behaviour. The results
allow us, with a good reliability, to introduce turbines in BHA models in
a simple manner.

3 - TRANSMISSION OF WEIGHT AND TORQUE TO THE DRILL BIT

The purpose of this study was to better understand how weight and
torque are transmitted from surface to the drill bit. This question arises
regularly in the course of field operations, when poor penetration rates
are obtained from drill bits. Before pulling out the drill string for a
bit change, it is necessary to evaluate whether the bit is worn or too
little weight is applied due to friction losses along the borehole. The
problem is even more acute in deviated boreholes where gravity forces push
the drill string against the wall. Commercial availability of MWD tools
able to measure weight and torque just above the drill bit made this study
possible.
The main features of the wells used in this study are summarized on
Figure 7. A fair variety of hole conditions appears in the sample. The
main results are :
- weight on bit is properly transmitted over 90 to 95 % of the rotary
drilled footage,
- torque losses decrease linearly when weight on bit increases,
- torque losses may increase or decrease with rotation speed increases,
depending on the well trajectory,
- additional observations could be made as to the effect of tripping,
formation changes and torsional oscillations (5).

WEIGHT TRANSMISSION
The weight on bit is applied only at the bottom of the hole through
drill collar compression. This bottom hole assembly compression results
from a release of tension at the surface. Weight on bit is thus
traditionally measured as the difference between drill string tension off
bottom and drill stringtenslon on bottom. This type of measurement is not
very accurate, due to the friction of the cable on the hoisting system
sheaves and the varying length of suspended cable between crown block and
travelling block.
 677

In the project environment where the data were recorded this

inaccuracy is estimated to be two metric tons. The systematic comparison
of the traditional surface weight on bit measurement and of the downhole
measurement has been performed. No difference between surface and downhole
measurements appeared, within the quoted precision, over 90 to 95 % of the
footage that has been rotary drilled. This can be explained by an analysis
of the drill string to wall contact points speed composition. This
velocity is the vectorial sum of the axial velocity, equal to the
penetration rate, and of the rotational velocity. In most cases, the
rotational component is much larger than the axial one. Therefore the
direction of the friction force, which is opposite to the contact point
velocity, is transversal. It's axial component is negligible (Fig. 8). The
consequence is that frictional energy is lost mainly in torque and
negligibly in drag. Thus the transmission of weight is almost always very
good.
The 5 % to 10 % of the footage where weight transmission is not as
good have been identified as the two following situations :
- beginning of a bit run after a trip for bit change. Differences of
3 to 6 tons have been observed (Fig. 9). They do not occur
systematically. They may correspond to a slight undergauge of the
lowermost part of the hole caused by a worn bit at the end of it's run.
In this case when the first stabilizer reaches it, it may take some
weight to restore the hole gauge.
- running a full gauge stabilizer in an uncaved or slightly collapsed part
of the well.
This may be associated to specific torque increases and is interpreted
as cake build-up or formation stress redistribution.

TORQUE TRANSMISSION
Most of the energy lost in friction has appeared above to be so
because of the drill string rotation. The contact points between drill
string and borehole wall have velocities almost perpendicular to the drill
string axis. Therefore the friction forces create mostly torque. The
parameter that was studied is DT = Torque applied at the surface minus
Torque applied to the drill bit. The surface torque was measured through
the rotary table motor amperage and the torque applied to the drill bit
obtained from MWD measurements. In some cases the lost torque DT is a
large part of the surface torque : for example, in well n 3, at 2500 m in
the 12 1/4" hole, the surface torque is 1800 m.daN while DT is 1580 m.daN.
Therefore in this particular case 88 % of the energy used in rotating the
drill string is lost before reaching the drill bit.
The study mainly consisted in examining the influence of weight on bit
and rotation speed on DT. Other observations, not directly linked to these
main parameters were made in the course of the study.
The effect of weight on bit (W) on DT is that DT decreases when W
increases. In other terms the torque losses decrease when more weight is
applied to the drill bit. This can be seen on a DT versus W crosspiot
(Fig. 10). The physical explanation of this decrease, which is considered
linear, is the effect of tension on the lateral contact force of the drill
string against the borehole wall (3 - Appendix). Integration of the force
balance for an elementary length of drill string along the curved part of
the borehole shows that linearity (Fig. 11). The slope of the DT versus W
trend line characterizes the well tortuosity and is similar for similar
wells in this study. It amounts to - 25 m.daN/ton in the three S-shaped
wells, 3, 4 and 5, and only to - 8 m.daN/ton in the vertical sections of
the wells. For further studies a reduced parameter could then be used,
DTc - DT + 25 W, which is a weight on bit free torque loss.
678

The effect of rotation speed differs in vertical wells or vertical

well sections from the effect in deviated wells. In the first case,
vertical wells or top sections of wells, DT increases as the square of
rotation speed (Fig. 12) by a similar amount irrespective of hole depth.
This can be explained as the effect of centrifugal forces which are
proportional to the square of the rotation speed. In deviated wells, while
drilling below the build-up section, DT does not depend on the rotation
speed. The explanation may be that the drill string in this part of the
well rests on the lower side of the hole and does not impact against the
upper side. The upper part of the drill string in this case is under more
tension and less subject to lateral movements.

4 - BIT TORQUE MODEL

Possible improvements expected from the chosen model (6) concerned
three typical questions asked while drilling :
- choice of the best type of drill bit versus rock characteristics,
- choice of the drilling parameters (W.O.B., R.P.M., Mud Flow) for the
lowest cost per meter,
- choice of the right moment to pull out.
To answer the first question, a characterization of drilling bits was
attempted using 2 new mechanical coefficients (Warren's formula) instead
of 3 empirical (IADC) used up to now. Test bench measurements performed
within the project showed poor correlation with the model, probably due to
torque perturbations like friction of the bit shanks on the side wall of
the hole. Measurements downhole in actual wells did not improve the
correlation which appeared even worse because the MWD device could not
take into account the drill-string vibrations.
To answer the second question, wide variations of the drilling
parameters were planned, both on the test bench and in actual wells, in
order to analyse the response of the rate of penetration (ROP). Variations
were limited (10 tons on the test bench and directional problems on actual
wells), and the analysis showed only that ROP was approximately
proportional to the square of the weight on bit and to the RPM rate, with
an upper limit of approx. 150 RPM above which no improvement was obtained.
To answer the third question, it was necessary to model the bit wear
as a function of cumulated depth, cumulated time, or cumulated
revolutions. The latter appeared to be the most rigorous and so was
chosen. The first idea was to study the evolution of the 2 mechanical
characteristics of the drilling bit given by Warren's formula (torque
model) with cumulated revolutions. This idea was abandoned when these
characteristics showed the poor correlation explained above. A second
modeling was then attempted, considering only torque and weight
measurements instead of ROP or RPM. This modelling, obviously performed
only on actual wells, showed much better correlation with post-mortem
observed wear rates. A method to determine a wear criterion while drilling
has been defined, involving punctual but wide variations of the weight on
bit, and corresponding downhole measurements. Due to the above mentioned
limitations of the variations performed within the project, this method
will need some more experimentation and refining before it can be
available on drilling rigs.
This research is now continued within the item "MESFOR" of the EEC
sponsored project "Optimized drilling for cost reduction", and will
probably also be helpful to answer the second question.
 679

5 - CONCLUSION
Some progress has been made in the understanding of the mechanics of
rotary and turbine drill strings. The major advances stand in :
- the extension of BHA models to azimuthal behaviour simulation!
- the observation of physically explainable laws of transmission of the
weight and torque to the drill bit.
On the other hand, downhole torque measurement above the drill bit
cannot, alone, help in deciding drill bit changes for wear.
Much more work is necessary in all the subject matters, before the
knowledge of the bit and string mechanics reaches the point where a true
optimization of the drilling process can be programmed into an automat.

REFERENCES
(1) TOUTAIN, P., Analysing drill string behaviour, World Oil, June, July,
September 1981
(2) AMARA, M., Use of drill string models and data bases for the
scientific control of vertical and directional hole paths, SPE/IADC
13495, 1985
(3) BIRADES, M., ORPHEE 2D : a microcomputer program for prediction of
bottomhole assembly trajectory, SPE 15285, Silver Creek, June 1986
(4) BIRADES, M., ORPHEE 3D : static and dynamic tridimensional BHA
computer models, SPE 15466, New Orleans, October 1986
(5) GAZANIOL, D., Field data analysis of weight and torque transmission to
the drill bit, OCT 5510, New Orleans, April 1987
(6) WARREN, T.M., Factors affecting torque for a tricone bit, SPE 11994,
1983

INCLINATION
SIDE FORCE

AZIMUTHAL
SIDE FORCE

Fig. 1 Bit side forces

680

Fig. 2 - BHA finite elements

Fig. 3 - Elementary shocks in Orphe 3D Dynamic

 681
INCLINATION SIDE FORCE (KG)

Fig. 4 - Orphe 3D - Dynamic output (inclination)

AZIMUTHAL SIDE FORCE (KG)

Fig. 5 - Orphe 3D - Dynamic output (azimuth)

682

Fig. 6
Orphe 3D - Static simplified friction model

WELL#1 WELL#2 WELL#3 WELL#4 WELL#5 WELL#6

Well profile J Vertical S S S J

KOP 800m 550m 570m 735m 1560m

End of build-up
section 1300m 820m 950m 1090m 2040m
Hold section
inclination 25* <5* 30* 30 30* 40*

Drop off point 1460m 1190m 1200m

End of dropping
section 2050m 1770m 1940m
Top of recording
data section 525m 1405m 550m 800m 735m 845m
End of recording
data section 2704m 2880m 2620m 2450m 2460m 2445m

Fig. 7 - Profile characteristics of the wells studied

Table # 1
 683

en

C_J>
ROTATIONAL VELOCITY
VR

AXIAL VELOCITY VA f

RESULTANT VaOCITY

Fig. 8 - Velocities composition during rotary drilling

O ( tons ) 25 0 ( m.daN ) 2000

1885.90

1890.00 TRIP Td

1895.00

1900.00

1905.00, Wd

1910.00

1915.00

1920.00

1925.00

Fig. 9 - Loss of weight on bit

at the beginning of a bit run
684

WELL # 5 ; d e p t h - 2070 m
is

la

id

500

S
ni

Wd ( t o n s )
Fig. 10 - Effect of weight on bit on torque transmission
in an inclined well

INCLINATION
VARIATION

SIDE FORCE DUE

TO THE TENSION
ORIENTATION CHANGE

C TENSION

Fig. 11 - Effect of tension in a curved section of hole

 688

WELL # 2 ; RI tests
1003

ii

500

!& +

*4
+

1 I I 1 1
E) s G)
V)
in
o
Rotation speed (tr/mn)

Fig. 12 Effect of rotation speed on torque transmission

in a vertical well (A long all the well)
686

COMPLETION OF HORIZONTAL DRAINS

TH 02.025/84

Alain SPREUX : Elf Aquitaine

Jacques LESSI : Institut Franais du Ptrole

SUMMARY

With regard to completion and knowledge of how the reservoir behaves,

horizontal wells set new problems, which are covered by a joint Elf
Aquitaine-French Petroleum Institute research project.
As regards determining the reservoir characteristics, new techniques
enabling measuring sondes to be moved along a drain now make it possible
to run down production tools and obtain bottom-hole data during operation
of horizontal wells.
In addition, mathematical models of fluid mechanics in a porous
medium enable the fluid flows around a horizontal drain to be analyzed,
production to be simulated during well tests, and water breakthrough or
output figures to be predicted.
Drains drilled horizontally in reservoirs encountered a number of
heterogeneities. The problem that arose was to adapt the bottom equipment
to make a completion capable of producing selectively in certain zones
whilst isolating others, for example in order to combat ingress of water.
By means of numerous "full-scale" bench tests, we showed that such a
partition of the drain was possible in two ways: either by cementing the
casing and then drilling in the production zones, or by isolating the
annulus by external casing packers, cutting off the flow.
On completion of this work, we had learnt :
- how to overcome certain technological barriers as regards execution of
the reservoir/borehole liaison and how to make measurements during
production,
- how to build mathematical tools for evaluating the behaviour of the
field and the reservoir fluids.

INTRODUCTION

The research project on drilling horizontal drains entitled

"TECHNOLOGY OF HORIZONTAL DRILLING FOR ENHANCED PETROLEUM RECOVERY",
EEC/GERTH reference N 02.10/78, had raised a number of difficulties as
regards the completions of the drains and tracking the conditions of
production and evolution of the reservoirs.
These points are taken up in the present project "COMPLETION OF
HORIZONTAL DRAINS", the object of which was specifically to study the
techniques, equipment and procedures of horizontal wells, on the one hand
in order to acquire and interpret the reservoir data and on the other to
make completion suitably adapted to the bottom conditions encountered.
Acquisition of bottom data during the production phase of a well
implies finding the method capable of lowering the sondes down to the
bottom of the well through the production tubing and ensuring that the
values measured are meaningful.
Interpretation of the data involves tracking the behaviour and
evolution of the reservoir, applying analytical or digital mathematical
simulations.
Study of the equipment and procedures for the bottom hole completion
necessitated numerous "full-scale" test benches used to reconstitute the
conditions prevailing at the bottom of the well, at least geometrically.
 687

1 METH ODS OF CONVEYANCE OF TOOLS

When drilling a horizontal well, field loggings are made using the
SIMPHOR technique, developed as part of the "horizontal drilling" project
(EEC/GERTH reference 02.10/78).
However, this technique using drillpipes cannot be envisaged during
the producing phase, when the wells are fitted with their production
tubing. To meet this requirement, two new techniques were tested ; the
first, the pump down stinger, is based on the principle of a telescopic
tube, whilst the second uses coiled tubing.

1.1 Pump down stinger technique

In this technique, the tools are conveyed by a rigid stinger
extending the cable and pumped through the tubing which acts as a
"blowpipe".

Principle
The sondes are mounted on the end of an extension tube consisting of
prewired elements screwed together, thus providing mechanical and
electrical continuity. A cup sleeve or "locomotive" provides the link
between the stinger and the cable.
The sonde is pumped down by fluid into the tubing and retrieved by
pulling up the cable. A BOP and lubricator provides pressure assembly, if
necessary.
The effective travel of the tools in the drain hence corresponds to
the length of the stinger and enables recordings to be made both when
running in and retrieving.

Experiment
Experimental verification on a horizontal well with a stinger 520
metres long confirm the ability of this method to solve the problem set.
The rigidity of the stinger enables the tools to be pushed with no
limitation other than that of the length of the stinger. A 600 or 700
metre long stinger is in our view entirely feasible.
Two difficulties should however be noted ; the first is the "yoyo"
effect of the cable which Jerks up and down when pulled, whilst the
second is the inability to produce through the tubing, making it
impossible to measure flows, except when the well is fitted with double
completion or without a packer.
Since it was finalized, the method has been successfully used on
industrial scale several times, particularly on our Rospo Mare field in
Italy.

1.2 Colled tubing conveyed logging system

This technique is highly attractive, since it uses known and. standard
means calling for little adaptation.

Principle
The logging tools are attached directly to the end of small diameter
tubing wound on a drum with the electric cable already inserted in it.
The tool-tubing connection ensures the mechanical and electrical link
with the bottom ; on the surface, the cable is brough out through the
shaft of the drum, through a rotating electrical commutator.
The tubing is raised and lowered by the conventional coiled tubing
injection head and the depths measured at the injector.
688

Experiment
Two tests were performed on horizontal wells, one with large diameter
(and hence heavy) logging tools, the other with production tools. Thanks
to this difference, the limits of the system relating to its lower thrust
capacity than that of the stinger were revealed. At present, it is
considered that about 500 metres of horizontal travel is possible with
production tools.
Whist the horizontal range of the coiled tubing is less than that of
the pump down stinger, on the other hand, its advantage lies in its
working speed and facility and lighter surface logistics.

Conclusions
Prior to developing these techniques, no means existed for production
logging other than by wire-line, in other words in wells inclined at no
more than 65. Accordingly, these techniques, sought to meet a specific
problem, namely horizontal drains, in fact have a broader field of
application, covering all wells that are not accessible by wire-line.

2. MODELLING OF THE RESERVOIR WITH PRODUCTION THROUGH A HORIZONTAL DRAIN

These studies sought to adapt or develop methods of interpretation,
for instance that already exist for conventional wells. The following
areas are involved :
- well tests,
- productivity,
- water coning in the case of reservoirs with an interface.

2.1 Well tests

The purpose of this study was to provide mathematical tools for
preparing and interpreting a well test in the specific geometrical
configuration of a horizontal drain. Indeed, Just as for a vertical well,
the following three objectives must be attained :
- deciding the appropriateness of a test,
- where applicable, optimizing the duration of the test,
- interpreting this test, i.e. deducing the value of a number of
hydrodynamic parameters representative of the reservoir or well.
Two approaches were adopted: one consists in analytically studying
the flows around a horizontal well, the other in adapting a single phase
flow numerical model. The analytical model offers the advantage of faster
interpretation from a set of charts, though involving the essential
limitations of a homogeneous porous medium and simple drainage areas or
reservoir limits.

Analytical model
An analytical model revealing the behaviour of a horizontal well
under transient conditions subjected to a uniform flow or constant
pressure was developed. The computations can allow for the capacity of
the well and the skin effect. The limits of the reservoir or drainage
area, assumed to be rectangular, are entered in the form of zero flow or
imposed pressure limits.
The computations, which were first of all made assuming that the flow
was constant along the drain, revealed two distinct flow conditions :
- Initially, circular radial conditions in the vertical plane. The
horizontal well then behaves as a vertical well which produces in a
reservoir the thickness of which equals the length of the drain.
- Horizontal pseudo-radial flow conditions. After a sufficiently long
observation period, the flow between the drain and the first regular
 68

equipotential becomes incompressible. From this time on, the pressure

evolution characterizes the region situated beyond this equipotential,
where flow is radial-circular in the horizontal plane.
These two flow conditions correspond to pressure evolutions characterized
in a semi-log chart (variation of pressure in terms of logarithm of time)
by a straight line. The parameters of these straight lines enable the
permeability in the vicinity of the well, the remote permeability and the
wall effect to be determined.
Thanks to the analytical solutions found, the influence firstly of
the offcentering of the drain with relation to the reservoir, secondly
the ratio between the length of the drain and the thickness of the
reservoir were studied.

Numerical model
By making certain adaptations to an existing numerical model, a new
three-dimensional single phase model was used to simulate production
through a horizontal drain and assist in interpreting a well test for
cases in which the characteristics of the reservoir or the complexity of
the test conditions meant that no analytical approach could be applied.
The reservoir is represented in its three dimensions by a
conventional orthogonal mesh corresponding to a numerical pattern with
finite differences. Any geometry can be adopted by using "dead" meshes
and a variable spacial pitch.
The petrophysical characteristics: useful thickness, porosities and
permeabilities per mesh are variable in space. The horizontal and
vertical permeabilities can also be varied with the pressure.
The fluid represented in the model is single phase with one
constituent and of Newtonian behaviour. Its properties are defined by its
specific weight and viscosity, depending on the pressure. The pressure
losses caused by isothermal viscous flow are expressed in terms of
Darcy's law.
The model can also be used for production periods much greater than
those commonly encountered for a well test or an interference test, of
about a few days maximum. In this way, the production of a single phase
oil reservoir through horizontal wells for a period of several months can
be estimated and the evolution of the mean pressure in the reservoir
versus time followed. This type of study can be performed for concrete
cases of reservoirs or in what is known as "symmetry mesh" elementary
areas in order to assess how the various factors involved affect the
production: extraction rates, head level of oil, drainage area covered.

2.2 Productivity
Horizontal wells have been successfully used to raise productivity.
Several formulae can be applied to calculate the productivity of
horizontal wells in comparison to vertical wells. The enhanced
productivity due to the long production interval increases as the log of
the length and can attain 3 to 5 times the values achieved in vertical
wells.
An example of calculation of the influence of natural or artificial
fractures on the productivity of the wells was also studied: a horizontal
well can draw more from the network of existing fractures with more
efficiency than a vertical well, because these fractures are generally
vertical. The productivity of a fractured drain can be 10 times greater
than that of a single drain.
690

2.3 Production with an interface

When producing from a reservoir in the presence of an interface
(water-oil or oil-gas), the problem is to know the maximum possible
production flow enabling rapid ingress of undesirable fluid to be
avoided. The production flow must be less than the "critical" flow at
which water or well gas arrives.
For production from a vertical well, the water output comes from the
formation beneath the well of an unstable water cone. This cone is
provoked by the dynamic pressure drop at the production well. For a
horizontal drain, the same phenomenon occurs and the formation of a water
crest can be observed.
However, when producing from a vertical well, the circular radial
flow in the vicinity of the well generates a sharp pressure drop. Since
weaker pressure gradients are generated when producing through a
horizontal drain, the situation should be more favourable both from the
standpoint of limiting ingress of water and enhancing the efficiency of
the drive.
Just as for the well tests, research was conducted along two lines :
- an analytical approach with a view to providing easy to use
approximate solutions capable of giving quick answers to a specific
problem,
- a numerical approach for dealing with the problem more
comprehensively, allowing in particular the conditions at real life
limits and any heterogeneities in the reservoir.

Analytical solutions
The analytical solutions established during this study assume
production from a homogeneous reservoir through a drain of infinite
length situated at the roof. Consequently, this is a two-dimensional
model embodying the following assumptions: total drive efficiency,
permanent flow and incompressible fluids.
The calculations were made by conceiving three different production
mechanisms: lateral oil drive, expansion of the gas-cap and drive by a
bottom aquifer, providing the equation of the water-oil separation area
and the value of the critical oil production flow.

Numerical model
Just as when interpreting well tests, numerical techniques must be
used to study the formulation of the cone or the water crest when an
analytical approach is not enough.
A three-dimensional numerical model specifically designed for
studying water-oil coning in a vertical well according to the method
proposed by Muskat was adapted to production from a horizontal well. The
model provides the position of the water-oil interface for all flow
conditions (subcriticai, critical and supercritical), the critical flow
and, for supercritical flow, the breakthrough time and diphasic
production after breakthrough.
To attain critical flow, the model operates by successive
approximations, increasing the flow until the potential gradient in the
oil phase reaches a maximum vertically above the well.
On breakthrough, since the offtake flow is greater than the critical
flow, the position of the interface varies with time. By resolving the
potentials in terms of time, the distortion of the water cone can be
followed up to breakthrough, when the water reaches one of the well
meshes. After exact determination of the breakthrough time by framing,
the model continues its determination of the interface and computation of
the diphasic production levels until the time desired.
 691

Since it operates in three dimensions, the numerical approach offers

enhanced investigation possibilities by allowing for the heterogeneities
and contour of the drainage area.

3. COMPLETION TECHNIQUES

The problem we have striven to solve here is to achieve a reservoir-

drain link corresponding to the heterogeneities encountered along the
drain.
Mere transposition of the methods used in conventional wells is not
possible owing to the action of gravity or the geometry of the well.
Accordingly, we had to analyze each parameter involved and simulate the
drain bottom conditions in the laboratory or on test benches.
The following two areas were studied - cementation and the use of
external casing packers. '

3.1 Cementation of horizontal casings

In conventional wells, the reservoir shuttering is often obtained by
cementing a casing and perforating the pay zones. Laying sound horizontal
cementation sets a number of problems. Laboratory studies and full-scale
test benches have revealed the effect of the various parameters and
provided solutions for the procedures and cement slurry formulae ensuring
good quality cementation.

The work covered :

- the reliability of the equipment,
- the displacement of the fluids,
- the effects of centering on the mud traps,
- combatting the appearance and accumulation of free water on the upper
generating line of the drains,
- influence of the geometry of the hole.

Test benches
Several test benches representing different geometrical conditions of
the wells were used to simulate the horizontal drains :
- four benches 50 metres long to reveal the parameters of influence,
- a bench for studying the operation of the equipment,
- two 25-metre benches for studying the centering effect on the mud
drive by the slurry,
- a bench for studying centering devices,
- and a 300-metre bench for simulating the variations in the diameter
and geometry of a well.

After cementation, the test benches were tested internally by dividing

them into sections in order to display and observe the results obtained.

Equipment
The tests showed that standard cementation equipment (check valves,
wipper plug, pump down plug...) when moving and under pressure are
perfectly operational in horizontal conditions.

Displacement of the fluids

The initial test benches had revealed mud trapping phenomena that
occur under certain conditions of displacement of the fluids, density
contrast and poor centering of the casing.
Following study and verification on other test benches, the following
recommendations can now be made :
692

- The hole is cleaned best by displacement under turbulent conditions.

If this cannot be achieved, good results can be obtained by increasing
the quantities of mud circulated and the cementation spacer.
- This spacer-cement front will be all the better, the closer the
density of the spacer to that of the cement. This will avoid the
"wedge" phenomenon with the cement straddling the spacer. A rheology
that is intermediate between that of cement and that of the mud will
be chosen.
- Since the above point is unfavourable to the mud-spacer front, the
drive efficiency will be increased by increasing the length of the
spacer.

Water channels
It was highly important to develop a cement slurry without free water
since the appearance of such free water, whilst not a problem in
subvertical wells, in our case creates a channel of water along the upper
generating line of the annulus, thus calling into question the tightness
sought.
Several solutions were found :
- Assistance in fast hydration and crystallization of the aluminates by
adding dispersing agents, thus creating sulphate ion supersaturation.
The combined action of the sulphates and the aluminates creates
ettringite, merging the cement drains together and preventing them
from sedimenting.
- Viscosification of the interstitial water, increasing the pressure
losses in the event of migration.
- Addition of solid inert microelements which occupy the voids between
the cement drains through their small size and large numbers, thus
limiting migration of the water.

Centering effect
The effect of the centering and geometry of the hole was also
revealed and what is now sought is to maintain the theoretical gap
between the casing and the wall of the hole at at least 25 mm (one inch)
through appropriate centering. It should be noted that the mud is trapped
only at certain points when this gap is reduced, which does not call into
question the cementation of the drain as a whole, provided satisfactory
conditions are maintained on either side.

Conclusion
These studies have enabled the conditions for successful horizontal
cementation to be defined. Depending on the actual conditions
encountered, one can now propose cementation procedures and slurry
formulae that can be used in horizontal drains.

3.2 Partition of a horizontal drain by an external casing packer

In order to isolate the parts of the horizontal drain, it is not
always possible or desirable to cement the casing. Consideration can be
given to using devices such as inflatable packers to provide a tight seal
behind the casing.
The initial equipment lowered into wells as part of the "horizontal
drilling" project proved unsuccessful. Accordingly, the causes had to be
analyzed and new solutions and procedures sought.

Causes of the failure

The predominant idea when choosing the initial equipment was that a
horizontal drain would very probably be poorly calibrated and ovalized,
 693

so that only a very long packer would ensure contact with the wall of the
drain. Consequently, with the packers used, it was impossible to prevent
friction between the drilling string and the rock and hence damage when
inserting it.

Test benches
In order to consider using short packers, which are easy to protect
by centering, their ability to conform to the cross-section of an
ovalized hole should be checked.
To do this, we built a test bench in which the behaviour of the
various packer models was analyzed from the standpoint of the ability of
the packing to deform and the way it reacted to a difference in pressure.

Results
These tests showed that even with short linings (about 1 metre), the
adhesion to the wall can be brought about quickly and pressure behaviour
is compatible with the bottom conditions that are generally expected.
It should be noted that the packers that can be used are standard
models, that one can descend as far as one wishes on the same casing and
that the inflation procedure is that commonly used in conventional wells.

Conclusions
These studies provided good confirmation that a horizontal drain
could be partitioned by external casing packers.
However, we did not have the occasion to actually apply them inside a
well, but the applications of other operators induce us to believe that
our conclusions are correct.

GENERAL CONCLUSION
The results obtained in this research project corroborate correctly
the feasibility of horizontal wells, drilling and completion. It can be
stated that the following are available today :
- the technique for installing a selective liner adapted to the
conditions of the drain,
- methods of recording measurements both during the drilling and
operating phases of the well,
- factors enabling the production of the well to be managed by improved
understanding of how the fluids and reservoir behave.
694

- DrULL PIPE OR TUOINC

TO LOGGING CABIN

LOCOMOTIVE

PREWIRED STINGE R
TOOLS

l'l -wan

PUMP DOWN STINGE R COILEO TUBING CONVE YE D LOGGINI

PRODUCTION LOGGING TECHNIQUES

PERFORATIONS I PERFORATIONS

s: MZZT~.
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PKHFORATEO BLANK PERFORATED
LINER LINER LINER

SELECTIVE COMPLETION
WITH CEMENT
WITH PACKE RS
 695

DESIGN STUDIES OF CENTER COLUMN SEMI-SUBMERSIBLE VESSELS

G.J. Schepman and A. Goedee

Deep Semi Design Consultants (DESDEC)
The Netherlands

1. INTRODUCTION
The offshore industry has always been challenged to enter deeper
waters for exploration and production. However, the step towards
drilling in deep water is not a simple extrapolation of shallow water
operations. Safe and efficient drilling operations in deeper water
are requesting new and innovative solutions. Hull form design must
be enhanced to cope with the higher variable loading capacity while
maintaining a good motional behaviour. Drilling related equipment
must be improved to handle efficiently the vulnerable marine riser
and to keep optimum well control procedures. These areas of concern
call for an integrated engineering approach, which challenge has
been taken by DESDEC, with the development of a semi-submersible
drilling vessel design for 10,000 feet waterdepth, the DSS-10,000.
In this paper, the studies during the three year development
program of the DSS-10,000 project are highlighted and results of
detailed studies are discussed.

2. DEVELOPMENT INITIATIVE
When the DSS-10,000 project was established in 1983, an initial
review of the deep water drilling market illustrated clearly that
only a limited number of drilling units was available which were more
or less adapted to deep water, while on the other hand a market
prospect was present due to the increasing number of deep water
leases. This indicated that a market opportunity might be expected
for a specifically designed deep water unit. As basic design
objective was set the development of a drilling unit which would
combine the advantages of a drill ship and a semi-submersible.
With respect to the market one can be more specific about the
deep water areas and the number of wells to be drilled. The interest
in deep water drilling is mainly located in the following areas:
North and West of Shetlands, US Gulf of Mexico, Brazil and Angola.
The trend in deep water drilling can be illustrated historically
by the number of wells drilled and the deep water drilling records,
(figure 1 and 2 ) . The waterdepth records are increasing yearly with
a maximum foreseen depth of 10,000 feet in the 1990's. One should
realize however, that the number of wells drilled in waterdepths over
3,000 ft has been very limited.

The reasons therefore could be two-fold:

- the real interest in deep water drilling is low
- drilling units are either not available or not
well equipped for deep water drilling projects.

This latter hypothesis can be illustrated by table 1, indicating

the number of vessels, available for deep water drilling over 3.000
ft waterdepth. At the end of 1985. the forecast of deep water
drilling activity has been forecast with respect to the demand and
supply side of drilling units, based on the assumption of 3 deep
water wells per rig per year (figure 1 ) .
696

Although this figure has been derived before the depression in

the offshore drilling activity, we feel that the trend towards
increasing numbers of deep water wells is still realistic in view of
the number of granted deep water leases, mainly in the Gulf of
Mexico. The depression introduced a timelag, but in the longer term,
deep water drilling activity will still require new and sophisticated
units.
Regarding the existing drilling units (see table 1) one should
realize that most of these units have been built using design ideas
of the 1970's, which now seems conventional. Increasing the size of
the vessel was the answer to meet the deep water drilling capacity.
DESDEC's philosophy is to combine the advantage of the large drill
ship and the semi-submersible and to initiate new drilling techniques
for deep water operations.
One innovative solution derived from this philosophy has been
the introduction of the unique center column, which enables the
vertical storage of very long riser joints and an enclosed moonpool.

3. FEASIBILITY STUDIES
The center column in the DSS-10,000 design is considered to be
instrumental in moving the waterdepth barrier to 10,000 feet. In
order to continue with the further development of the drilling
techniques and operations, one should first justify the selection of
the center column from a naval architectural point of view.
In the early 1980's, well before this development started, an
inhouse study was performed by MSC to determine the main design
parameters of a center column semi-submersible. Conclusions of this
study have been reported in detail in the paper "Innovative center
column semi's for deep water drilling" (ref. 1.).
Four different shapes have been checked on their motional
behaviour aspects (see figure 3 and 4 ) :
- concept 1; a shallow draft, single floater,
three column semi
- concept 2; a shallow draft, single floater,
five column semi
- concept 3; a deep draft, single floater,
five column semi
- concept 4; a deep draft, two floater,
five column semi.

It was concluded, that shallow draft single floaters will not

lead to a feasible concept. Consequently a deep drafted vessel
should be selected. In the evaluation of the concept 3 and 4, the
two floater concept has been selected as the basic shaping of vessel,
because of the slightly better motions, the smaller displacement and
the smaller steel weight.

4. DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
4.1. Basic design specification of the vessel
Typical problem areas associated with deep water drilling are
related to safe and efficient handling of vulnerable equipment such
as the Marine Riser and BOP assemblies, emergency riser disconnect
and hang-off procedures, and finally the carrying capacity of the
vessel which must be large in view of long supply lines.
 697

Furthermore the vessel should be designed to operate world wide,

as the several potential deep water areas are located all around the
world. Consequently, the vessel should cope with harsh environmental
conditions like the Northern North Sea or alternatively with warmer
areas like Offshore Brazil and the Gulf of Mexico. With respect to
the deep water capabilities, two goals have been set, departing from
present 3,000 ft experience:
- 10,000 ft as the ultimate waterdepth

- 6,000 ft as the near - term intermediate.

A detailed list of the design conditions is given in table 2.

h.2. Translation of design specification in the vessel's design

Two elements which will often be referred to in this paper are
the safe and efficient handling of equipment and the combination of
the advantages of drill ship and semi-submersible.
The drill ship's advantages are seen in the operational aspects
of handling equipment through an enclosed moonpool, BOP handling, a
two V-door principle of the derrick and the greater variable loading
characteristics, while semi-submersibles advantages are seen in the
better motion behaviour characteristics. The combined advantages of
both types of floating units are realized with the introduction of
the center column. In the center column, the heavy Marine Riser
Joints are stored vertically, consequently bringing down the vertical
center of gravity significantly compared to a normal semi-submersible.
By proper sizing of floaters and columns, the variable load
capacity of a drill ship can be achieved. As concluded from the
feasibility studies, motional behaviour characteristics of a center
column semi-submersible can be obtained in operational conditions
while in survival waves the motions of the vessel are more like a
ship shaped unit.
Safe and efficient handling of the Marine Riser and BOP
assemblies is an other topic to be studied in detail. Two questions
can be raised:
- how to achieve a vertical riser storage system,
whereby individual joints can be selected?
- how to protect the equipment when passing
through the critical splash zone?

On the existing vessels the marine riser joints are stored

horizontally; in the center column the riser joints can be stored
vertically. Due to the available height in the center column, the
individual lengths of the joints can be increased to 90 feet, which
reduces the number of joints to be run during deep water operations.
The next step in the development program was to store the riser
joints such that they can be handled individually and not
sequentially.
The solution conceived was the vertical storage of joints in
carousels, which can rotate individually and have a capacity of 7
joints each. In a joint development with Royal Schelde this system
has been incorporated in the two DESDEC center column designs (see
figure 5.).
698

The answer to the second question is the enclosed moonpool which

is an integral part of the center column. This enclosed moonpool
resembles the arrangement on drill ships, however the elevation of
the work deck is higher, thus safeguarding the personnel. Besides
the Marine Riser, also the telescopic joint, riser tensioner wires
and control lines are well protected against waves and weather in and
near the water surface.

4.3. Development studies

4.3.1. Int r o d uction
Although a deep water drilling unit should be regarded as an
integrated system, the development studies can be subdivided into the
naval architectural part and the aspects related to deep water
drilling. The specific size and shape of the center column
semi-submersible enables improved arrangements of drilling equipment
and new approaches towards procedures such as riser handling. A
review of the lay-outs and main dimensions of the two designs
DSS-10,000 and DSS-6,000 is shown in table 4 and figure 6 and 7.

4.3.2 Naval architectural aspe ct s

During the development program, the following naval
architectural aspects have been considered to a high level of
detail:
- motions
- positioning requirements
- stability
- structural strength.

In the feasibility studies, the concept had been proven but

detailed studies and model testing were left for the development
stage. As mentioned in reference 1, the motional behaviour of the
center column units, DSS-10,000 and DSS-6,000, has been achieved by a
proper balance of displacement, the shape of the floaters
(rectangular), the water plane area and the required draft. In
addition to detailed calculations, the DSS-10,000 has been
extensively model-tested. Generally the results of calculations and
model testing agreed very favorably. It was found in model testing
that the motion response differences between survival and operational
draft are negligible. The reason behind this finding is that although
the second hump, in the survival heave response curve (see figure 8.)
is higher than at operational draft, the value at resonance is
significantly lower than in operational condition.

These two factors are balancing each other in irregular seas

resulting in the same heave response in operational and survival
condition.
This aspect is beneficial to the airgap which can be smaller
than on conventional semisubs during survival conditions. On the
other hand operational conditions dictate a large airgap, caused by
climbing up of waves against the center column.
 egg

The large displacement of the DESDEC designs (around 60,000 ton

versus maximum 50,000 ton for conventional comparable designs) and
the introduction of the center column could evoke questions on the
positioning requirements of the vessels. To obtain a good insight in
the environmental forces, wind tunnel testing and current resistance
tests have been conducted at the Dutch Aerospace Laboratory and the
MARIN test facilities respectively. The positioning requirements of
the DSS6,000 and a MSC designed straight forward four column design
for 3,000 ft waterdepth and with an operational displacement of
0,000 ton, the DSS, have been compared (see table 3) and it was
found that about 70% of the positioning power is used to counteract
the windforce (see ref. 1.). Thus, although the ratio of
displacements between the DSS6,000 and the DSS40 is 1.32, the DP
power ratio varies between 1.101.23 only.
The center column creates a huge space for storage of equipment
and/or payload, which will reduce the height of the vertical center
of gravity and enhance the stability of the vessel. The better
distribution of loads affects the size of the vessel positively
compared to normal four column semisubmersible with same payload and
waterdepth capabilities, resulting in a lightweight of the center
column semi's comparable to the conventional four column semi's. The
exposed center column shell is fully double walled, and consequently
the classification society rules can be met for any damaged
condition.

Up till now, most dynamic analyses of the structural strength

have considered vessels to be built of slender elements. This
allowed for relative simple expressions in the determination of the
hydrodynamic loading and for a structural beam model. In case of the
DSS10,000, the presence of the center column required a more
sophisticated approach, whereby connecting forces should be
determined carefully. The structural analysis has been based on a
diffraction theory based calculation of the fluid forces and a 3 d
membrane model for the internal forces and stresses. In this way a
better accuracy has been achieved in areas with stress concentrations
(see figure 9)
With detailed studies of these and other aspects of the center
column unit, the project team demonstrated the feasibility of this
concept as a viable design for deep water drilling. In addition, DNV
and ABS have reviewed the design calculations and drawings and
granted a design approval to the center column semisubs DSS10,000
and DSS6,000.

53^3^_p^p_waterjrilling_aspects
The deep water drilling is an integrated engineering challenge.
So, besides innovative ideas in the hull design, emphasis has been
given to incorporate innovative drilling and handling equipment to
increase safety and optimize efficiency in deep water drilling
operations. In deep water drilling, riser configuration, riser
coupling, riser handling and operating policies and procedures
related to well control are of vital importance (see figure 10.).
When the sea surface is used as reference point, formation fracture
gradients will be less in deep water than in shallow water (see
figure 11. ).
700

As a result the difference between the well pore pressure that

will cause fracture and the well pore pressure that balance the
formation pore pressure decreases at a give well depth as the
waterdepth increases as the difference between formation fracture and
pore-pressure gradient is very small.

The mud system is of prime importance for well control. Either

one should use additional casing strings to enable drilling without
hole problems or one should consider alternative methods such as gas
lift systems or submersible pumps at the seafloor. With these latter
systems the mud weight in the annulus from seafloor to the surface
will be reduces and subsequently the gradient equivalent to the mud
column will be reduced, i.e. one follows the gradient line B'-D'-E'
(see figure 11.).
A next step in derrick design has been initiated by the enclosed
and integrated derrick. During windtunnel testing, various lay-outs
of derrick enclosures were investigated. The prime purpose was to
find an optimum solution between operational requirements and minimum
wind resistance. The derrick will be constructed of cylindrical
panels, whereby all truss work will be deleted, resulting in a clean
and integrated design. Besides ample space to install all the modern
drilling systems such as top drive, crown mounted drill string
compensator and an automated pipe handling system, the clean inside
structure will allow the driller un-obstructed view within the
derricks confines.

The riser handling procedure is a unique feature of the DESDEC

center column semisubs. The Fast Riser Handling System consists of
the following elements (see figure 5):
- carousels: each rotatable carousel
contains 7 riser joints; the joints are
hung-off by a collar near the upper end
and are rigidly supported at the lower
end
- horizontal transportation tool: this system
containing two lorries is located in the
center alley of the riser storage area and
transports the riser joints from the carousel
to the elevator system
- the elevator system; this system will transport
the riser joint from the storage area to the
drill floor
- riser joint stabbing manipulator; located on drill
floor level, this manipulator ensures a safe handling
of the lower end of the riser joint from the elevator
to the rotary table for making-up the riser coupling.

On the DSS-10,000, one large riser storage area is provided,

while on the DSS-6,000 two separate riser storage areas are provided
adjacent to the enclosed moonpool.

The major advantages of the riser handling system are:

- deployment and retrieval operations are fully
controlled by hydraulic equipment from
(dis)connecting at the rotary table up to the
storage in the carousels
 701

- any riser joint can be selected for transfer,

thus the storing sequence is not fixed
- each individual riser joint can easily be
inspected or selected for maintenance
- the total height of the center column
allows riser joints of 90 ft length to be
stored
- riser joints equipped with quick connectors
can be used, e.g. Hydrill HST riser coupling,
further improving the time for deployment
and retrieval of the riser.

Especially this latter advantage is of great impact to deep

water operations. For instance, the handling times published for
operations on the drill ship "Discoverer Seven Seas" are 52 hours and
35 hours respectively for deployment and retrieval in 6,500 ft
waterdepth. The carousel handling system will have a deployment time
of average 10 minutes per 90 ft riser joint, thus near to 550 ft per
hour. Retrieval will even be faster as testing of choke and kill
lines is eliminated.
The lay-out of the major drilling related areas is familiar to
either semi-sub or drill ship operations. The handling of drill pipe
and casing shows some similarity to drill ship pipe handling. Casing
strings are stored on maindeck level, while drill pipe is stored on a
lower deck level.
Handling is by means of overhead gantry cranes to enhance safety
and workability. Deck cranes will only be used for supply and
special lifting operations.
At lower deck level the layout around the moonpool has been
evaluated carefully with respect to optimizing the flow and treatment
of the mud through the whole system starting with the return mud
onwards to the high pressure piping system.

5. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
It is our impression that innovation of the drilling equipment
is still an open area. Hydraulic mud pumps, riser tensioners acting
on a spring mechanism and a concept based on rack/pinions and
hydraulic machinery for automated drilling can be seen as a further
steps to automated drilling. These systems can be incorporated
without difficulty in the center column designs. Further development
of equipment, policies, operating procedures and automated management
and/or operational support systems can enhance the safety and
efficiency of drilling operations.
New opportunities of the center column designs can be found in
the work/over drilling units and the floating productions systems
(see figure 12. and 13, ref. 2 and 3). These units will incorporate
the single floater principle, because of different reasons:
- for the work-over unit transit speed is
important which can be achieved by the
single floater shaping
- for the floating production unit the single
floater is used for all storage in either
segregated or displacement tanks.
702

6. CONCLUSIONS
In the early 80's DESDEC initiated the development of a deep
water drilling vessel as a research project to design an integrated
system which combines ship shaped and semisub advantages with
innovative drilling related equipment. The center column hull design
resulted as a naval architectural novelty and the riser handling and
derrick lay-out have contributed to the innovative drilling related
aspects.
Acceptance of the design and the drillling equipment was
obtained from major oil companies and contractors. However, no new
building project has resulted, partly due to the depression of the
offshore market starting early 1986.
The number of deep water leases, granted in the recent years,
will result in a higher activity in deep water drilling. As the
number of available units is rather limited, the prospects for new
building will increase in the coming years.

6.1. References
1. "Innovative center column semi's for deep water drilling",
by G.J. Schepman.
Offshore Engineering Group RINA "Developments in deeper waters",
6-7 October, 1986.
2. "Expanding the applications of the semi-submersible hull form",
by G.J. Schepman and J.A. van Santen.
Mobile Offshore Structures Conference, City University, London
14 - 18 September, I987.
3. "An integrated floating system for production drilling and
offloading", by G.J. Schepman
"The way forward for floating production systems",
London 15 - 16 December, I987.

Table 1.: Availability of deep water rigs.

Rig's name Type Waterdepth Deckload BLT/converted

rating payload
(ft) (t)
Sedeo 445 DS 3,500 6,500 1971
Pelican DS 3.300 1972/1986
Discoverer Seven Seas DS 7.500 1976
Pelerin DS 3.300 8,000 1976
Neddrill 2 DS 3.300 10,445 1977
Ben Ocean Lancer DS 4,000 9,080 1977
Sedeo 472 DS 4,500 4,000 1977
BP/Sedco 471 DS 6,000 1978
Pacnorse 1 DS 5,000 9.278 1969
Zane Barnes SEMI 5,000 5.000 1987
Ocean Alliance SEMI 4,400 4,500 1986
Sedeo 809 SEMI 6,000 3,500 1977
Sedeo 710 SEMI 5,000 2.495 1983

Figures based on brochures and open literature.

DS = Drillship
 703
Table 2.: Design specification

Design specification DSS10.000 DSS6,000

0YE2}52!}i_2n!?ition3
Working area world wide world wide
Waterdepth range 305 m (1,000 ft) 150 m (500 ft
up to 3.050 m up to 1,850 m
('10.000 tf) (6,000 ft)
Ambient temperature 20 C upto tO'C 20 C upto 40'C
Survival maximum waves 3t. m (105 ft) 3I. m (105 ft)
Survival surface current 1.3 m/s (2.5 knots) 1.3 m/s (2.5 knots)

Maximum waves 15.0 m (50 ft) 15.0 (50 ft)

Significant waves 8.0 (26 ft) at 10.5 8.0 m (26 ft) at
10.5 s
period period
Wind gust (1 min) 37 m/s (73 knots) 37 m/s (73 knots)

90552_932006_555_^_10_252^^
Maximum waves I7.O m (56 ft) I7.O m
Significant waves 10.0 m (30 ft)
at II.5 8. 10.0 (30 ft) at
period 11.5 s. period
Wind gust (1 min) 44 m/s (85 knots) 44 m/s (85 knots)
Surface current
1.3 m/s (2.5 knots) 1.3 m/s (2.5 knots)

H
92EG5_55
8 point wire system for 8 point chain/wire
operational conditions system for all in
maximum 2,000 ft water conditions up to
3,000 ft water

Drilling equipment
Drilling depth 7.600 m (25,000 ft) 7,600 m (25,000 ft)
Rotary top drive top drive
Derrick totally enclosed and totally enclosed and
integrated 640 mt integrated 640 mt
(1,400,000 lbs) hook (1,400,000 lbs) hook
load load
Pipe racking system vertical racking vertical racking
BOP 18 3/4 inch, 15,000 18 3/4 inch, 15,000
psi psi
Motion compensator
system crown mounted type crown mounted type
7.62 m (25 ft) travelling 7.62 m (25 ft)
stroke travelling stroke
Riser tensioners 8 * 70 mt (155 k lbs) 10 * 70 mt (155 klbs)
Telescopic I6.7 m (55 ft) 16.7 m (55 ft)

EEYiDS_5BiY
10,000 mton 13,000 mton )

*) Note: figure is higher due to the full sized 3,000 ft mooring

spread.
704

Table 3: Dynamic positioning power comparison.

Item specification DSS-6,000 DSS-'40

head beam head beam

Maximum operating
Wind 1 hr (60 knots) 139 138 125 141.5
Current (1 knots) 21 30 11 24
Wave forces (wave 10 m) 40 _23 23
Total static resistance 194 ton 208 ton 159 ton 188.5 ton

DP requirements 5,293 kW 17,142 kW 12.434 kW 15.535 kW

quirements
- engines (6)* 3,100 kW 3,400 kW 2 ,500 kW 3,100 kW
- thruster (8)* 2,200 kW 2,450 kW 1 ,800 kW 2,200 kW

* Note: One thruster or engine out-of service

Table 4.: Vessels' capabilities

Dimensions DSS-10,000 DSS-6,000

Overall length IO9.5 m 110 m
Overall width 64 m 75 m
Total depth to maindeck 43.3 m 41.375 m
Operating draft 26.3 m 23.375 m
Operating displacement 65,000 mton 52,500 mton
Transit draft 9.0 m 8.75 m
Transit displacement 36,000 mton 35,000 mton
Accommodation 114 persons 110 persons

Positioning/propulsion
Dynamic positioning 8x4,500 Hp thrusters 8x4,500 HP thrusters
Mooring system 1,500 ft waterdepth 3,000 ft waterdepth
8 point wire system 8 point chain and
wire system

Payload capacity
Variable Deckload 4,700 mton 5,000 mton
Total variable load 10,000 mton 13,120 mton

Supply capacity
Drilling depth 25,000 ft 25,000 ft
Waterdepth 10,000 ft 6,000 ft
Tubulars/riser joints 3,250 mton 2,700 mton
Sacks 500 mton 200 mton
Bulkmud/cement 1,400 mton 1,000 mton
Liquid mud 1,600 mton 1,000 mton
Drill water 1,600 mton 2,100 mton
Fuel oil 4,000 mton 4,000 mton
 705

OIL PRICE v s U L T R A D E E P W A T E R WELLS

197695 No. of wells
USD/BBL
60 60

50

t 50
Original forecast
40

30
Oilprlce
u Present trend

20 _J X\\\\\X\ 20

11111
10

76
in ... limimi
80 85 90 95
10

Year
Figure 1 . : Oil p r i c e versus wells i n u l t r a deep water

TREND OF DRILLING DEPTH

itti K
10.000
LSZ2 Exploration
Production
7.500

5000

2.500

1975 1930 1965 1990

Year

Figure 2.: Trend in deep water drilling

706

CONCEPT 1

CONCEPT ]
CONCEPT i

Figure 3: Lay-out of four center column concepts

 707

Kli

"2

y
y
CONCEPT J y
s CONCEPT 1

' ' \
\\ \
CONCEPT t

5 10 tS S 10 15
WAVE FREQUENCY (rod.;) WAVE FREQUENCY (rod./I

10 15
WAVE FREQUENCY Irod. /ml

Figure 4.: Motion response curves of basic concepts

708

FAST RISER HANDLING SYSTEM

I T^=T
^m
S
3~
ta
nj fe
Itt
D
f~H

'

"O

t
'i

M
LI .iy=U L 2 1
n
^
~

Figure 5.: Fast Riser Handling System

 709

^3^. JgE2

SECTTN N RIMTER

f /V
1~~
v.
'V
e
>-
^ " X ^ ]i
i--- (zki "" i

sa
s

I 1-- ;S ' '

e
4_1 ,x^ /

:? '1
= wL 1

Figure 6 . : Layout of DSS10,000 semisubmersible

710

DU KAMOECK

i
^ - I II ISM?

ivjwimncuTFns
imii /

P gri

.S
Figure 7 . : Layout of DSS6,000 semisubmersible
 711

y
y .
/y S
NORMAL DRAFT / S *
HEAVE
RESPONSE

SHALLOW DRAFT
/ /
/ S

s's ^-*
SHALLOW DRAFT S
" /
^^s*
HH
OR AL DRAFT
'
\ ,-, seconds
PEEP DRAFT > \
(overage zero-u p crossing period)

wave frequ ency ( rodians / stc )

Figure 8.: Heave response in relation to draft

Figure 9 Stress plot of longitudinal bulkhead

712

DEEPWATER DRILLING
WITH RISE R

-Riser handling
-Riser tensioning
-Gimbled spider
-Riser configuration
-Riser connector strength
-Riser acceleration forces
-Riser recoil and disconnect
-Riser instrumentation

-Permanent TV cameras

4^
-B.O.P. connector strength design
-Extra mud lift line
-B.O.P. operation and instrumentation (multiplex)
-Improved re-entry system
-Wellhead pressure control"
-Bottomhole pressure control

Figure 10.: Deep water drilling with riser

Land or shallow water Deepwater

.3.
D JS.
D D
Sediment t \ equals gradient - C
Depth Depth

Sediment

Pressure Pressure -

Figure 11.: Formation fracture gradients

 713

Figure 12.: Deep water drilling/workover unit

Figure 13: Floating Drilling Offloading production Storage concept

(FDOPS)
714

UNDERWATER DRILL FOR LARGE CAPACITY PILES

Yves LEGENDRE
Operations Manager
SOLMARINE

' Sumary

A new down-hole drilling equipment has been studied under contract TH/15-
59/84 signed between the ECC and Belgian Offshore Services.

The purpose of this development is to provide the industry with a safer

way to install large diameter drilled piles, 2 m diameter or more, with
little influence of the water depth.

It is believed that such large capacity piles will be more and more requi-
red in the future, and that driving may not always provide piles with
large enough capacity. Besides it is well known that drilling is hazar-
dous, with risks of soil collapse on top of the problems linked to the
transmission of the rotation torque especially for large piles in large
water depths.

The tool described herein solve most of the problems associated with con-
ventional rotary drilling, and should therefore reduce hazards and subse-
quent cost associated with the standard technique.

This paper presents the equipment as designed, based on modifications of a

tool used onshore since the mid-70s, as well as preliminary tests ran on
different components.

It also gives a time and cost estimate for the construction of a proto-
type.

1 - INTRODUCTION
The study performed under contract TH/15-59/84 signed on March 11'85
between the ECC and Belgian Offshore Services has been carried on with the
assistance of two specialised companies from the Soltanche Group,
Soltanche Entreprise and Solmarine, and specific studies were carried on
by the Institut Francais du Ptrole and the Ecole Nationale Suprieure des
Mines de Paris (Paris School of Mining).
The objective has been to design a drilling tool which would solve
most of the problems associated with drilling, namely the soil collapse
hazards, the pile re-entry into the drilled hole, the power requirements
for large diameters and the torque transmission from surface equipment to
the tool, especially sensitive for large piles in large water depths.
 715

The new equipment is based on a tool invented by Soltanche in the

raid70s, and extensively used onshore, the Hydrofraise HF 4000, as this
drilling tools had many features most favourable to meet the requirements
set above.
The Hydrofraise HF 4000, presented in more details later on, does not
require any torque transmission from surface, as the engines are set down
the hole inside two rotating drums with parallel horizontal axis. Those
drums are equipped with drilling peaks and rotate in opposite directions
to cut the soil and bring the cuttings up between them. From there cut
tings are removed through a suction pump set just above the drums.
Therefore the only links with surface are through hydraulic or elec
trical channels, which is most convenient for offshore works.
The study brought many improvements to make it even more attractive
for this application, such as a power transmission almost independent from
water depth, and a jacking system to allow for the installation of the
pile during drilling to avoid collapse hazards.
It was proven in the study that the equipment as designed, ready for
construction, was realistic and did bring the advantages sought for.

2 PRELIMINARY SPECIFICATIONS
The objectives set at the start of the study were :
Installation of large capacity piles in large water depths with axial
capacity above 20 MN, and horizontal capacity above 10 MN.
Drilling in soils with up to 100 MPa compressive strength.
Reliable power transmission in large water depth.
Possibility to operate the equipment from various support vessels, from
drilling ships to barges.
Possibility to install the pile while drilling.
A few parameters were set as guide lines :

Pile OD 2 m or more
Pile length 100 m
Water depth 1,000 ra
Drilling speed 20 m/hr
Cutting removal 8090 m /hr
Average soil compressive strength 40 MPa
Maximum compressive strength 100 MPa

It appeared that the drilling tool Hydrofraise HF 4000 met most of

these requirements and was therefore a proper starting point.

3 HYDROFRAISE HF 4000 (figure 1)

The HF 4000 drilling equipment is made of :
1 guide frame, 15 m high, with a 2.4 m 0.6 m or 2.4 m 1.2 m cross
section. Weight varies from 200 to 250 kN.
Two drums with parallel horizontal axis are set at the bottom of the
frame. They are equipped with drilling teeth following a given pattern,
in small packages or following hlicodal lines depending on the soil
type.
Two hydraulic engines are set inside the drums so that th=> drums can ro
tate in opposite directions and create two adjacent holes, with a 0.6 m
1.2 m or 1.2 m 1.2 m cross section.
716

A suction pump is set within the frame above the drums, in order to
remove the cuttings brought there by the drums and mixed with the dril
ling fluid.
The whole equipment is suspended to a crane, through an intermediate
jack set on top of the guide frame, so that drilling can be run under
controlled conditions, in terms of weight and drilling speed.
The standard equipment can drill rectangular holes with a 0.6 to 1.2
m by 2.4 m cross section, and the last model has been extended to 2.4 m
3.6 m and has drilled successfully 150 m deep holes with less than 1 X
deviation.

4 MARINE CIRCOLAR HYDROFRAISE

4.1. Basic principles
In addition to the specifications detailed in the objectives, the
study led to these other choices.
Drill circular holes instead of rectangular or square ones. This was
achieved by the design of two levels of ellipsodal drums, as can be
seen of figures 2 and 3.
Drill with sea water as the hydraulic fluid for energy transmission, and
conversion of this primary energy within the down hole equipment by an
hydraulic turbine. This solution has the advantage to suppress most of
the constraints linked to water depth.
Installation of pile while drilling to avoid reentry problems and hole
collapse potential. This is achieved by setting the equipment inside the
pile and perform the operation step by step, with drilling over a cer
tain length before lowering the pile, the equipment and the pile being
connected with a double jack system.
Other options had to be taken which shall be described afterwards.

4.2. Description of equipment

Figure 3 shows the main elements of the Marine Circular Hydrofraise :
1 Higher guide frame
2 Jack
3 Feeding pipe for the hydraulic turbine
4 Telescopic pipe for cuttings removal
5 Lower guide frame
6 Jacking system to prevent rotation between guide frame and pile
7 Hydraulic power pack with turbine
8 Turbine exhaust, directed towards the drums for cleaning purpose
9 Cutting removal pump
10 Frame supporting the drums
11 Two levels of drums
On figure 4 is shown the whole equipment during drilling.
The description has been based on the use of a dynamically position
ne d drill ship, as this appeared to be one of the most probable option.
However other support vessels can also be used without changing the
principle, but some handling equipment would have to be set on non specia
lised supports such as barges.
The main elements are :
1 Lifting winch, and heave compensation system, standards on a drill
ship
2 Swivel head, also standard
 717

- 3 - Monitoring panel
-4-5 - Constant tension winches for hydraulic hoses, guide lines and elec-
trical cables
- 6 - Water hose for energy, with a length equal to the maximum drilling
depth
- 7 - Drilling fluid head
- 8 - Guide lines
- 9 - Electrical cable and hydraulic hoses
- 10 - API 5"l/2 drill string
- 11 - Hydraulic connector
- 12 - Exhaust line for cuttings
- 13 - System for step by step lowering of the pile
- 14 - 2134 mm OD pile
- 15 - Marine circular Hydrofraise hold inside the pile by the riser tube

4.3. - General procedure

The general procedure is shown on figure 5.
The full set including a guiding support with guide lines, the pile
and the Hydro fraise are lowered down a drill string (or a hose, but the
drill string may be more convenient in fact on a drill ship) .
Once the guiding support has been introduced into the higher pile
guide, only the Hydrofraise and the pile continue, down to sea bottom.
Drilling is first performed by extension of the advance control jack,
while the pile remains in place - when tripping up the Hydrofraise, the
drums are extended to enlarge the hole - then both pile and Hydro fraise
are lowered down.
This sequence of operation is repeated until the target depth has
been reached, at which time the Hydrofraise and the guiding support can be
removed.
File grouting follows, with conventional techniques.

5 - PARTICULAR POINTS STUDIED FOR THIS MACHINE

5.1. - Riser
The connection between the 5"l/2 pipes at the pile top and the Hydro-
fraise head is a line made of two coaxial tubes called "riser".
The fluid used for powering the turbine flows in the annular space
and the cuttings are evacuated in the inner tube.
Studies were performed by the I.F.P. to control the mechanical
strength of the riser during the drilling and tripping operations.

5.2. Water turbine and hydraulic power pack

The water depth led us to adopt an inventive solution to transmit the
energy : water is used as the power fluid.
A high power hydraulic turbine actuated by the fluid, drives an
underwater hydraulic power pack made of five pumps corresponding to the
five engines (drums and cutting exhaust pump) of the Hydrofraise. This
solution is not impaired by the water depth since a pressure equilibrium
system allows a continuous regulation of the hydraulic pressures within
the machine.

5.3. - Underreaming system

The drums are fitted on pads allowing them to spread out in order to
obtain a borehole such that the annular space between the borehole wall
and the pile is 75 mm wide.
718

This system is actuated by hydraulic jacks which move the pads out-
wards and pull them backwards at the end of the underreaming.

5.4. - Breaking of soil steps (redente)

The four drums leave a space in the middle which cannot be reached as
such by the peaks. These soil steps may have a high strength in hard
soils, and may affect the drilling process.
A special adaptation has been designed to slightly displace the drums
continuously during slightly drilling in order to break these soil steps.

5.5. - Configuration of the drums

A specific analysis was carried out by the Ecole Nationale Suprieure
des Mines de Paris (ESMP) to study the configuration of the milling tools
on the drum.
The ESMP has a rock mechanics laboratory (CMI) where are studied
scale models (1/4, 1/6) of drums of cutting machines used in the mining
industry.
A scale model of the milling cutter was built (scale 1/4) in 3 ele-
ments having the shape of truncated cone and with a spherical extremity.
The testing bench on which the milling cutter was set is connected to
a computerised data acquisition system.
The tests were performed with an iron ore (unconfined compressive
strength 38 MPa) and with a concrete (69 MPa).
The measurements taken were the penetration force, the normal force
(causing the two drums to move aside from each other) and the torque, as a
function of the drilling rate. From a computer treatment of these datas,
it is easy to define the necessary power and weight of the machine to
obtain a given drilling rate in the considered soil with a given configu-
ration of the milling tools on the drums.
In connection with this model scale testing, a theoretical modlisa-
tion of the Hydrofraise drums was carried out to confirm the experimental
results, control the failure mode of the rock, forecast and simulate new
situations.
The result of this is a computer programme "PC HFC".
Both experimental and theoretical studies lead to the choice of a
drum with two helices of milling tools. The distance between two cutting
lines is equal to the thickness of a milling tool and there is one roof
shaped tool per line.
It is important to say that the small scale test conditions are dif-
ferent from the real conditions since they are performed without water and
at the atmospheric pressure. Among other things, this means that the wear
of the milling tools will be slightly different as well as the rock fai-
lure behaviour.

6 - CONCLUSION
The study has shown the feasibility of the concept, and especially
detailed testings confirmed that the modifications required to drill cir-
cular holes in large diameter could be done.
The analysis of the drilling procedure also showed that the drilling
operation was safe and could guarantee the installation of piles without
the usual operationnal hazards linked to soil stability as the soil is
never left open over a large height.
 719

Finally the power transmission could be solved in such a way that the
operation can be carried on without real dependency on water depths.
Next steps should be the construction of a prototype.
The study showed that this could be done within 18 months at a cost
lower than ECU 3,000,000. However the present economy situation is not in
favour of co-financing from oil companies or main contractors, so that
decision has been made to delay the construction.
We can only hope that in the near future this work will proceed in
order to provide the industry with a new way to install drill piles.

Figure 1 - HYDROFRAISE HF 4000

Figure 2 - Cross Section of Drums

720

Figure 3 - The MARINE CIRCULAR HYDROFRAISE

 721

Figure 4 - Drilling with the MARINE CIRCULAR HYDROFRAISE

722

Figure 5 - Drilling Phases

 723

DEVELOPMENT OF THE HYDRA-LOK SYSTEM

FOR APPLICATION TO DEEPWATER JACKET STRUCTURES

J. M. LOWES
Managing Director, BUE Hydra-Lok Limited

Summary
The development of offshore oil and gas fields requires the installation of
large production facilities adjacent to the field. These facilities, which are
commonly steel towers, are often piled to the seabed. BUE Hydra-Lok have
developed a connection system to facilitate the connection of the piles to
these structures. The paper describes the system, its current level of
development, and the proposed methods to apply the system to a jacket
secured by 72" piles. The development is an on-going project.

1. INTRODUCTION
The exploitation of offshore oil and gas fields requires the installation of
massive production facilities over or adjacent to the reservoir. A large number of
these facilities require piled foundations which are used to secure them to the
seabed. The method of securing these structures to their piled foundations is
limited and has been conventionally undertaken by the use of grouting techniques.
This technique of securing piles to structures has developed from the art of
cementing casings etc., a system used extensively in the drilling industry. I t is,
however, well known that problems can occur in its application and although these
are often overcome by diver involvement in moderate depths the problems
increase with depth.
BUE Hydra-Lok have developed a pile connection system known as 'Hydra-
Lok'; this system eliminates the need for the extensive grouting associated
equipment installed on the structure including grout monitoring equipment,
packers, packer inflation lines and grout lines. The system is simple to operate
and being controlled from the surface is entirely diverless in operation.
During recent years the system has gained some success in the securing of
subsea structures at pile sizes up to 42" diameter and it has recently been
extended to larger sizes. The current development involves studying the most
appropriate way to deploy and operate the Hydra-Lok system on large diameter
piles on jacket type structures.

2. THE HYDRA-LOK SYSTEM

Past experience with grouted connections has established a basic
arrangement in the connection of piles to structures. The loads carried by the
piles are transferred to the structure through a sleeve which is in turn attached by
tubulars or shear plates to the legs. Hydra-Lok has endeavoured to retain this
basic concept and a Hydra-Lok connection consists of an inner tubular swaged into
an outer sleeve.
The essential features of the Hydra-Lok system are illustrated in Fig. 1.
The attraction of the system is its simplicity. Two nested tubulars are connected
by hydraulically expanding (swaging) by the direct application of hydraulic
pressure a portion of the inner tubular (pile), into a predesigned shaped portion of
the outer tubular (sleeve). The pressure is applied by a tool with seals at either
end. The strength required of the connection determines the length and internal
geometry of the outer tubular. A simple tool complete with inspection system
deployed from a suitable vessel makes the connection quickly and efficiently.
After completing the connection and upon removal of the tool the inspection unit
provides a graphic display of the inner profile of the connection.
724

3. CURRENT EXPERI ENCE WI TH HYDRA-LOK

The system has been under development by BUEH for a number of years. I n
order to be applied to the variety of applications intended it has undergone
rigorous testing witnessed by the relevant government departments and certifying
authorities. Such testing has included small model connections and large diameter
(72") pile connections tested under various stress requirements including static
compression and tension, dynamic compression and tension and static and dynamic
bending (see Fig. 2). Having undertaken various study work to investigate
material properties and corrosion resistance, and based upon the results of the
above testing, the system was finally certified for offshore use in 1984.
The oil industry was initially reluctant to apply the tehnology, however, by
1987 some 16 structures had been installed in the North Sea using 24" - 42" piles.
These structures have been entirely subsea where the loading is considered to be
less demanding than that encountered with jacket type structures, however it has
enabled Hydra-Lok to gain considerable operational experience. Table I includes
work carried out to date and illustrates the usage of structures covered.

4. APPL
I CATI ON OF HYDRA-LOK TO LARGE DI AMETER PI LES SU I TABLE
FOR DEEPWATER PRODUCTI ON FACI LI TI ES
One of the most essential aspects of any tool to be used offshore is the
ability of the offshore crew to handle it with ease, both as a complete package
and when under repair. Early Hydra-Lok tool design did not lend itself to the
scale of the large 72"/84" pile connections and the methods of tool assembly and
deployment were totally inappropriate.
The early tools were screwed together similar to 'bolts into a central
sleeve'. The operating seals were trapped between the 'bolt' and sleeve and
enabled the hydraulic pressure to be applied to the pile. Although this provided
for a very simple design it does not provide for easy handling or ease of
disassembly. The end plugs of the 72" tool (the 'bolts') each weigh approximately
20 tons. New designs were therefore required to enable a 72"/84" tool to be
constructed. The concept most appropriate and selected for this application was
the split body with each end plug (bolt) retaining its own seal. The revised tool is
simpler to handle and maintain than the previous design. The tool was tested
under laboratory conditions in 1986 and was shown to function perfectly on 72"
O.D. 2 i " W.T. pile material.
The tool can be extended to cover 84" diameter piles with a wall thickness
of approximately 4". Fig. 3 shows the essential features of an 84" tool. Extension
of the tool centres around the existing 72" main body components by replacing the
seals, centralising system and extending the range of the end plugs using a high
strength backing ring. The entire tool is then enclosed in a 'skin' of steel to ease
deployment.
The main working parts of the tool; the hydraulic system, the seals, the
inspection system and centralising system operate in a similar manner to previous
tools. The tool is serviced by a composite umbilical consisting of an electrical
cable, an hydraulic hose and a pneumatic hose. This umbilical provides all power
and control functions which are achieved by surface operations.
The handling of a tool of this size presents additional problems to the
smaller tools since it weighs 75 tons and almost 90 tons in its handling cradle. I n
the field of jacket design there has been a normal design criterion to 'batter' piles,
and in order to stab the tool into the neck of the pile a manner had to be derived
to deploy the tool through the pile guides and successfully into the pile. The tool
must therefore be located by reference to the jacket in order to place the seals in
the correct position with respect to the sleeve. This can be achieved by simple
mechanical means. Fig. 4 shows the proposed deployment procedure and is the
 725

method to be adopted on BP Ravenspurn 'C' structure.

The procedure requires a guide tube to be placed down the pile guides just
short of the driven pile. This tube acts as a positive guide to the tool which is
installed at the surface. The tool is deployed down the tube and emerges to be
guided directly into the pile. The lifting strop is so arranged that when the tool is
correctly located the tool is prevented from further decent by and adjustable
mechanical stop.
Swaging of the pile is accomplished as stated previously using the surface
control equipment and inspection of the profile is achieved as the tool is
withdrawn. The tool is then totally withdrawn. The guide tube is transferred to
another pile and the process repeated.

5. CONCLUSION
The development to date has centred on the design of operating tools and
the associated support equipment. Various tool deployment options appropriate to
a jacket structure have received attention, conclusions have been drawn and a
preferred system has been identified.
The ultimate test of the system w i l l be its operational debut and this w i l l
take place on the first jacket installation.

THE HYDRA-LOK' SYSTEM

FIG
726

TESTING OF 72 PILE CONNECTION TESTING OF 16 FATIGUE SPECIMEN

BEND TEST SPECIMEN

FIG 2
 727

HYDRAULICS POD

0 0 END PLUG

CENTRALISING SYSTEM

SEAL BACKUP RING

SEAL

SPLIT BODY

r
i~^
]H"?/T?:;
INSPECTION SYSTEM. ;:
*

ELECTRONICS POD
^xQ.

84 TOOL
FIG 3
728

HYDRA-LOK TOOL DEPLOYMENT

FIG 4
 BUE HYDRA-LOK LIMITED

INSTALLATIONS CARRIED OUT USING HYDRA-LOK

Date Field Installation Oil Company

June 1982 Thistle 'A* 'J' Tube Connection (1) BNOC (Britoil)

June 1984 Balmoral Production Template Installation (3) North Sea Sun Oil

July 1984 South East Forties Pre-drilling Template Installation (3) B.P.

May 1985 South Claymore Water Injection Template Installation (4) Occidental

August 1985 Gullfaks 'A' Wellhead Protection Template Installation (16) Statoil

August 1985 Oseberg Pre-drilling Template Installation (4) Norsk Hydro

July 1986 Scapa Production Template Installation (4) Occidental

Sept. 1986 Tortimeli ten Pre-drilling Template (4) Statoil

Sept. 1986 Gullfaks 'A' Wellhead Protector Template Installation (4) Statoil

July 1987/ Production Template Installation (12) Elf

East Frigg
Sept. 1987

June 1987 Veslefrikk Pre-drilling Template Installation (3) Statoil

Nov. 1987 Gyda Pre-drilling Template Installation (3) BP Norway

-5
ZO
CO
TABLE I
730

THE GROUTED DRIVEN PILE

AN ECONOMIC ALTERNATE FOR PILE FOUNDATION IH CALCARE ODS SARDS

Herv BARTHELEMY
V.P. Operations / Marketing
SOLMARINE

Sunnary

Platforms, like icebergs, have more to show than what emerged above water,
and one should never forget that all the sophisticated technology instal-
led on a deck relies on what is sometimes considered as a crude detail,
the foundation.

Most structures are linked to the soil through tubular steel piles.

Such piles may be driven, or set in a predrilled hole and grouted, but
usually driving - when feasible - is cheaper and remains the first choice.

However in Australia, in the Persian Gulf, Brasil, South Africa, the Medi-
terranean sea, etc... geotechnicians are faced with the problem created by
the calcareous sands, where driven piles have very low capacity.
Therefore, even though such soils are often soft and easily driveable,
they have to design more expensive drilled piles.

This presentation deals with a solution where piles can be driven with low
installation costs, then grouted to the formation to restore their
capacity. Tests and studies ran in the last years have shown that the
capacity of Grouted Driven Piles could be equivalent to those of Drilled
and Grouted Piles, and that the overall saving was in the range of ECU
400,000 to ECU 800,000 per pile.

INTRODUCTION
Calcareous sands, which are found in many areas where oil production
is performed, have a specificity which gives nightmares to foundation
designers.
Their first common characteristic is a high calcium carbonate con-
tent, sometimes higher than 90 %, but their geological origin may vary.
However they have a second common characteristic linked to the lateral
friction developed between such soil and the steel surface of a pile dri-
ven into it, i.e; such friction is often nil, and at the best do not
exceed in general 10 or 20 kPa. As piles may have to resist tension forces
in the range of 10 MN, that leads, for a 1.5 m diameter pile, to 106 m
length for 20 kPa, and 424 m for 5 kPa. A drilled and grouted pile in the
same formation can be designed for at least 100 kPa friction, so that the
length in the same conditions is less than 30 m.
 731

The problem is that conventional drilling takes longer than driving,

and is more subject to operational hazards, and this is especially upset-
ting when dealing with a soil where driving is easier than in most others,
while unstability in drilling and fracture hazards in grouting are often
higher.
The expertise of our Group in foundations problems led us to perform
various studies regarding the situation since the 70s.
Improvements in grouting were first looked at, with special equipment
set on the pile to allow the grouting operation to be done on short
lengthes of the pile each time to decrease the fracture hazards (2).
Another way, which is also presented in the Symposium (1) is to im-
prove the drilling phase.
The third solution, presented herein, is a combination of driving and
grouting, where piles are driven as usual but are pre-equipped with grout
lines so that immediately after installation a fast and simple grouting
operation restores the capacity of the pile to values comparable to those
of Drilled and Grouted Piles.
Economical analyses have been made for different sizes of jackets all
over the World, to compare the solution with conventional drilled and
grouted or driven piles. Savings due to reduction in pile length, or pile
number, suppression of numerous guides, and/or shorter offshore opera-
tions, could easily raise up to ECU 400,000 to ECU 800,000 per pile.

2 - DESCRIPTION OF A GROUTED DRIVEN PILE

2.1. Principle
The two main ideas which led to this invention were :
- As driving is cheap one should try to stick to this installation pro-
cedure, and whatever has to be done to the pile should not restrain the
easiness of driving.
- For some reason the contact between a calcareous sand and a driven pile
is of poor quality, but the soil itself is strong as drilled and grou-
ted piles have large capacities. So one should look at a way to improve
this contact, and the most logical to start with is to develop a system
where grout could be set under some pressure between the steel pile and
the soil in order to "glue" them tightly together.
Other requirements came afterwards such as :
- The additional pile equipment - whatever it is - must be set onshore to
minimize offshore operations.
- Such equipment must not prevent further drilling through the pile, as
this possibility remains a must for contractors for contingency, so the
equipment must remain close to the pile wall and leave a large free
space in the middle.
- Grouting must be done in stages as there is no chance to be able to
spread the grout over the whole length of the pile through one grout
port only due to the pressure required to open an annulus between the
soil and the pile.
Otherwise high pressure will be required, leading to soil fracture ins-
tead of grout spread along the pile.
- Grout ports must be reusable as one must guarantee that the required
quantity of grout shall be set everywhere, even if anything such as a
pump breakdown interrupt the grouting process. Contingencies are already
a problem in drilled piles even though in that case it is possible to
introduce a grout pipe in the annulus to resume the operations, but
there is no free annulus around a driven pile.
732

All this conditions put together led to the design described here
below and shown on figure 1.

2.2. The Grouted Driven Pile

The Grouted Driven Pile starts of course with a conventional pile of
any diameter.
The grout pipe is a small diameter tube (50 to 100 mm ID), set along
the pile wall. Over the length to be grouted, this tube is connected to
the outside of the pile through a T, the third branch of which goes
through a hole drilled into the pile wall, and is welded to the pile wall
from the outside. This hole has also a small diameter so that the mecha
nical characteristics of the pile are not affected.
A oneway valve is fixed (screwed or welded) into this from the
outside. Therefore the grout can flow from the inside of the grout pipe to
the outside of the pile, but cannot come back.
Finally a small shoe (say 15 cm 15 cm) is welded at the tip of the
pile below the grout pipe to protect it during driving, and a reentry cone
can be set on top of the grout pipe to facilitate the reentry of the
grout line.

2.3. General procedure

The pile is preequipped onshore, with a number of grout pipes (2 or
3) and a valve spacing (3 to 5 m) function of the pile diameter and local
conditions.
It is driven as usual.
Once all piles have been driven grouting can proceed.
A 15 to 20 mm ID grout line, equipped with a double packer, is lowe
red down the grout pipe, and the packer set is positionned in front of one
valve.
Packers are inflated and pumping starts, at very low rates (a few
hundred litres per hour). Experience has shown that the amount of grout
to be pumped was very small, so that such low rate necessary to prevent
claquage is no big problem.
During the grouting volumes, pressures and flowrates are recorded so
as to analyse instantly the grouting process as is done in onshore soil
grouting works.
Once the required volume has been pumped packers are deflated and
water if flushed to wash out the lines and the internal face of the valve
so that it can be reopened afterwards if required of course the water
pressure remains low enough so that the valves do not open during this
washing. Then packers can be positionned to the next level.
The total time required is obviously function of the pile size, but
the volumes to be pumped are very small, all piles may be grouted simul
taneously, and no heavy equipment is required, so that the cost of
grouting remains small.

3 DRIVEABILITY TESTS
In early 1986 a 12 m long, 50 cm OD pile, equipped with three dif
ferent grout pipes, was subjected to extensive driving.
During this test the pile rested first on a rubber cushion, so as to
simulate large instantaneous displacements then on concrete to get the
opposite extreme conditions.
After more than 1,000 blows checks were made on weldings, and even
though the pile penetrated into the concrete block over 60 cm, no micro
cracks could be detected.
 733

4 FRICTION CAPACITY TESTS

4.1 Test aet up
A large scale grouting test took place in Brittany in the small
village of Plouasne in the summer of 1986. This test site had been used
previously by a French Research Group, ARGEMA, to evaluate capacities of
drilled and grouted, driven, driven and repaired by grouting piles, in
the medium grained weakly cemented calcareous sands found only a few
metres below ground level.
The test pile had a 76 cm OD, was 24 metre long, and was equipped
with two grout pipes.
It was driven down to 23 m depth, and grouted in two stages. Pullout
teste were run after driving and after each grouting stage.

4.2. Results
Tension tests after driving confirmed the expected very low friction
values, i.e. 3 to 5 kPa at the most (test SI on figure 3 ) .
The first grouting stage, through one of the lowest valve (n 5 see
figure 2 ) , led to results far above expectations (test S2 figure 3) :
Grouting was stopped after a dozen minutes only due to a high pumping
pressure raise, while only 70 litres of grout had been pumped. The ten
sion test showed ultimate friction as high as 190 to 240 kPa over 3
metres, and 60 to 100 kPa over 1.5 metre on both ends of that zone.
Visual inspection after extraction confirmed that those very high values
were obtained with only a few millimetres of grout film around the pile,
the differences in average friction being a result of an uncomplete cove
rage at both ends of the grouted section.
Further grouting through valves 7 and 8 also resulted in high fric
tion (test S4), in the range of 100 kPa. The lower values were explained
by a remolding of top soil during pile installation and a lower effi
ciency to mobilize soil horizontal stress when grouting at shallow
depths.

Finally the pullout test was continued to estimate residual friction

after large displacement. Such friction drop could already be seen for
the lowest part of the pile on test S4, and was experienced at the top of
the pile afterwards. On the average residual friction was found to be in
the order of 75 of ultimate friction.

4.3. Comments
These tests have been essential to prove the reliability of the
technology as well as the soundness of the principle :
the equipment can be driven.
High friction capacities in the same order that those measured in the
same soils on drilled and grouted piles can be reached through this
process.
this high capacity is achieved with very small grout volumes, which
shows that driving had only a local remolding effect on the soil.
Large displacements lead to a loss in friction again comparable to what
was found on drilled and grouted piles on the same site, i.e. 25 % of
peak values and not 70 and even less 100 as was said or feared
sometimes.
734

5 - CONCLUSIONS
The project financed by EEC since 1985 has led to the development of
a new product to solve the problems of pile foundations, the Grouted Dri-
ven Pile.
Tests run in 1986 have shown the high potential of the technique
which provides similar capacity results than Drilled and Grouted Files,
but at a much lower costs, as savings can add up to ECU 800,000 per pile.
Studies proceed to optimise hardware and procedures but already the
interest of oil companies has been risen so that further studies and
tests with budgets in terms of millions of European Currency Units could
start soon, with the hope of having a jacket installed with this tech-
nique in the next couple of years.

REFERENCES

(1) LEGENDRE, Y. (1987). Underwater drill for large capacity piles. 3rd
Int. Syrap. on New Oil and Gas Technologies, Luxembourg.
(2) GOUVENOT, D. and BUSTAMANTE, M. (1975). A New Foundation Technique
Using Files Sealed by Cement Grout Under High Pressure. Proc. 7th
Off. Tech. Conf., Houston, OTC paper 2310.
(3) BARTHELEMY, H., GOUVENOT, D., MARTIN, R. and BUSTAMANTE, M. (1986).
Pressure Grouted Piles : a Solution to Offshore Foundation Problems.
Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. on Numerical Methods in Offshore Piling, Nantes,
Editions Technip.
(4) BARTHELEMY, H., GEFFRIAUD, J.P. and LEGENDRE, Y. (1987). Grouted
Driven Piles. Proc. 6th Int. Offshore Mechanics and Arctic
Engineering Symposium, Vol. 1, paper 544.
(5) BARTHELEMY, H., MARTIN, R., LE TIRANT, P., NAUROY, J.F. and CIPRIANO
J. DE MEDEIROS (1987). Grouted Driven Piles : An Economic and Safe
Alternate for Pile Foundations. Proc. Off. Tech. Conf., Houston, OTC
paper 5409.
(6) BARTHELEMY, H., MARTIN, R., NAUROY, J.F., LE TIRANT, P. and CIPRIANO
J. DE MEDEIROS (1987). Pull-out Tests on a Grouted Driven Pile in
Calcareous Sands. Proc. 6th Int. Symp. on Off. Eng., Rio.
(7) NAUROY, J.F., BRUCY, F., LE TIRANT, P., BARTHELEMY, H. and KERVADEC,
J.P. (1987). Repair of Driven Piles in Calcareous Formations. Proc.
6th Int. Symp. on Off. Eng., Rio.
 Guidi frinii 1.05mm OD
Reentry cone

SILTS;
Entum Using 36" OD

Grout pipe 5

Grout hose * frr~Groit plogs

Pile wall 10 CALCAREOUS

Tm pili 30" 00
.*. SANDS';'
Upper packer

Groutf ; . * >

Valve 15
< i'l<
7
7,
66
'' *'*.' Striti giugi
Tconnection r)
6
();
Lower packer 67.....':
2
20
>5:

Protection shoe )
23,5J LIU

Flg.1 Typical G.D.P. equipment Flg. 2 Description of test pile J

at
01
 -a
03
>

Fig.3 Load in function of depth

Flg.4 Load in function of displacement

 737

A FIELD INVESTIGATION INTO THE PERFORMANCE OF A PILED FOUNDATION

SYSTEM FOR AN OFFSHORE OIL PRODUCTION PLATFORM

AND

A FIELD INVESTIGATION INTO THE SOIL STRUCTURE INTERACTION OF A

FOUNDATION SYSTEM DURING THE EARLY LIFE OF AN OFFSHORE OIL
PRODUCTION PLATFORM

D.E. SHARP
Geotechnlcal Engineer
BP International Ltd

Summary

Design methods for offshore structural foundations have been

extrapolated from onshore experience although pile sizes are very
much larger than land piles. Much of the imposed loading on an
offshore pile is attributable to wave loading yet, prior to this
project, no work had been performed to confirm how much of this
loading is actually transmitted to the piles. The principal
objective of this project was to obtain basic information to
verify current foundation design methods. The programme consisted
of instrumenting the lower section of one of the four legs of the
Magnus platform and the piles supporting that leg and determining
the actual loads imposed on the piles and seabed by the structure
deadweight and environmental forces. These loads have been
related to those calculated by conventional methods of analysis
utilised during design. The system was monitored for a period of
about 3 years during which time instrumentation and recording
systems performed well. Project objectives were achieved. In
general form the measured and predicted behaviour were similar
which gives reasonable confidence in current design methods.
There were, however, significant differences in the numerical
value of certain measured and predicted parameters.

INTRODUCTION
Design methods currently used for offshore structural
foundations have been extrapolated from onshore experience although
pile sizes are now very much larger than land piles. Much of the
imposed loading on offshore piling is attributable to wave loading yet
no work had been performed to confirm how much of this loading is
actually transmitted to the piles. Furthermore very little work had
been done onshore and none offshore on the distribution of loads
within a pile group.
In 1982 BP Petroleum Development installed a production platform
in 186m of water at Magnus Field in Block 211/12 of the UK Sector,
North Sea.
The Investigation consisted of instrumenting the lower section
of one of the four legs of the Magnus platform and the piles
738

supporting that leg, to determine the actual loads imposed on the

piles and seabed by the structural and environmental forces The
object of the study has been to relate these loads to those calculated
by the conventional methods used during the design of the Magnus
structure. The foundation monitoring is one of three sub-systems, the
others being environmental and structural, which together comprised
the complete monitoring system of the Magnus platform.

2. STRUCTURE
The Magnus platform is a four-legged tower type self floating
structure with piles at the four corners The Magnus tower was
floated out from the graving dock at Nigg Bay at the end of March
1982, towed to the Magnus site and upending commenced on 1 April.
During upending, ten of the fourteen pre-installed piles, Including
six of the seven pre-installed instrumented piles on the instrumented
leg, were released prematurely. The tower was successfully placed on
the seabed on 4 April. Retrieval of those piles released prematurely
was considered but concluded to be impractical within an acceptable
tlmeecale. Consequently, replacement piles were fabricated.
The Magnus structure is supported by four groups of nine 2134mm
diameter open-ended pipe piles having a uniform wall thickness of
63.5mm. The Pitch Circle Diameter of each group is 13.8m. Initially
following upending, the structure was supported on four mudmats,
approximately 17m in diameter. The 36 piles were driven to
penetrations of 80 to 87m, using Menck MHU 1700 underwater hammers
and a spread of MRBS 8000 and 12500 steam hammers with a conventional
follower arrangement. Piles did not plug during driving, that is, the
piles cored during driving. Grouting of piles into pile sleeves was
completed early in July 1982.
Platform topsidee modules were lifted onto the tower later in
July. Hook-up and commissioning of the platform topsides continued
for two years. The platform is now a fully operational offshore
installation.

3. SOIL PROPERTIES
A surficial layer of silty sand Is present and varies in
thickness up to lm, generally increasing in thickness from North to
South across the platform site. This overlies a stratum of soft clay
which varies in thickness between 650 and 2650mm as observed at
sampling locations. The soft clay rests on a boulder clay that occurs
between 750 and 2700mm below seafloor, forming an irregular surface
that has been Infilled by the soft clay. The possibility exists that
boulder clay outcrops at the seafloor In places. The boulder clay is
a firm to hard dark grey silty clay that extends to between 14 and 18m
below the seafloor and overlies a fine to coarse sand that is
generally 2.5m thick. The underlying soils to at least 130m
penetration are mostly very stiff to stiff dark grey silty clays of
low plasticity.
Details of the site investigation performed were presented by
Semple and Rigden (1).

4. INSTRUMENTATION
The foundation monitoring was one of three sub-systems which
together comprised the complete monitoring system of the Magnus
platform. The other two sub-systems, the environmental monitoring and
 739

Che structural monitoring are, in part a statutory requirement but

were extended to cover work considered essential by BP for efficient
operation of an offshore installation.
The programme is believed to have been the most comprehensive
pile monitoring project carried out offshore The following sensors,
shown on Figure 1, were Installed:
- Accelerometere. A triaxial set of linear accelerometers and
two angular accelerometers at the base of the instrumented
leg to measure dynamic movements at the top of the pile
group.
- Structural Strain Gauges. The transient load entering the
pile group was measured using sets of strain gauges on leg
A4 and on the two face diagonal members attached to this leg
near the seabed.
Base Contact Stresses. Pressure gauges installed on the
underside of the mudmat were used to estimate the total load
transmitted through the mudmat.
- Pile Strain Gauges. Sets of strain gauges attached to each
pile supporting leg A4 were used to determine the
distribution of load from the leg to each pile and down the
length of one of the nine piles, referred to as the fully
instrumented pile.
Total and Pore Pressure Gauges. Provision was made on the
original pile strain gauged along its length to measure pore
water pressure, total pressure and to obtain effective soil
pressure by subtracting one from the other.
The upending incident was a major setback to the Foundation
Monitoring Project (FMP), with approximately half of the
original sensors being lost. It was obvious that the three
remaining instrumented piles would not provide adequate data to
meet the desired objectives of the FMP. BP investigated the
possibility of Instrumenting a number of the replacement piles.
A review of the design, fabrication and installation of the
original system concluded that it would be impractical In the
time available to copy this system for the replacement piles.
An alternative system was designed. Four replacement piles were
instrumented at one level and a further pile (a new "fully
instrumented pile") was instrumented at three levels. These
five piles were installed through the sleeves of leg A4 together
with the three remaining "original" piles and one uninstrumented
pile to form the pile group which has been monitored for this
project. No pile pressure gauges were installed on the
replacement piles.

5. INSTALLATION AND HOOK-UP OF INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM

All the gauges were installed on the tower and piles and
successfully tested prior to float-out. Signals were
transmitted by instrumentation cable, protected through most of
its length in steel conduit, initially to a temporary data
logger (TDL) installed at the top of leg A4 and finally to a
sophisticated data acquisition unit (DAU) located in one of the
topeides modules. The TDL was commissioned at the fabrication
site prior to float out and activated during tower upending.
Ten cables from the eight instrumented piles installed were
pulled to the surface and hooked-up during July and August 1982.
740

The permanent DAU was installed and commissioned towards the end
of 1983.

6. PERFORMANCE OF GAUGE SYSTEMS

Of the gauges finally commissioned, that Is not counting
those lost during upending and not subsequently replaced, 79
percent were functioning as of 22 April 1985,the last date when
data was routinely analysed. The success rate Is considered
to be exceptionally high, many sensors having functioned for
over three years. Between April 1985 and January 1986, when
data from a particularly significant storm were analysed, a
further four out of the total number of 111 gauges commissioned
had failed reducing the success rate to 76 percent, still a
creditable performance.

7. DATA COLLECTION
All the sensors produced signals which varied continuously
with time as shown in Figure 2. Data were recorded by one of
two systems. The TDL automatically sampled data from mudmat
pressure gauges and pile strain gauges at a frequency of 2Hz for
five minutes every 6 hours and stored the results on cartridge
tapes. Manual readings were taken to supplement the data base
during periods of TDL malfunction and at other times to provide
an independent check on data recorded automatically.
The DAU was commissioned towards the end of 1983. The DAU
Is connected to all the sensors of the foundation monitoring
system as well as the sensors of the structural system. The
volume of data collected has been very large. In normal
operation, data were recorded for 40 minutes every 6 hours but
during stormy weather, recording could be continuous. The DAU
operated entirely automatically apart from tape changes which
were made manually when the tapes were full. The facility to
record data continuously used a wave height criterion which was
disabled for long periods because of poor wave sensor
performance. Some additional readings were made manually during
severe weather by platform personnel.
The TDL suffered from occasional periods of malfunction
during its early life. Despite this a suitable data base was
obtained to enable the desired analyses to be carried out.
Overall over 65Z of possible data were recorded by the TDL. By
comparison the DAU has performed exceptionally well obtaining 4
recordings each day apart from occasional periods when the
system was shut down due to operational requirements on the
platform.

8. DATA ANALYSIS
Data collected up to the end of April 1985 have been used
for the present project together with specific data from a major
storm which occured in January 1986. During the January 1986
storm the significant wave height was 12.6m and the individual
wave height reached 21m. This was the most severe event
recorded during the life of this project.
The analysis of the TDL data was relatively simple. Each
tape was replayed, data were calibrated, transformed and results
stored in a data base as means, maximums, minimums and standard
 741

deviations of stress for each pile strain gauge and pressure for
each mudtnat gauge. This data base was subsequently extended by
including the same parameters from the analysis of the DAU data.
Results have been examined primarily by means of plots of each
parameter against time.
The analysis of the DAU data required significant effort.
Initially tapes were replayed, time series data decoded and
stored on a disc. Data were then calibrated and transferred to
standard computer tapes. At this stage limited analysis of the
data was carried out as a matter of routine. Detailed analysis
of data from nine selected environmental events was carried out
at a later stage. The routine analysis primarily consisted of
extending the static data base beyond that period covered by the
TDL.
The detailed analysis commenced by examining the dynamic
data from one selected wave from each of the nine events. This
analysis was then extended initially to examine the maximum
individual wave in one recording per day and secondly to examine
all individual waves in the nine recordings analysed in detail.
Finally, a frequency analysis was undertaken to examine the
frequency response characteristics of signals recorded during
the nine selected storms.

9. SUMMARY OF MAJOR RESULTS

This project remains subject to joint industry
confidentiality restrictions and as such it is not possible to
present actual results herein. This section provides
indications of the scope of the results.

9.1 Long Term Load Variations

The results have demonstrated that it is important to
distinguish between the behaviour of the foundation in the long
term i.e. over months or even years, and that in the short term
i.e. over a period of seconds (e.g. wave loading). This is
perhaps most obvious with the loading taken by the mudmat.
Initially, during platform installation, it had to carry all of
the applied load. Most of this was transferred to the piles
over a period of about 12 months, as shown in Figure 3, such
that in the long term the mudmat carried only a small amount of
static load. The mudmat did, however, transmit a significant
percentage of the wave loading. Consequently, it transmits more
load in the short terra than In the long term which is not
unexpected.
Load began to be transferred from the mudmat when only two
piles had been Installed and prior to the piles being grouted.
A continous record of pile loads was obtained since, either
just before, or just after module installation. Pile loads
increased on module Installation and since then have shown a
smaller increase due to both load transfer from the mudmat and
increases in deck mass as shown in Figure 4. An indication of
absolute pile loads was obtained based upon initial measurements
made on the piles in the fabrication yard.

9.2 General Dynamic Response Characteristics

The dynamic response characteristics of the platform and the
742

foundations were dominated by direct response to wave action.

Response amplitudes at platform natural frequencies could be
ignored for most purposes. The signals were all random in form
but had simple and well-defined statistical properties.
Amplitude distributions were approximately Gaussian in form for
all locations at all times. The distributions of individual
wave heights and load cycles were approximately Rayleigh in
form. Consequently, the response characteristics could be
accurately described by a single amplitude parameter (either
standard deviation or maximum peak to peak value) and a single
period or frequency parameter (e.g. zero-crossing period)
Clear relationships between wave height, platform
displacements, platform forces, mudmat forces and pile forces
were found. Relationships were generally linear with no
resonant type effects within the foundation. Consequently, the
complete behaviour could be described in a quasi-static manner.
The most severe storm experienced to date approached
approximately from a SSE direction and had a significant wave
height of 12.6m. The highest individual wave measured was 21m.
This compares to the original 100 year design wave of 30m; later
reduced to approximately 27.5m.

9.3 Dynamic Analysis Methods

The dynamic response of the structure and foundation was
examined by undertaking a number of separate but related
analysis methods:
- Manual analysis of single selected individual waves
- Statistical analysis of all waves in one recording
- Analysis of largest individual waves from all recordings
Frequency analysis of selected recordings
- Long term analysis of natural frequencies and mode shapes.
The underlying feature was that all the methods gave similar
results and were entirely consistent with each other. This
gives confidence that findings are valid.
Initially, the analysis concentrated on a detailed study of
single selected waves. This is the simplest approach and can be
directly related to a specific applied static load. It yields a
considerable understanding of the behaviour of the foundation.
The general applicability of information obtained was then
demonstrated by undertaking a statistical analysis of all
individual waves in selected recordings and by examining the
largest waves in each recording for all recordings. Finally,
the frequency analysis examined the variation with frequency and
the natural frequency analysis provided an independent
assessment of foundation stiffness.
The inevitable variability of the wave configuration in a
real sea within an individual wave restricted the accuracy of
the single wave analysis. The extension to the examination of
all waves removed the variability and a more precise
understanding of foundation behaviour was obtained It was
possible to identify, for example, slight differences in
structural behaviour in the two horizontal directions and a
slight difference in the lateral response of the pile group
between high and low sea conditions.
 743

9.4 Dynamic Behaviour of Mudmat

The dynamic signals from the pressure cells on the mudmat
were correlated with the applied platform loads indicating that
dynamic loads were being transmitted through the mudmat. The
signal amplitudes varied with position and were consistent with
an overall axial load and bending moment. The mudmat makes a
significant contribution to the dynamic load carrying capacity
of the foundation. No contribution was assumed in design as is
traditional.

9.5 Behaviour of Piles Under Dynamic Axial Loading

The dynamic axial loads in the piles were consistent with
the application of an overall load and bending moment to the
pile group. This meant that some piles always experienced
higher dynamic loads than others.
There was no evidence of any non-linear behaviour of the
pile group in axial loading for wave conditions experienced to
date.
The measured dynamic axial stiffness of the pile group was
greater than that predicted during design.

9.6 Lateral Loading on Piles

An estimate of the bending moment distribution down a pile
was obtained by combining results from all piles, and assuming
that all piles would behave in a similar manner. The bending
moment distribution was used to derive shear force, rotation and
lateral displacement at the pile head. The results were
consistent with displacement, rotation and shear force values
measured on the structure.
The foundation appeared to behave in a linear manner over
the duration of a recording but there was a small change in
bending moment distribution per unit applied load in storm
conditions compared with calm conditions. This led to a
reduction of overall lateral stiffness in storm conditions
compared with calm conditions.
The measured lateral stiffness was also greater than that
predicted at the design stage. The measured natural frequencies
were higher than those predicted, partly due to the
under-prediction in lateral stiffness. Whilst this had little
influence on foundation behaviour, it had a significant
influence on the dynamic response characteristics of the
structure itself. Because of the predicted natural frequencies,
it was anticipated that there would be more response at the
platform natural frequencies and this had an influence on stress
levels and fatigue lives. Because the actual frequencies were
higher, the response at the natural frequencies was
insignificant.

10. STRUCTURAL AND FOUNDATION DESIGN PREDICTIONS

Predictions of foundation forces and displacements, based
wherever possible and appropriate on original design
assumptions, have been made such that comparisons could be made
with measured data. The work, programme was divided into two
phases. The first phase examined the effect of module
installation on the foundations assuming calm sea conditions,
744

preliminary storm induced pile loads and the development of a

new numerical model of the instrumented pile group based on soil
conditions appropriate to leg A4 rather than the overall site
which had been used during the original design. The second
phase commenced following data collection and included
examination of:
Module installation and two subsequent topside load
conditions in calm sea conditions
Calculation of wave and wind forces on the as-built
structure for three wave heights, three periods and five
directions chosen to bracket the monitored environmental
conditions. The structural model had conductors and marine
growth appropriate for the monitoring period. The
structural analyses determined forces acting on leg A4
followed by the distribution of these forces to Individual
leg A4 piles. Dynamic amplification was based on both
calculated and measured fundamental periods for the wave
periods investigated.
The forces at leg A4, and their distribution to the piles,
were calculated using measured wave spectra for which
corresponding pile forces had also been measured.
Modal analyses to determine the fundamental natural period
of the structure were carried out for three different
foundation stiffnesses.
Predictions of pile behaviour and installation studies
carried out during the intial design phase were presented by
Rigden and Semple (2) (3).

11. PROJECT REVIEW AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The project consisted of Instrumenting the lower section of
one leg of the Magnus structure and the piles supporting that leg
in order to determine the loads imposed on the piling and mudmat
by the structural and environmental forces. The object of the
8tudy has been to relate these loads to those calculated by
conventional methods of analysis. In particular it was Intended
to:
- Measure the environmental load acting on the pile group.
This objective has been achieved. The performance of the
wave sensors has not always been as good as expected.
However, substantial data have been recorded during storms.
The most significant environmental event was a major storm
which occurred on 10 January 1986 during which an individual
wave height of 21m was recorded. Based upon a recent review
of environmental data this represents a storm with a return
period in excess of one year.
- Measure the proportion of the environmental load taken by
the mudmat and on the pile group. This objective has been
achieved. Dynamic signals from the pressure cells on the
mudmat were correlated with the applied platform loads
indicating that dynamic loading was being transmitted
through the mudmat. The mudmat makes a significant
contribution to the dynamic load carrying capacity of the
foundation. No contribution was assumed in design.
Successful measurement of dynamic loading on the piles has
also been achieved.
 745

- Measure the distribution of load within the pile group and

along the length of one pile. This objective has been
achieved. The dynamic axial loads were consistent with the
application of an overall load and bending moment to the
pile group. This resulted in some piles always experiencing
much higher dynamic loads than others.
- Compare actual pile behaviour with design. Predictions of
foundation performance based upon methods used during the
design of the Magnus structure have been made and compared
to the measured data by two independent consultants.
- Measure the variation of pore and total pressure along a
pile with time. Following the lose of the original fully
instrumented pile during the upending incident all the pore
and total presure gauges were lost. It was not possible to
replace this instrumentation, consequently, this objective
has not been met.
- Measure the variation of static load distribution with time.
Load carried by the mudmat has been recorded almost
continously since touchdown. Unfortunately, apart from a
manual reading just after touchdown of the platform in April
1982, no data were obtained until early May due to a fault
in the TDL. A continuous record of pile loads has been
obtained since either just before, or just after module
installation.
- Measure the effective stiffness of a pile group. This
objective has been achieved fully. Dynamic forces and
displacements have been measured leading to derivation of
the pile group stiffness.
- Measure the short and long term absolute vertical
settlement/movement of leg A4. Although some data on the
absolute settlement of the platform were recorded during the
early life of the platform, including the period of module
loading, confidence in these data is low and we do not
believe that the objective has been met satisfactorily.
Thus in the main project objectives were achieved. In general
form the measured and predicted behaviour was similar which gives
reasonable confidence in current design methods. There were,
however, significant differences in the numerical value of certain
measured and predicted parameters.

REFERENCES

(1) SEMPLE, R.M. and RIGDEN, W.J., Site Investigation for Magnus.
Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, 1983.
(2) RIGDEN, W.J. and SEMPLE, R.M., Design and installation of the
Magnus foundations: prediction of pile behaviour. Design in
offshore structures, London, 1983.
(3) RIGDEN, W.J. and SEMPLE, R.M., Design and installation of the
Magnus foundations: installation studies and platform
installation. Design in offshore structures, London, 1983.
 -a
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3 U N E M ACCEIESOMETERS
ILES E2I

# WAVE EIGHT METER

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ACCEIEROMETERS ENVIRONMENTAL
(LEG A 4 ] , .
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PARTICLE VELOCI!'

STRUCTURAL
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KN/m'
/VVVWvA^vV^
Yl DISPLAC E M E NT ( E L E V . 1 6 H I

\/W\rvMArWV\^^
SO 100 150 200
TIME ( SE C O N D S )
MAGNUS PLATFORM EXAMPLES OF TIME SE RIE S SIGNALS
INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM
FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2
 747

MN
I

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At J S 0 0 J F MA M J J A S 0 0 J F M A M J J A S O N D JFMA
19 8 2 15 8 3 1984 1985
TIMEI MONTHS)

VARIATION IN LOAD CARRIED BY MUDMAT FIGURE 3

MN/SQ.M ,,^L / "

^*^m
J>'
Iff

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AM J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F MAM J J AS J F MA
1982 1983 1984 1985
TIME (MONTHS)

TYPICAL VARIATION IN LOAD CARRIED BY A PILE FIGURE 4

 749

SDBSEA OPERATIONS - MARINE TECHNOLOGY -

SUBMARINE VEHICLES - ENERGY SUPPLY

MARS : the development of a remotely

operated submersible vehicle system

DAVID: a versatile multipurpose submersible

system for remote control or diver assistance
performance; final report

Achievements in offshore platform inspection

by the PIC remotely operated vehicle

SAGA 1. New technologies for a new

generation of autonomous submarines

Air independent power sources of high

energy storage density. The Bruker-man
argon diesel and the Bruker C02-diesel

Surface-independent subsea energy supply system

Motark based on a closed argon cycle diesel engine

Rankine cycle immersed energy

source with high-pressure combustion
chamber and constant mass operation

Deep diving hydrogenated breathing mixture

 751

MARS

THE DEVELOPMENT OF A REMOTELY OPERA TED

SUBMERSIBLE VEHICLE SYSTEM

K. Wiener and G. E. Marsland

ZFHERIONSYSTEMTECHNIK

1. Summary

The purpose of the MURS project i s to produce a remotely operated sifcmer

sible system which can be used for tasks associated with subsea inspection,
maintenance and repair work in situations where to employ a diver would be
either too dangerous or unecononical.
The f i r s t phase of the project was completed at the end of 1985 and
was concerned with the collection of data regarding the market situation,
research into critical technical areas which could later require special
attention during further development, preliminary design and testing of new
conceptual ideas and techniques, feasibility considerations and operaional
t r i a l s using existing equipment in actual offshore conditions.
The aims of this f i r s t phase were to obtain knowledge of market requi
rements, and to use this knowledge to prepare a comprehensive and feasible
specification for the final product.
The second phase of the project, which 1s planned to be completed in
September 1988, is concerned with detail design work, manufacture of compo
nent parts, component testing and assembly of a prototype system.
During the third and final phase, which is expected to run until
mid1989, the prototype MRS system will be subjected to tank tests, harbour
tests and finally will be put into operation offshore.

2. INTRODUCTION
Since the early 1970's the role of the Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV)
has steadily expanded to generally reduce operational times and costs In
volved with certain offshore work prograns associated with subsea explora
ration, construction, inspection, maintenance and repair functions.
The f i r s t ROV systems were designed purely as roving television cernera
carriers, created for general Inspection and diver observation duties. As
development went on to produce more powerful devices fitted with surface
controlled manipulative systems, however, i t was predicted that sich machines
would eventually replace the diver and the conventional methods of working.
752

The purpose of the WRS project i s to prodjce a submersible vehicle system

which, 1n one form or another, can be used to perform a wide variety of un-
derwater tasks when working under rarote control from the surface. I t 1s
Intended f i r s t l y to offer new alternative lower cost methods 1n depths where
divers are already employed, and secondly to perform 1n deep water where
diver Intervention 1s not possible.
Although the f i r s t phase of the WRS project was planned to begin some-
what earlier, 1t was found both sensible and convenient to delay the start
of actual project work until the results from trials with a previously manu-
factured submersible system, the DAVID, had become available. The DAVID
system therefore provided a wide background of knowledge 1n terms of techni-
cal and operational experience and al so a means of maintaining market con-
tact.
The DAVID continues to play an important role 1n the development of the
MARS and wnere required 1s used as a test vehicle system to examine and prove
new concepts and techniques for the MORS.
The MRS project is considered in three phases which are defined as
follows:
- Phase I Conceptual testing
Feasibility studies
Preliminary design
- Phase I I Detail design
Component manufacture
Component testing
Assembly of the complete system
- Phase I I I Prototype system testing
Post-protolype development.

this report Is concerned with the content and conclusions to phase I of

the project and with coment to phase I I .

3. CONCEPTUAL TESTING

Because of the special nature of the offshore Industry, the approach to

project development, product testing and evaluation has to be rather different
fron that used for onshore or factory based equipment i f access Is to be
achieved.
The understanding of this difference 1s of particular Importance where
the proposed equipment Is intended for subsea intervention.
In order to prepare the required specification for the WRS systen, i t
was necessary to establish and test a ruifcer of conceptual Ideas and tech-
niques on which the new design could then be based. Experience with the
DAVID Project had shown that such project work would only produce valid con-
clusions i f the results of the work were to be subjected to subsequent test-
ing and evaluation.
Testing of components and new design features in the workshop or labo-
ratory, in pressure chambers and 1n test tanks provide useful Information for
use curing the development of subsea equi prent. In terms of real performance
and reliability of an integrated system, however, the only true method of
evaluation 1s to place the system in the offshore environnent, working on
routine tasks in real-Ufe operating conditions.
 753

4 . PRESENT DAY REQUIREMENTS FOR OFFSHORE TESTING

The costs involved i n any offshore operation are extremely high and f o r
t h i s reason i t i s normally only possible f o r an equipnent manufacturer t o go
offshore by j o i n i n g e i t h e r an o i l company o r a service organization t o work
on a planned programe.
The e f f e c t o f the s l i d e i n veri d o i l prices on o i l canpany budgets and
the degree of competition between service companies has l e d to a s i t u a t i o n
which leaves no margin for risk o f equipment f a i l u r e i n service contracts.
To arrange the offshore t r i a l s which are a necessary p a r t o f arry sub-
mersible systan development programe therefore, four important requirements
must be f u l f i l l e d .
- An o i l operating canpany must have s u f f i c i e n t i n t e r e s t t o agree
t o including the equipment i n a suitable work programe
- The systari must be one hundred percent r e l i a b l e
- A trained and experienced crew must be available
- Considerable financial support i s required as the industry w i l l
not generally pay f o r equipment which they regard t o be on t r i a l .
- I f any part of the systan or organization fail s during the operation,
the test is usually abandoned and the equipnent is returned onshore
with a reputation for poor reliability.

5. ROLE CF CFFSHORE TRIALS IN THE MARS PROJECT

For the reasons above, offshore t r i a l s were seen as a necessary p a r t o f

the MURS programme and the question was how work to be carried out under the
phase I d e f i n i t i o n s could include offshore operations under the requiranents
and r e s t r i c t i o n s described i n ' 3 ' above.
Information required to achieve a satisfactory result, and wiich could
only be obtained offshore was related to:
- Evaluation o f existing know-how and techniques to i d e n t i f y
knowledge which could be used or f u r t h e r developed for MARS.
- An appreciation o f offshore operating circumstances and conditions
which could influence the concept and design of the MARS Systan.
- I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of c r i t i c a l technical areas which could l a t e r require
special attention during f u r t h e r development.
- Knowledge of trends in technology according to oil canpany futir
policy.

6. INTRODUCING MARS CONCEPTS OFFSHORE

In order to obtain the necessary knowledge and also to ensire t h a t

technical developments would meet requiranents i n terms o f q u a l i t y and reli-
a b i l i t y , i t was decided t h a t the MARS project should include the following
activities under the main project definitions:
- The available DAVID Prototype Systan should be introduced i n t o an
offshore operation to realize points 4 .
- As a d i r e c t r e s u l t of t h i s operation, component and concept design
should be reviewed to provide design solutions which, w i t h f u r t h e r
development, could be integrated i n t o the MARSSystan design.
754

- The resulting new designs should be produced in component form, work-

shop and tank tested and finally integrated into a new vehicle system
for further offshore testing.
- Results obtained fran this procedure would then be used in the final
system development and production.
The adoption of this procedure produced two clear advantages:
- The use of a recognized and proven systen ( i . e . the [AVID Prototype)
created the imnediate possibility to engage in on offshore operation
with an oil company
- The close cooperation and communication with the oil canpany gave
access to important market information with regard to operating ex-
perience and future requirenents.

7. RESULTS ACHIEVED DURING OFFSHORE

Using the existing DAVID Prototype System, an offshore t r i a l was arranged

with the oil company Shell Exploration and Production, Aberdeen working fron
the MSV Stadive in the British sector of the North Sea.
The trail was undertaken in order to:
- establish operational factors involved in working an ROV offshore
- study behaviour and reliability aspects of the ROV
- define critical areas which would nave to be specially considered in
the specification and design.
The system was prepared in Aberdeen and eventually put onto theMSVStadive
offshore in December 198*.
As a result of active participation in an offshore operation, experience
was gained regarding contractual conditions which apply to ROV operations
and the requirenents for rapid mobilization, demobilization and transfer at
sea were identified. The deck space occupied by the system was seen to be
unacceptable for MARS and a new concept based on the use of standard 10 foot
containers was established.
The planning for the work procedures was not sufficiently detailed which
led to lost time offshore, the handling systen was foind to be unsuitable for
any weather conditions other than f l a t calm and the trial ended with damage
to the vehicle which led to a review of crew requirements in terms of quali-
fications, experience and training.
with regard to systen behaviour and r e l i a b i l i t y , the vehicle was found
to be large and heavy so that performance during manoeuvering tended to be
sluggish and the drag effect of the umbilical was d i f f i c u l t to counter with
the available thrust capacity.
The Stadive crane used to launch and recover the vehicle was too high
above the sea surface and too slow in response. The systen i t s e l f was found
to be generally reliable and faults ware minor in nature. Access difficulties,
however, made service and repair work time consum'ng.
The areas identified for further development work were:
- Overall efficiency with regard to system power input and thruster
output.
- Tnruster design for increased thrust.
- Thruster layout on vehicle.
 755

- Vehicle frane design with special regard to the effect on vehicle

size, weight and service accessibility.
- Work module concept using water-jet cleaning and mud-pimping as
typical exanples
- Buoyancy arrangement to allow rapid trim according to work
module carried
- Urbilical specification
- Umbilical termination on vehicle
- Latching system on vehicle to enable launch and recovery from
a handling system
- Handling system suitable for use in severe weather and sea
conditions
- Equipment in containerized module form tor ease of transport
and mob/demob operations.
- Compact design of equipment modules to occupy minimum deck space
- Overall vehicle weight.

8. RESULTS CF NEW LESIGN WORK FOR MARS

Having established the need for new conceptual designs and techniques
to be tested and evaluated offshore, i t was decided that components should
be manufactured to the new designs with sufficient accuracy for realistic
evaluation for the WRS Project, but at the same time with modifications
to allow integration into on existing vehicle concept, which could then do
useful work offshore and generally meet the requirements for oil conpany
acceptance as referred to in section 4.
The Prototype DAVID Vehicle System proved to be unsuitable for integra-
tion with the new designs and the decision was therefore taken to integrate
the modified components and techniques into a new vehicle system which was
then becoming available. This second system was, however, manufactured to
meet the DAVID general specification in order to appear as a proven vehicle
concept and thus be recognized and accepted by the industry.
The vehicle was referred to as DVID 002 and on this basis i t was
possible to approach BP Pet. Dev., *erdeen to arrange a new offshore t r i a l
at the rfcgnus platform. This trial took place in mid-1986.
Components which were designed and developed specifically for the con-
tinuation of the MARS project were:
- Thrusters:
Hydraulic motors were optimized, the propellers increased in size and
nozzles used to increase efficiency. Protection gratings were also
changed.
- Hydraulic system:
The main electric drive motor and pump i n i t , the main hydraulic tank
and the tool hydraulic tank were designed in modular form to improve
f l e x i b i l i t y , access and service.
- Thruster Layout:
The positions of thrusters were redefined and increased in nurber
- Main Frame:
The vehicle frame was designed as an open tube structure to allow
easy access to component parts.
756

Tubular sections vere sealed to reduce weight in veter and the

structure ves dimensioned for strength and stabil 11y under high
loading conditions.
- Work modules:
New concepts for water-jetting and mud-pumping modules were
investigated.
- Buoyancy arrangement:
Attempts were made to design buoyancy material sections 1n regular
block form to allow quick and easy modification to vehicle trim.
This was only partially successful.
- Umbilical specification:
This was largely a question of optimization as the actual form of
the urbilical cable would ultimately depend upon the handling system
arrangement. The high strength to weight advantage of Kevlar was
investigated and found to be a sensible solution for the subsea
section of the urbilical cable.
- Umbilical termination:
In the case of the DAVID Prototype, the termination was fitted to a
moveable frane which could swivel to allow the unbillcal to extend
either horizontally behind the vehicle or vertically over the centre
of gravity. This feature was retained in principle, but redesigned
to form a lighter and more compact arrangement.
- Latching system:
In parallel with the preliminary design work for various handling
system proposals, a latching system for the vehicle was designed
which would enable the vehicle to be drawn and locked into a sub-
mersed frane for subsequent recovery by means of a l i f t i n g wire.
- Handling system:
Several concepts for handling systems were reviewed and considerable
design work was carried out towards providing a suitable system. The
final concept generally included a subsea module to serve as a vehicle
depressor/garage and a deck crane unit with devices to control sway
and urbilical handling during launch and recovery.
- Umbilical Winch:
A new design for the unbilical winch was prepared and all canponent
parts were arranged to f i t into a standard 10 foot container frane.
- Control system:
For Phase I of the project the control system was considered in two
parts. The design for the DAVID Prototype System was modified to be
suitable for the proposed second offshore t r i a l and new concepts and
techniques were examined for use in the final MARS System.
Tnese new developments were concerned with
- Optical data bus arrangements
- Fibre optics
- New nricrocomputer systems
- Expert conputer systems
- Electronic stepping motor drives.
 757

The above itens vere designed with the clear intention of f i r t t e r

evalution during the second offshore trial but certain other project
work vas also carried out for future use. The work was concerned with:
- Manipulative systems:
A study vas nade of user experience with manipulative systans and
here i t was established that existing devices could not work with
the power and accuracy required.
- Moveable j o i n t connection:
In order to obtain information regarding achievable performance of a
typical manipulator j o i n t , a design using an electrohydraulic drive
unit was prepared.
In accordance with the planning described above, the components were
manufactured to the new designs and, where thought to be necessary, subjected
to workshop, tank and pressure testing before integration into the new vehicle
systen in preparation for the second trial period with BP Pet. Dev. at Magnus.
Because the trial had to be planned into the 1986 North Sea diving
season, and also because an extended period of onshore testing, demonstration
and training in Fort Wil lian, Scottland had been requested, the available time
for preparation was such that there was no possibility to f i t the manipulator
and renotely operated tooling systans specified for the final MARS systen.

9. RESULTS CF THE1966 MAGNUS TRIALS

The trial was organized, supervised and reported upon by BP Pet. Dev.
both internally in Aberdeen and at the 1987 ROV Symposiim in San Diego.
Although BP's prime interest was to assess the system when working in the
diver assist mode, the operation provided ZFHS with the possibil1ty to observe
performance of the MARS related designs.
In contrast to the earlier t r i a l , the systen completed most of the re-
quired tasks, operating with 100 % reliability through a total of eight dives
totalling 65 hours under water at depths down to 186 meters.
The standard of performance of the new systen vas seen to approach that
required by the MARS spcification and the tasks of navigating 1n and around
the platform structure, docking with the structure where required, were ac-
complished with l i t t l e or no difficulty.

10. PROJECT WORK AFTER THE MAGNUS TRIALS AND PROJECT STATUS

Since the Magnus t r i a l , project work has continued towards the prototype
MARS system with attention now turned to the application of manipulator
systans and tooling. New and improved systans for water j e t cleaning and mud
punping have been produced and other tools, e.g. for the operation of large
sub-sea valves are being considered.
A MARS vehicle is currently being prepared with manipulative systans and
i t is intended that this systen will be in operation on a trial basis in mid-
1988.
758

DAVID

A VERSATILE MULTIPURPOSE SUBMERSIBLE SYSTEM

FOR

REMOTE CONTROL OR DIVER ASSISTALE PERFORMANCE

FINAL REPORT

K. Wiener and G. E. Mrsland

ZF-HERION-SYSTEMTECHNIK

1. SUWRY

This project, referred to as DAVID V, was the final phase of a larger project
which was i n i t i a l l y concerned with the design, manufacture and testing of a
prototype submersible vehicle systan intended to provide the offshore diver
with the tools and facilities needed to carry out inspection, maintenance and
repair work on subsea installations.
The project aims, description and results of previous phases were dis-
cussed in a paper published in the proceedings of the 2nd E.C. Symposiun held
in Luxembourg In December 1984.
The entry of the prototype system into the project test phase coincided
with the start of a period of change 1n the offshore market sitoation, trigge-
red by the collapse in world oil prices. Cost cutting exercises carried out by
the offshore operating companies reduced the demand for inspection, maintenance
and repair work, and as a result, i t became necessary for ZF-HERION-SYSTEM-
TECHNIK to consider changes which could be made to the original DAVID systan
specification with a view to improving commercial viability in the new situa-
tion.
The purpose of phase five of the DAVID project was therefore to extend
the scope of the system so that i t could be employed not only as a diver
assistance vehicle as originally intended, but also as a remotely operated
vehicle system capable of carrying certain tools and manipulators to work in
a diverless mode.

2. INTRODUCTION

In an analysis of costs associated with subsea inspection, maintenance and

repair work, i t was seen that with particular regard to offshore diving ope-
rations, provision of suitable equipment could result in substantial savings.
Results of the analysis showed for example, that diving bottom time, ( i . e . the
time when the diver is available at the subsea worksite), could be between 30 %
and 70 % of the total port to port contract time, and this proved to be the
area where the introduction of new technology in the Interest of cost reduct-
ion could be justified.
 759

The task for ZF-HERION SYSTEMTECHNIK became therefore to conceive,

develop, manufacture and test a prototype equipment systen which could be used
by the offshore diver to carry out a variety of jobs with considerable impro-
vanent in efficiency and safety over methods currently in use.
The system which evolved, named DAVID for Diver Assistance Vehicle for
Inspection Duty, vas based on the use of a powerful tethered sifcmersible ve-
hicle systan which ves designed to accomodate and transport all tools, equip-
ment and facilities needed by the diver to complete selected work tasks.
Initial studies of actual vork programs suggested that savings in diving times
of between 37 % and 58 % could be achieved using the DAVID, and these estima-
tes have since been verified in subsequent offshore t r i a l s.
The original market research study from viiich the DAVID specification
emerged could not, however, predict the slide in world oil prices and the
resulting reduction in demand for inspection and maintenance services as oil
operating companies reduced available budgets for this work. The f a l l in the
requirement for offshore diving work led to a re-assessment of the commercial
viabil i t y of the DAVID and i t was then found necessary to extend the scope of
the system to include capability as a remotely operated vehicle system for d i -
verless inspection routines. The project work necessary to effect this exten-
sion to the original specification was termed phase five of the complete pro-
ject.
Because the prototype system, designed to the original specification, was
approaching the f i r s t test phase wren the need for extended performance was
established, i t was only possible to carry out limited hardware modifications.
Trials with the prototype did, however, provide information needed for the new
specification and design work for the extended scope version of the system was
conpleted in accordance with the project definitions.

3. PROJECT STATUS AT THE START OFPHASEV

The work for phase V of the project started at the beginning of 1983 to
run parallel with testing of the prototype DAVID, Manufacture of the system to
the original diver assistance specification had almost been completed.
Component parts of the systen were:
- Diesel-generator power unit
- umbilical winch
- Surface control station
- Submersible vehicle.
The tools and facilities available on the vehicle were:
- A claw arrangement, adjustable in diameter, for attaching the
vehicle to a subsea tubular structure.
- A moveable platform to provide a safe stable support for the diver.
- A power source for hydraulic power tools.
- A range of underwater power and hand tools.
- A power winch, attached to the claw.
- Lighting equipment.
- T.V. equipment.
- An on-board control station for diver use.
Designed to accommodate the above facilities and consequent loading, the
vehicle was larger and heavier than most conventional ROVs. The control and
760

navigation system ves designed as a dedicated system to f u l f i l l transport and

docking requirements with surface or diver control options. Thruster configu-
ration and layout ves arranged for navigation in conditions suitable for diving
and no special provision ves made to work the vehicle in high currents or bad
weather conditions. Tools and facilities on the vehicle had been designed as
pennanent installations which were not Intended for removal other than for
repair or overhaul.

4. EFFECT CF CHANGING MARKET SITUATION

In the original analysis i t was established that the DAVID would prove to
be most cost effective when operating as a fixed installation on dive support
vessels working on longer term contracts. In the new market situation, however,
the demand for diving services was drastically reduced and diving service com-
panies, faced with the need to diversify, increased activity with vehicle
systems as a lower cost alternative to putting men underwater. These submer-
sible vehicles, fitted with lighting, TV cameras, manipulators and simple too-
ling arrangements therefore replaced diving teams for many subsea tasks, with
particular regard to visual inspection. Divers were, however, s t i l l required
for certain duties and i t became usual for diving support vessels to carry both
a manned saturation diving spread and a ranotely operated vehicle ystan on
board.
Examination of operational costs and deck space requirements for submer
sible systems clearly Indicated that the provision of both a DAVID diver
assistance spread and a conventional vehicle system on a vessel could be con
sidered. To achieve cormercial success therefore, i t became clear that the
DAVID, arranged as a single submersible system, would have to perform in e i
ther of the two separate situations.
The task to convert the dedicated diver assistance system into one with
the required multipurpose versatility became the subject of the f i f t h and final
phase of the DA VID project.

5. AREAS SELECTED FOR DEVELOPMENT

The operational difficulties associated with launching, using and reco
vering subsea equipment from the deck of a ship at sea had been understood ear
l y in the development of the DA VID, and all efforts were made to achieve mini
mum size and weight of the vehicle. The diver assistance featres such as the
decking claw, platform and power unit required certain strengths and dimen
sions, however, and these items tended to set dimensions for the prototype
vehicle. To serve as a remotely operated system I t was f e l t desirable to be
able to remove all the inneccessary diver assistance equipment to reduce size
and weight, to have a means of attaching extra remotely operated nodules such
as manipulators etc., and finally to have the possibility to adjust vehicle
trim, The navigation and stability control systams were thought to be adequate
for the remotely operated mode apart from some software parameter changes
needed to allow for the change in vehicle dimensions. For reasons of diver
safety, the thruster units had been fitted into tunnels within the vehicle
body which restricted vehicle performance in terms of speed and manoeuverabi
l i t y . In this respect a higher performance capability was thought to be neces
sary for satisfactory operation in the remotely operated mode.
 761

The main areas Identified for further design and development work were
therefore:
- Continued contact with the market to assess comercial feasibility
of the proposed multipurpose system.
- Extensive t r i a l s using the prototype systen in order to establish
changes required to achieve required performance.
- Re-design of diver assistance facilities for quick and easy renoval.
- Re-definition of thruster layout, configuration and rating to
raise vehicle speed and manoeuverability.
- Re-design of buoyancy arrangement for quick and easy trim correction.
- Optimization of urfcilical cable design to minimize drag effects on
the vehicle.
- Transport and mobilization procedures.
- Launching and recovery procedures.
- Tool modules for water j e t cleaning and mud-pumping.
- Re-design of claw as renovable module and also to include additerai
features for fully ranote operation.

6. PROJECT WORK

6.1 Market contract:

Continual contact with both oil and diving companies was maintained
throughout the project duration in Norway, the United Kingdon and in the
U.S.A. The prototype system was demonstrated to prospective users both i n the
Lake of Constance In the BRD and also at NUTEC in Bergen Norway. As work pro-
gressed towards realization of the new multipurpose systen, models of propo-
sals ware displayed at the various international offshore exhibitions to pro-
vide information updating and to obtain market feedback.
This activity led to an agreement with Shell Expro to operate the proto-
type vehicle system offshore.

6.2 Trials:
Although the trials were carried out essentially to introduce and test
the prototype DAVID system as a diver assistance vehicle, i t s performance was
continually monitored in order to establish changes which would have to be
made to the system in order to achieve the required dual purpose capability.

6.3 Hardware modifications to the DAVID prototype:

Apart from the various component and system modification work needed to
bring the prototype DAVID through commissioning and to a state of readiness
for offshore operation, the extra changes made in order to improve ranote ope-
ration performance were:
- A new lighter umbilicalcable
- Introduction of quick release features for components which would later
be regarded as interchangeable modules.
- Improved service access to reduce operational down time required for
component changes.
- Alterations to buoyancy arrangement.
- Improvements to TV camera and i l l uni nation systems
762

6.4 Design modifications:

Based upon the manufacturing and operational experience gained fron acti-
vities with the prototype, new designs for the various component parts of the
system were prepared. Although i t was found to be beyond the scope of the
current project to modify the prototype to correspond to the new specifica-
tion, the new designs were later realized on further post-project systens.
The modifications made to the vehicle were:
- Open frane construction to improve service accessibility
- Features designed as easily removable modules.
- Overall reduction in weight
- Thrusters re-designed with nozzles for greater efficiency
- Number of thruster unit increased from 6 to 8.
- Thruster layout change to improve vehicle performance.
- Thruster gratings re-designed
- Improvenents to hydraulic systan for additional featores and
increased power.
- Improved diver platform design.
- Improved claw design
- Improved lighting and TV systems
The modifications made to the tool modules were:
- Water jetting systen efficiency improvement.
- Mud pumping systan efficiency improvement.
The design of both modules was reconsidered for operation using manipulators.
The modifications made to the deck equi puent were:
- Equipment designed into a set of standard 10 foot container units for
rapid mobilization, installation and danobilization.
- Storage facilities for loose items such as interconnecting cables.
As the prototype DAVID systan was intended only for use with diving
operations, restrictions imposed on diving due to weather and seastate were
accepted as a basis for establishing worst case conditions for launch and
recovery of the DAVID vehicle. Enployment of a ranotely operated systan does
not, however, involve risk to hunan l i f e and in order to achieve improved
utilization for te dual system i t becane necessary to consider deployment of
the DAVID i n the more severe conditions normally acceptable for ranotely ope-
rated systens. The project therefore included preliminary design and feasi-
b i l i t y work to establish a suitable handling systan for the new development.
Proposal s were considered for:
- A depressor/cage system to carry the vehicle through the wave zone.
- A guide arrangement to pendul un action when the vehicle i s clear of
the water.
- A load carrying latch arrangement to secure the vehicle to the depressor
or cage.
The prototype DAVID i s shown in figure 1, and the vehicle modified in
accordance with the new specification is illustrated in figures 2 and 3.

7. CONCLUSIONS

The modifications and new designs were introduced into later production
models of the DAVID system and in subsequent trials offshore i t was demonstra-
ted that the vehicle could operate not only as a diver assistance vehicle as
intended, but also as a remotely operated systens with the abilily to navigate
in and around structures carrying equipment for visual inspection work.
 DIVERS PUTFORM

<E3 UMBILICAL CABLE

DRIVE AND STEERING SONAR E QUIPME NT

TRANSVERSE THRUSTE RS
THRUSTERS

VERTICAL THRUSTE RS

>TV CAME RAS

TV CAME RA

LAUNCH RE COVE RY BE AU CLAW LAUNCH RE COVE RY LATCH

FIG.1 DAVID-PROTOTYP
E VE HICLE
FC.2 DAVID - AS RE MOTE LY OPE RATE D

VEHICLE SYSTE M -a
05
764

FIG. 3
DAVID -AS DIVER ASSIST
VEHICLE (FINAL FORM)
 765

ACHIEVEMENTS IN OFFSHORE PLATFORM INSPECTION

BY THE
PIC REMOTELY OPERATED VEHICLE

D.J. PARTRIDGE
Managing Director, Slingsby Engineering Limited
(a member of the British Underwater Engineering Group)

Summary

The recent advances in ROV technology and in particular

advanced software and control designs led to the development
of the PIC ROV system to provide safe and cost effective
cleaning and inspection of offshore platforms. Whilst the
concept has been abandoned valuable lessons were learnt and
the cost and safety premises were proven.

INTRODUCTION
"PIC" is an acronym for Platform Inspection and Cleaning.
Offshore production platforms require routine inspection and cleaning
to clearly specified levels. At present such tasks are largely
undertaken by divers, mainly in the saturation dive mode, and in
nearly all cases with such divers operating from a dynamically
positioned (DP) dive support vessel (DSV). There exists a cost
benefit and a safety benefit which would be obtainable if a remotely
operated vehicle (ROV) were able to undertake such tasks.
The PIC ROV was a venture between three companies in the British
Underwater Engineering (BUE) group of companies to develop such a
concept. The Directorate General for Energy of the EEC assisted in
the funding of one sub-system in the overall development.

2. EVOLUTION OF THE PIC CONCEPT

The basic problems of carrying out the subsea inspection and
cleaning task can be defined as:
Getting to a precise location
Staying at that location
Doing effective work
Existing systems employing divers from a DSV require high cost
expenditure for: the vessel; fuel consumption; saturation costs; diver
gas costs; saturation bonus; and a large team (20 to 28 men
typically). In addition putting man underwater operating from a
mobile platform working on a fixed platform poses a safety hazard.
Finally divers suffer from relatively low productivity.
In the last eight years the standard work capable ROV has
progressed dramatically in its capabilities but for this role has four
major limitations:
- Poor navigation
- Single altitude concept
Station keeping ability
- Inability to handle both cleaning and inspection system
The PIC concept was evolved to overcome these limitations.
766

3.
DESCRIPTION OF OVERALL PROJECT
The overall project objectives were to produce a system capable
of replacing expensive humans - divers - by a ROV.
Such a system if deployed from an ROV support vessel
significantly reduces costs and enhances safety.
Where it could be temporarily deployed from a platform then a
further cost reduction is available.
Typical (1985) inspection day costs were forecast to be:
Saturation Diving + DSV 25,000
PIC ROV + ROVSV 12,500
PIC ROV from platform 8,500
Three basic problems were identified: getting to the correct
location; staying fixed at such location; and deploying a package
capable of performing effective work.
PIC consists of a new vehicle design by Slingsby Engineering
powered by two isolated 40HP electro-hydraulic packs, the power from
which can be transmitted to combinations of the seven vehicle
thrusters and / or the water jet pump and structural adhesion unit
(sole plate). The sole plate is a unique BUE Subsea designed
structural adhesion system mounted on the front of the vehicle and
capable of adopting any attitude necessary to attach a structural
member. It can "mould" itself to accept member sizes from twenty
inch diameter to a flat plain surface as is found on concrete
structures.
The sole plate is fitted with two Slingsby TA009 positional feed-
back manipulators, one of which holds the water jet nozzle.
The vehicle initially carried a high quality three tube colour TV
camera and a 70mm stereo pair.
A magnetic particle inspection system was partially developed and
used on the ROV for trials.
The vehicle began offshore operations in 1984.

4. ACHIEVEMENTS
In the field the overall system undertook proving trials with
various major operating companies.
The results achieved can be summarised as follows:
(a) Cost economies forecast were achieved.
(b) The vehicle proved reliable and had adequate power but
was physically too large to ingress certain platform
nodes that provided only limited access due to
geometry. Satisfactory navigation was also achieved.
(c) The sole plate concept exceeded design requirements and was
an outstanding success in holding location and allowing
vehicle power to be applied to the work tasks.
(d) Cleaning, close visual (video) and still photography of
welds was achieved to a level at least as good as that
provided by divers.
(e) Cathodic potential measurement was satisfactory.
(f) General visual (video) inspection was satisfactory.
(g) The final development of a R0V dployable MPI unit was
not completed, but some commendable trials results were
achieved and equally important recorded,
(h) One major lesson learnt is that the reach, dexterity and
repeatability of the industry standard seven function
spatially correspondent manipulator must be significantly
improved for inspection and cleaning tasks: and operator
 767

fatigue must be reduced by the application of software

(artificial intelligence).
The major problems encountered were those of physical access into
"tight" and complex nodes and the final overall weight and size of the
system which meant that it could not be accommodated on the majority
of existing steel platforms.
The project has been abandoned. However Slingsby Engineering
have proposed a new system to the EEC to overcome the problems
identified in the PIC system which, given support from the oil
companies, will provide a viable, cost effective and safe alternative
to inspection and cleaning by saturation divers with a high cost DSV.

PIC SYSTEM SPECIFICATION

1. ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS

1.1 Working depth 1000m (3280 ft)

1.2 Maximum speed (predicted)

Forwards 1.5 m/s (3 knots)
Vertically 0.5 m/s (1 knot)
Athwartships 0.75 m/s (1.5 knots)

1.3 Vehicle dimensions:

Height 1.5m ( 5 ft)
Width : 2.0m ( 6.5 ft)
Length 4.0m ( 13 ft)

1.4 Displacement 3000 Kg maximum

2. VEHICLE SPECIFICATION

2.1 Vehicle power:

2 off electro hydraulic Each 40HP 1000V AC 60 Hz
power packs

Hydraulic output Each 53 litres/min at 3750 psi

(11 gpm)

2.2 Propulsion:
Vertical 3 hydraulic thrusters each 10HP
Horizontal fore/aft 2 hydraulic thrusters each 10HP
Horizontal Athwartships 2 hydraulic thrusters each 10HP

2.3 Manoeuvring:
Pitch +1? degrees / -15 degrees
Roll 15 degrees
BG 178mm (7 inches) approximately

2.4 Auto pilot Auto depth / Auto heading / Auto

altitude / Auto parking (Azimuth,
Transverse) / Auto pitch (Pendulum
sensor) / Auto Roll (Pendulum
sensor)
768

2.5 Vehicle instrumentation 7.7 kVA rating

Power Vehicle direct requirement
24V 650 KVA / 115V 0.4 KVA

Vehicle payload power

24V 1.0KVA / 115V 6KVA to include
lighting

3. VEHICLE EQUIPMENT FIT

3.1 Depth sensor Digiquartz

3.2 Echo sounder Ulvertech Model 140

3.3 Gyro Robertson North Seeking - RSG 80

3.4 Sonar Ulvertech electronically scanned

sonar reconnaissance

3.5 Responder Simrad 7095

3.6 Lighting 6KVA at 115V AC with switching for

12 outlets each rated at 500W
maximum

3.7 Video fit : Forward mounted SIT camera on pan

and tilt unit, aft mounted SIT
camera Osprey OE1321

3.8 Flasher : OAR Type SF500

3.9 Pinger : 27KHz switched on loss of power

3.10 RAM packs (low flow) : Two packs fitted solenoid valves
Reversible on / off : 1. 10 spare functions at 2400 psi
2. 11 spare functions at 2400 psi

3.11 Tooling flow control pack: Two packs fitted each carrying five
Moog valves, two spare functions,
instrument flow controlled

4. PAYLOAD PACKAGE FIT (STANDARD)

4.1 Sole plate 3 degrees of freedom

- 180 degrees
- 0 degrees to +90 degrees
Adjust - +45
Suction force 1200Kg

4.2 Manipulators 2 off SEL TA009 position

correspondent arms

4.3 Pan and tilt 5 degrees of freedom: Shoulder

rotate/Arm raise / lower/ Elbow
rotate / Pan left/right / Tilt up/
down
 769

4.4 Limpets 4 off Wyndac

4.5 Video fit 2 off CM8 Newvicon on manipulator

forearms

1 off CM50 colour on pan and tilt

(other camera options available)

4.6 Stills fit Stereo 70mm SMC UMEL's, 2 off 800

flash units

4.7 Water jet Adjustable pressure to 15000 psi

maximum
4.8 CP probe Subspection Ag/AgCl cell

4.9 Thickness gauge Baugh & Weedon Seaprobe modified

SP200

5. PAYLOAD PACKAGE FIT (OPTIONS)

Photogrammetry
Leak detection
Crack detection
MPI Development in conjunction with OIS
770

SAGA 1. NEW TECHNOLOGIES FOR A NEW GENERATION

OF AUTONOMOUS SUBMARINES

Didier SAUZADE

SAGA Project - COMEX - IFREMER

Abstract

The SAGA 1 submarine was launched at the end of 1987. SAGA 1 is a

highly autonomous, long range, diver lock-out vessel, capable of
operating at depths of 450 m with divers and tools and 600 m with
robots. Its realisation is an important step for the practical
application of the "all underwater" oil production concept. The
submarine is piloted by a crew of 6 and is fitted with a saturation
diving system for 6 divers. It has a submerged displacement of 550
and a payload of 3 T. The submarine was jointly constructed by COMEX
and IFREMER (France). Its exceptional autonomy is the result of the
development of new technologies, such as: the air-independent
STIRLING engine, the storage of liquid oxygen, the extensive use of
GRP, an economic and efficiency deep diving system, an energy-saving
closed-circuit diver heating system. SAGA 1 will be available for
operational demonstrations and commercial missions as from Summer
1988.

1. PROJECT BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATIONS

SAGA l's first dive took place on 16th October 1987 in the presence
of the French Prime Minister Jacques Chirac, accompanied by several
of his government ministers as well as numerous officials.
This event was an important milestone of the programme launched at
the end of 1982 by Mr. Deleuze, Chairman-Managing Director and founder of
COMEX.
Since 1984, the responsibility of the project is shared between COMEX
and IFREMER. COMEX, an international group having its registered head
office in Marseilles, France, is world leader in the field of underwater
operations. This industrial pre-eminence is supported by important
research and development efforts. IFREMER is a French National Agency,
whose mission is to define, support and valorise research and development
programmes for ocean development.
The ambition of the project promoters is to prove that, with the
development of new technologies, it is today possible to implement a
particularly attractive concept: diver intervention no longer from the
surface but from the bottom, from an autonomous submarine.
The advantage of such a concept is obvious when one sees the race
towards gigantism of surface support vessels capable of operating in deep
and difficult waters. Furthermore, becoming surface-independent appears
to be the only solution for the development of offshore oil fields in
periodically or permanently ice-covered areas.
 771

PHOTO 1 - L a u n c h i n g o f the submarine

2 . PRESENTATION OF THE SAGA 1 SUBMARINE

SAGA 1 u s e s some o f t h e original parts, in p a r t i c u l a r the pressure
h u l l , o f t h e ARGYRONETE s u b m a r i n e . T h i s p r o j e c t , f a r ahead o f i t s t i m e ,
was l a u n c h e d by C a p t a i n 3. C o u s t e a u and had t o be s t o p p e d i n 1 9 7 1 .
The p r e s s u r e h u l l o f SAGA 1 c o n s i s t s o f t w o m a i n p a r t s : the
a t m o s p h e r i c c o m p a r t m e n t w h e r e 6 c r e w members w o r k and l i v e i n a o n e -
atmosphere environment, and t h e h y p e r b a r i c c o m p a r t m e n t w h i c h can
accommodate up t o 6 d i v e r s i n s a t u r a t i o n . The s u b m a r i n e b e i n g p o s i t i o n e d
on t h e s e a b e d , d i v e r s can l o c k - o u t u s i n g one o f t h e t w o l o c k s l i n k i n g t h e
two c o m p a r t m e n t s . The d i v i n g s y s t e m e n a b l e s d i v e r s t o o p e r a t e d o w n t o
d e p t h s o F 4 5 0 m. T h i s l i m i t c o u l d be u p g r a t e d i n t h e f u t u r e d o w n t o
600 m. The m a x i m u m o p e r a t i n g d e p t h o f t h e s u b m a r i n e i t s e l f i s 600 m.
5AGA 1 i s t h e r e f o r e a l a r g e - s i z e d d i v e ? l o c k - o u t v e s s e l f i t t e d w i t h a
d i v i n g s y s t s n , t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f w h i c h i s e q u i v a l e n t t o . t h o s e i n s t a l l e d on
the most modern DSVs.
However, SAGA 1 w o u l d be o f l i t t l e o p e r a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t i F i t was n o t
a t t r i b u t e d w i t h an e x c e p t i o n a l autonomy a l l o w i n g i t t o work on s i t e f o r
long durations. T h i s a u t o n o m y i s p r o v i d e d by a p o w e r s o u r c e e n a b l i n g
energy t o be s t o r e d i n a much d e n s e r way t h a n c o n v e n t i o n a l b a t t e r i e s . It
c o n s i s t s o f t w o STIRLING e n g i n e s , d e s i g n e d t o o p e r a t e down t o t h e s u b ' s
maximum d e p t h .
T h i s i n s t a l l a t i o n g i v e s an o u t s t a n d i n g a u t o n o m y : f o r example, the
s u b m a r i n e c a n l e a v e i t s b a s e p o r t , t r a v e l 150 NM t o a w o r k s i t e ( e . g . t h e
d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n S t a v a n g e r and C o r m o r a n t f i e l d i n t h e N o r t h Sea), c a r r y
o u t d i v e r l o c k - o u t o p e r a t i o n s f o r one week a n d t h e n r e t u r n t o i t s b a s e ,
t h e r e f o r e 10 days i n a l l w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o s u r f a c e .
SAGA 1 i s p r e s e n t l y t h e w o r l d ' s l a r g e s t c o m m e r c i a l s u b m a r i n e and t h e
f i r s t t o be r - j a l l y a u t o n o m o u s , w i t h no s u r f a c e s u p p o r t v e s s e l .
772

PHOTO 2 - Section view of the submarine

3. MAIN TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENTS

The completion of SAGA 1 called for several important technical
developments, all having the same objective; to increase the autonomy of
the submarine.
The main developments concern:
- the air-independent STIRLING engine,
- the storage of oxygen in liquid form, to increase the amount of
available energy,
- the use of GRP to reduce dead weights,
- a deep diving system characterised by a high gas recycling rate,
- an energy-saving heating system for divers.
It can be noted that all these developments have been approved by the
submarine's classification societies: Lloyd's Register of Shipping (Great
Britain) and Bureau Veritas (France).
Apart from the STIRLING engine, these developments have been
presented by COMEX and have received financial support from the European
Economic Community.

4. STIRLING ENGINE
The STIRLING engine is in fact a transformer of thermal energy into
mechanical energy: a working gas, in this case helium, is heated and its
expansion activates pistons which give mechanical movement. Heat is
received by means of a pressurised combustion chamber where the combustion
of fuel and oxygen is kept up continuously.
The main advantage of the STIRLING engine as an underwater power
source lies in the combustion chamber:
- it can be pressurised: down to 200 m combustion gases are directly
discharged into the sea. Beyond this depth, overpressure is necessary,
the surpressor load being limited to 10% of the output power, due to the
initial pressure level,
 773

- t h e c o m b u s t i o n o f f u e l i n p u r e o x y g e n c a n be a c h i e v e d v e r y e a s i l y o n
account o f t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e p r o c e s s .
SAGA l ' s e n e r g y s y s t e m c o n s i s t s o f t w o 75 kW S T I R L I N G e n g i n e s ,
d e v e l o p e d by UNITED STIRLING A.B. Malmoe (Sweden) w h i c h i s a s u b s i d i a r y o f
t h e KOCKUMS g r o u p .
The d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s e e n g i n e s was l o n g e r t h a n a n t i c i p a t e d w i t h
regards to endurance. The s u b m a r i n e i s p r e s e n t l y e q u i p p e d with
i n t e r m e d i a t e e n g i n e s , t h e e n d u r a n c e o f w h i c h i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1,000 h a t
h a l f l o a d , w h i c h i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r most o f t h e p l a n n e d m i s s i o n s . These
e n g i n e s w i l l be r e p l a c e d by t h e n o m i n a l p e r f o r m a n c e e n g i n e s i n O c t o b e r
1988.
E n g i n e s o f t h i s t y p e w i l l s h o r t l y be i n s t a l l e d o n b o a r d one o f t h e new
g e n e r a t i o n m i l i t a r y s u b m a r i n e s o f t h e S w e d i s h R o y a l Navy.

Ejector tubes
Combust

Insulation

Cylinder-block

Crankcase

Crosshead

Ollpan

PHOTO i - STIRLING e n g i n e i n t e s t r i g and c r o s s s e c t i o n diagram

5. CRYOGENIC OXYGEN STORAGE

The m a j o r i t y o f h i g h e f f i c i e n c y e n e r g y s o u r c e s f o r underwater
v e h i c l e s r e q u i r e s oxygen s t o r a g e . The b e s t w e i g h t / v o l u m e r a t i o is
o b v i o u s l y o b t a i n e d when oxygen i s s t o r e d i n l i q u i d f o r m . The s u b m a r i n e i s
equipped w i t h two tanks p l a c e d o u t s i d e the p r e s s u r e h u l l e n a b l i n g a p p r o x i -
m a t e l y 6,500 k g s o f oxygen t o be s t o r e d o n b o a r d .
Cryogenic storage i s a w i d e l y - u s e d t e c h n i q u e o n s h o r e b u t has n e v e r
been a p p l i e d t o u n d e r w a t e r u s e .
A f t e r h a v i n g d r a w n up t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , a c a l l f o r t e n d e r w a s
i s s u e d a n d r e s u l t e d i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f AGA CRY0 ( G o t h e n b u r g , S w e d e n )
m a i n l y b e c a u s e o f t h e i r c l o s e c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h UNITED S T I R L I N G A . B .
774

This collaboration has helped in solving interface problems.

The main difficulties encountered during development were the
following:
- design of the gaseous oxygen production line from liquid oxygen and of
the loop pressurisation of the gaseous sky of the tank,
- design of safety devices in the event of pressure build up in the tanks,
- development of double-walled tanks, the external wall being subjected to
hydrostatic pressure.
The two systems were delivered in September 1986 after having
completed onshore tests. Testing in actual conditions will take place
during Spring 1988.

6. USE OF GRP
The use of GRP onboard the submarine is particularly advantageous
regarding its weight in water. According to the application, the weight
in water compared to steel is 2 to 3 times lower for pressure tanks and 4
to 5 times lower for sheet metal.
The two main developments were the high pressure gas storage
cylinders and the variable buoyancy tanks.
High pressure gas storage tanks
The aim was to develop high pressure (400 bar) cylinders whilst
minimising their weight in water. The solution consisted in developing
cylinders, having a cylindrical steel liner reinforced by filament winding
of glass fibre impregnated with epoxy resin. Using this technique, the
working pressure of the cylinder is doubled, and the weight in water is
only increased by 155!.
A qualification programme was defined with the classification
societies and conducted as followed:
- pre-dimensioning according to the characteristics of the basic materials
(steel and GRP)
- call for tender issued to numerous European manufacturers
- selection of three hooping processes proposed by:
. SNIAS Aquitaine (St Medar en dalles, France)
. SPIFLEX (Paris, France)
. MANURHIN (Mulhouse, France)
- selection of the SPIFLEX process after the manufacture of prequalifica-
tion cylinders
- manufacture of qualification cylinders
- manufacture of prototype cylinders
The main difficulties encountered during this programme came from the
very accurate control of all manufacturing parameters, needed to avoid
obtaining inconsistent characteristics and performances. In addition, a
study programme was conducted concerning the resistance of the hoop in
water which resulted in the definition of an effective protection.
 775

PHOTO 4 - Rack of 3 high pressure c y l i n d e r s

Inner and outer pressure tanks

These are the suhmarine's v a r i a t i l e buoyancy tanks used to compensate
weight v a r i a t i o n s of the sub when submerged. SAGA 1 i s f i t t e d w i t h f i v e
of these tanks, g i v i n g a t o t a l volume of approximately 12 m . These tanks
are designed to w i t h s t a n d the maximum immersion pressure e i t h e r i n t e r n a l l y
or e x t e r n a l l y , the other side being e v e n t u a l l y at a pressure as low as one
bar.
A guai i f i c a t i o n programme, s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f the h i g h p r e s s u r e gas
storage c y l i n d e r s , was defined. A c a l l f o r tender was issued to several
European companies and r e s u l t e d i n the s e l e c t i o n of MURGUE-SFIGLF (l.yon,
France). F o l l o w i n g a m a t e r i a l c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n programme, two model
p r e s s u r e t a n k s were m a n u f a c t u r e d . Q u a l i f i c a t i o n t e s t s showed the
s a t i s f a c t o r y b e h a v i o u r o f t h e t a n k u n d e r e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e and
i n s u f f i c i e n t under i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e due t o l e a k s at p i p e p e n e t r a t i o n s .
A f t e r s e v e r a l a t t e m p t s to r e p a i r t h i s d e f e c t , MURGUE-SEIGLE d e c i d e d t o
abandon the development.
I t was t h e r e f o r e necessary t o f i n d a n o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l p a r t n e r .
SI.INGSBY AVIATION PLC (Great B r i t a i n ) was selected. F o l l o w i n g a q u a l i f i -
c a t i o n programme concentrated on p e n e t r a t i o n s , SI.INGSBY AVIATION produced
the required pressure tanks. These tanks s u c c e s s f u l l y completed the proof
t e s t s defined by Lloyd's Register of Shipping.
776

PHOTO 5 - GRP variable buoyancy tank

Other applications of GRP

These applications involved the Following developments:
- thermal protection oF the hyperbaric compartment, made up of submersible
and buoyant panels
- external Fairing oF the submarine
- lightened deck panels and conning tower
For certain applications, the use oF sandwich panels is advantageous,
incorporating a buoyant material core between two GRP walls. Using this
technique, resistance and buoyancy are increased.

7. DEEP DIVING SYSTEM

The reduction oF the amount oF gas necessarily l o s t by d i v e r breathing
a p p a r a t u s i s e s s e n t i a l iF the system i s used onboard an autonomous
s u b m a r i n e . The p e r f o r m a n c e s and r e l i a b i l i t y oF e x i s t i n g systems being
unsatisFactory beyond a depth oF 200 m, an o r i g i n a l system was designed i n
c o n j e c t i o n w i t h LAMA ( P a r i s , France). This system is oF the semi-closed
c i r c u i t type, w i t h breathing assistance. The development programme under-
taken enabled two prototypes to be manuFactured which gave s a t i s F a c t o r y
r e s u l t s d u r i n g v a r i o u s t e s t s and a l s o d j r i n g the HYDRA VI e x p e r i m e n t
c a r r i e d out at the COMEX hyperbaric centre i n M a r s e i l l e (- 520 m using
helium-hydrogen mixtures). The programme a l s o c o v e r e d o t h e r i m p o r t a n t
sub-assemblies such as the p a r t i c u l a r l y compact gas mix-maker developed
w i t h WITT-GASETECHNIK (Witten - Germany) and a gas a n a l y s i s system.

8. DIVER'S HEATING SYSTEM

H e a t i n g oF d i v e r s i n s a t u r a t i o n or when l o c k e d - o u t i s very e n e r g y -
consuming For an autonomous submarine.
Work c a r r i e d out involved F i r s t l y , the development oF an e f f i c i e n t hot
water s u i t and, secondly, a reclaim system oF the heat d i s s i p a t e d by the
STIRLING engines.
 777

Heated suits
Existing suits are supplied by a high f l o w - r a t e (approximately 40 to
50 1/mn) of warm sea water. The s u i t developed w i t h i n the p r o j e c t i s
c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a high thermal p r o t e c t i o n due to the use of sandwich
materials and an adapted d i s t r i b u t i o n of sea water, allowing the system
to operate with a low f l o w - r a t e , approximately 5 1/mn, whilst remaining
f u n c t i o n a l e r g o n o m i c a l l y . The developed s u i t s were t e s t e d during the
ENTEX XI tests at the French Navy hyperbaric Centre in Toulon and during
HYDRA VI at COMEX and gave satisfactory results.
Energy reclaim system
This system i s used to recover the heat d i s s i p a t e d by the STIRLING
engines. One of the d i f f i c u l t i e s consisted i n developing a compact and
lightweight system capable of providing e f f e c t i v e heat to the divers even
in the event of a component f a i l u r e . I n t h i s way, should the STIRLING
engines s t o p , the d i v e r s can be heated by means of a heat pump, the
evaporator of which i s heated by ambiant sea water.
778

TABLE I
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS
CHARACTERISTICS
Length overall 2.06 m
Breadth overall 7.40 m
Main height 8.50 m
Main draft 3.65 m
Submerged displacement 550
Maximum operating depth 600 m
Maximum depth with diver intervention 450
Calculated collapse depth 1200 m
CREW
Atmospheric compartment 6 to 7 persons
Hyperbaric compartment 6 divers
SPEED
Normal submerged 4 knots
Maximum submerged 6 knots
Surface 7 knots
PROPULSION
Main propulsion
2 directional Kort nozzle propellers 2x75 HP
Auxiliary propulsion
Lateral thrusters 2x8 HP
Vertical thrusters 2x8 HP
POWER SOURCE
Surface: 1 Hispano Suiza Diesel engine : 235 HP
Submerged: 2 Stirling engines type V4R275: 2x100 HP

GAS AND ENERGY STORAGE

Fuel 6000 1
Cryogenic oxygen 6500 kg
HP gas (air, oxygen, helium) 5600 SCM
Main batteries 700 kWh
Survival batteries 6 kWh
Total energy stored onboard 10700 kWh

NAVIGATION AND PILOTING SYSTEMS

SAGEM piloting system
Surface positioning systems: NAVSAT, L0RAN C and radar
Submerged positioning: deadreckoning using Gyrocompass and Doppler
log
Acoustic positioning system: long baseline and short baseline
Underwater navigation aids: Depth sounder, panoramic sonar, video

COMMUNICATIONS
Surface VHF and SS
Submerged: Acoustic telephone

ONBOARD TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

R0V
Payload: 3 T
 779

AIR INDEPENDENT POWER SOURCES CF HIGH ENERGY STORAGE DENSITY. THE BRUKER-MAN
ARGON DIESEL AND THE BRUKER C02-JIESEL

J. Haas
Bruker Maerestechnik GmbH, Karlsruhe

Summary

An a-ir independent power plant for submersible vehicles or other subsea

applications is being developed and constructed at Bruker Meerestechnik
GmbH in cooperation with MAN Technologie GmbH, Munich, based on a closed
cycle argon Diesel. In parallel, Bruker is working on a small test unit
for a closed cycle 002 Diesel which may find its application as main
energy source for smaller vehicles or stationary units. The project is
funded by the Bundesminister fr Forschung und Technologie under Project
No. MIK 0323 and by the Commission of the European Communities under
Contract No. TH 13.07/85. The first stage of the project includes the
power-plant with auxiliary equipment and its integration into an engine
compartment of an autonomous inspection submarine. Right from the
beginning of the project it was planned to build a complete demonstration
submarine around the engine compartment, in case the bench tests with the
diesel plant would provide promising results. This was the case and thus
Bruker applied for additional funds for the second stage. The program was
approved by the Bundesminister fr brschung und Technologie in simmer
1987. The Commission of the European Communities is not involved in this
part of the development program so far.

1. INTRODUCTION
Bruker Maerestechnik GmbH has been dedicated to the design, development
and construction of underwater vehicles and subsea technology for about 20
years now. The MERMAID class is a line of non-autonomous manned submersibles
covering research and inspection subs and diverlockout, rescue and dry
transfer applications as well.
Since the early seventies, a great deal of efforts have been concentrated
on underwater maintenance, inspection and repair systems for offshore oil and
gas installations.
A conceptual and design study was carried out for a pipeline repair and
burial system, based on a surface vessel.
The consequent next step was an autonomous underwater working system, a
manned twin hull submarine to be fitted out with a variety of modules and
subsystems for pipeline alignment and repair, cranage facilities, welding
habitat, diving spread and, last but not least, a manned diverlockout and dry
transfer submersible to further extend the system's capabilities. This study,
carried out about ten years ago, proved to be ahead of its time, one important
reason being the lack of an adequate, surface independent energy supply
system.
The Flying Bells, three men diving bells for an operating depth of 450 m,
fully manoeverable in all three dimensions either from within the bell or
remotely from the surface, are representing another interesting line of
products, custom designed for the offshore industry.
780

A completely new approach towards manned underwater technology was

started at Brker in 1981 with the signature of a contract for an autonomous
Research and Inspection Sutmarine, the SEAHORSE-class.
This mini-submarine is designed to operate independently from surface
support vessels. It incorporates a diesel electric power plant, has a range on
surface of several hundred nautical miles, sub surface in the order of 50
miles. The overall autonomy, this is the time between departure frati and
return to the base, is up to one week.
Similar to the earlier SUBCAT project also the idea of an autonomous
inspection submarine unveiled the need for energy sources with improved
energy density compared to the figures obtained from conventional lead acid
batteries.
MAN, the well known manufacturer of diesel engines, has been studying
several options for closed cycle diesel plants for several years, initiated by
the project of an ING tanker capable to transport liquified gas from artic
regions under the ice into more moderate climates. This project being
postponed, MAN was seeking for other applications for the closed cycle diesel
technology and possibilities to build a demonstration unit.
Thus MAN and Brker joint their efforts and started the RtO-project
covered by this presentation.
The MAN part includes the diesel engine itself, heat exchangers,
scrubber, some auxiliary equipment and the process control system, whereas
Bruker undertakes the integration of the power plant into a submarine's engine
compartment, the provision of the liquified oxygen system, the storage of
chemicals and condensate, the electric system, the hydraulic system, the
ballast system and in the second stage, the development and construction of
the complete operational demonstration vehicle, the external dimensions and
shape becoming similar to the Seahorse II-type.

2. GENERAL EESCRIPTION OF TOE POWER PLANT

Out of the many options available for closed cycle diesel systems, MAN
had favourized the Argon-Diesel process due to the fact that its thermodynamic
efficiency is superior to all other processes. Furthermore, it was decided
between MAN and Bruker to use potassium hydroxide as absorbant to clean the
exhaust gas from carbondioxide. Thus the system beccmes fully depth-
independent and no media are exchanged between the power plant or submarine,
respectively, during submerged operation. On surface, the diesel engine can
be operated under "open circuit" conditions breathing normal air. An off the
shelf engine is used with only minor modifications.
Liquified oygen is stored in a super vacuum insulated cryogenic tank
within the stern section of the engine compartment. The inner storage tank can
withstand pressures superior to the maximum diving depth, this is 300 m for
the demonstration sub to be constructed.
The chemical absorbant is stored in a series of identical honeycomb-
shaped tanks arranged between the LOX-tank and the diesel engine.
It was decided to design the power plant to be suitable for an autonomous
Inspection Submarine of the same dimensions and shape as the conventionally
powered SEAHORSE II type. This allows for direct comparison of the performance
of both units once the demonstration vehicle has been completed. The diesel
engine output was defined to be in the order of 100 KW, the main thruster
hydraulic motor output 80 KW, the energy transmission diesel- or electro-
hydraulic, respectively.
The power pack consists of the diesel engine driving the electric
motor/generator via disengageable clutch and a pressure controlled, variable
flow hydraulic pump feeding the hydraulic network frcm where the energy for
all thrusters and most of the auxiliary equipment is drained.
 781

Centered to the conventional Seahorse II-type the battery capacity of the

planned demonstration submarine will be reduced to 50 percent. The battery
consisting of 100 cells of 1000 Ah each serves as back-up in case of a
malfunction on the closed cycle power plant. The battery can be charged while
the sub is on surface and also - to a certain extent - when submerged.
Ihe fuel is carried in storage tanks inside and outside the submarine,
furthermore, provisions are foreseen to install pumps, manifolds and tanks
for the ballast and trimming systems into the engine compartment.
There are three cooling loops for dumping the waste process heat to the
ambient: the normal diesel engine cooling water circuit, an external heat
exchanger for the hydraulic oil and the cooling loop for the exhaust gas
coolers.
The process can be described by following the gas circuit:
The exhaust gas leaves the engine and enters the first stage of the
exhaust gas cooler. From there it passes into the first stage of the rotary
002-scrubber, where the absorbant caning from the the second stage of the
scrubber is sprayed in. In the second stage of the scrubber fresh chemicals
serve to bring the residuel percentage of 002 to a very low figure.
The scrubbing process sets free some heat energy, therefore the gas has
to be cooled down again in a second cooler before it enters a mixer where oxygn
is fed in.
From there, the process gas is entering the engine and the circuit is
closed.
When shifting from closed to open circuit, the bigger part of the system
is isolated by valves. Before starting in closed circuit again, the engine and
part of the gas piping has to be flushed with Argon. This is the only moment
where concernable amounts of Argon are used. During normal operation no Argon
is consumed.
The chemical agent loaded with 002 is being restored in the empty storage
tanks. Another set of tanks serves for storing the condensate drained out of
the gas coolers and a separator.
The liquified oxygen is evaporated in a heat exchanger supplied with hot
water from the engine cooling loop. An electrical heater serves as back-up and
is used before starting the engine.

3. STATUS OF THE PROJECT (END OF 1987)

The diesel plant has undergone and completed full scale bench tests at
Munich including all auxiliary systems except for the IOX-tank in summer 1987.
The plant is actually being installed into the engine compartment section
at the Bruker facilities in Karlsruhe. The IOX-storage tank has undergone
individual tests and approvals.
As mentioned above, due to the very promising test bench results, BRUKER
MEERESTECHNIK GMBH has applied for additional funds from the Bundesminister
fr Forschung und Technologie in order to complete the engine compartment of
the first stage of the project into an operable demonstration vessel. Thus the
bow section of the sub's pressure vessel has been completed as well.
All subsystems such as
- the hydraulic system with thrusters, valve blocks and piping system,
- the electric system with batteries, switch boards, converters and
cabeling,
- the hard and soft ballast tank system, the life support installations
with the related pipework and
- the control systems and special equipment are being assembled.
Dry and shallow water tests will be carried out in the first half of 1988;
sea trials being scheduled for the second half of the same year.
782

There is a delay in the time schedule for the first stage of the project,
this is the engine compartment with power plant. This delay will be basically
compensated by work already completed for the second stage (demonstration
vessel).
From the available but preliminary test results we expect that the energy
capacity storable in an inspection submarine of the 50 to class will improve
by a factor of 5 to 7 compared to the lead acid battery, when incorporating the
closed cycle Argon Diesel plant as lined out above.

4. C02 DIESEL TEST PLANT

The Argon diesel as described is completely depth independent and
achieves an optimum of thermal efficiency. These advantages have to be payed
for by certain technical expenditures. There are applications, where a
simpler, less costly power plant may be sufficient, for example for vehicles
operating in depths of less than 200 m or stationary power plants in the same
range of depth.
Bruker therefore decided to build and study a 002 diesel plant with an
output of about 20 KW. This system can be described as follows:
A two cylinder, water cooled fourstroke diesel engine drives a hydraulic
pump (and electric generator later on). The exhaust gas passes a gas/gas heat
exchanger, is further cooled down by water injection and enters a bubble type
scrubber. In the water cooled heat exchanger, the humidity pertinent in the
circulating gas is condensated. The thus cooled and dried gas is then heated
again in the above mentioned heat exchanger. Oxygen is fed into the circuit
through a specially designed mixer before it enters the engine again.
When shifting from open to closed circuit the nitrogen disappears after a
while and the process gas saturates with 002 basically. To overcome undue
pressure build up, a certain amount of exhaust gas has to be dumped to the
ambient. This is done by a compressor driven by the engine via V-belt.
The energy consumed by the compressor and to be supplied by the engine
increases with depth. Consequently, this process has its depth limitations.
The maximum depth is achieved where the energy required for the compressor and
other auxiliaries is equivalent to the output of the diesel engine.
The status of this partial project is as follows:
The test plant has been installed into a 20 ft container with separated
control room. Different process configurations have been studied and improved
stepwise. The plant has been running for several hundred hours now under
various conditions including closed cycle under full load and transition from
open to closed circle and vice versa.
Initially, all systems and subsystems were manually controlled.
Meanwhile, automatic control loops have been incorporated and
interconnected.
The tests have not been completed yet but the preliminary results clearly
demonstrate that this development will lead to a relatively inexpensive,
straight forward solution for smaller closed cycle diesel plants for moderate
depths.
Tests and development efforts are continued in 1988.
 CLOSED CYCLE ARGON DIESEL
A joint BMTMAN development 3 BRUKERMAN Gemeinschafts
entwicklung *

BRUKER Semi closed

Argon Diesel Process Schematics
C 0 2 Diesel Power Pack

* a * Fartwuv ifcrdi oto B u H i w h f hv FonUwa. irt feratao irt d ir ft* tvtpeaoan Cmwidrflx i
00
W
784

SURFACEINDEPENDENI_UBEA_ENERGY_UPPLY_YIEM_MOARK
BASED ON A CLOSED ARGON CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE

H^GEHRINGER
MAN_TenoloLie_GmbH

Summary

MAN Technologie GmbH has developed an air independent

subsea energy source based on a closed argon cycle
diesel engine using argon as cycle medium. This energy
supply system (MOTARK) may be considered for power
generation in submarines, subsea work stations, diver
habitats etc. in the offshore technology sector. During
the first phase of the R+D project the closed argon
cycle process including the C02scrubber system and the
oxygen control system was tested successfully in a pilot
plant with a 32 kW MAN diesel engine. During the second
phase the prototype of an autonomous energy supply unit
with a closed argon cycle diesel engine has been
established and tested successfully at works trials.
After completion of the inhouse testing the prototype
unit with its standard MAN diesel engine D 2566 ME of
100 kW/1500 rpm is under installation in an autonomous
inspection submarine (SEAHORSE II of Bruker Meerestech
nik GmbH) and will be tested under subsea conditions.

1 INTRODUCTION
In the field of offshore technology there is a great
demand for energy supply systems which work completely
surfaceindependent, specially for operations in deep water
and extended mission periods.
These requirements are not achievable with the
traditionally used battery/electricsource, nuclear power
plants are not acceptable and neither Stirling engines nor
fuel cells have got beyond the development status. Among
other alternativ systems, diesel engines represent an
available and very compact energy source with high energy
density and energy/weight ratio. In closedcycle operation
the diesel engine provides that autonomous subsea energy
supply system for power and heat generation, as required in
the offshore technology sector.
In that respect MAN Technologie GmbH started in 1983 to
develop and realize a closed argon cycle diesel engine by use
of experience with approved MAN standard diesel engines.
The decision for argon as cycle medium was founded on
results MAN Technologie GmbH previously obtained in an LNG
tanker submarine project study.
 785

2 DEVELOPMENT_0F_HE_LOSED_ARGON_YLE
Diesel engines normally operate with ambient air. For
subsea operation the diesel engine can be made independent of
the environment in closedcycle operation mode using an inert
gas/oxygen mixture as cycle medium.
If argon is used as inert gas instead of nitrogen or
carbon dioxide, the higher adiabatic exponent of the argon
considerably increases the efficiency of the diesel engine
(approx. 25% compared to ambientair operation). Fig. 1
shows the thermal efficiency of the Seiliger process as a
function of the adiabatic exponent.

i operation of a diesel
nth 1 engine to the Seiliger
e xl( 1+)((1)) process.
x adiabatic exponent
compression ratio (volumetric)
5" Pmax/Pcompression
" Vend of combustion/Vcompression
In closed cycle operation the recycle gas argon has to be
separated from the combustion products H2O and CO2, pure
oxygen is added before the recycling to the diesel engine.
2.1 DieselEngine Trials With Argon
With a view to later utilization for the prototype of an
argon diesel engine as power unit for an autonomous working
submarine of approx. 100 kW rating, the standard MAN D 2566
ME diesel engine with 110 kW at 1500 rpm was selected for the
trials.
In surface operation of the submarine the diesel engine
has to work in conventional manner with ambient air and in
submerged condition in the closed argon cycle mode. With
respect to this objective the optimization of engine effi
ciency for purely argon/02 operation was not a major consi
deration.
The tests on the diesel engine were carried out in open
cycle mode, i.e. the process gas argon/oxygen mixture was
drawn into the engine from gas reservoirs and the exhaust
gases were emitted to the atmosphere.
The exhausted gas concentration was measured so that
the data could be used for designing the CO2 exhaust gas
scrubber system.
During the tests the compression ratio of the engine was
varied to determine the optimal ignition pressure and effi
ciency for both ambientair and argon operation,
respectively.
2.1.1 Test Results
In operation with argon/oxygen good operating values
were achieved across the whole output range up to 100 kW with
the D 2566 ME engine running at 1500 rpm.
786

At maximum rating = 110 kW the following values were

recorded:
Ar/02 Amb.-air
operation operation

Efficiency, % 43 38
Exhaust gas temperature, C 450 600
Ignition pressure, bar 85 70
Smoke value, R 0.15 2.8

The results show that the diesel engine is well suited

for the envisaged purpose, even if because of the precondi-
tions for combined ambient-air and argon/02 operation the in-
creased efficiency attainable in purely Ar/02 mode is not
fully achieved. The low smoke value (factor 10) in Ar/02
operation facilitates operation of the CO2 exhaust gas
scrubber.
2.2 CO2 exhaust gas scrubber system
Operation of a diesel engine in closed-cycle mode makes
it necessary to free the cycle gas argon of the combustion
products carbon dioxide and vaporized water. Whereas the
water largely separates by condensation through cooling down
of the exhaust gases to about 20 C, separation of the carbon
dioxide is more complicated.
For cleaning the cycle gas argon of CO2 the various
possible processes were investigated theoretically and prac-
tical ly.
In view of the envisaged task on the small working
submarine, reversible processes were excluded because of its
great space demand for the necessary components and pure CO2
storage.
For a space-saving irreversible scrubbing process
different scrubbing medias were investigated in a glass appa-
ratus (Fig. 2 ) :
- freshwater
- artificial sea water with NaOH additive
- NaOH Lye (hydrate of soda) \ in various
- KOH Lye (potash lye) J concentrations
The use of seawater or seawater with lye addition would
by low effectiveness require a high rate of fluid flow, which
in the submerged submarine would strongly reduce the reliable
diesel engine energy.
Finally KOH was chosen as scrubber medium, because of
its better molar conversion of CO2 against NaOH and its high
CO2 absorption rate.
 787

The formula for this conversion is:

4 KOH + 2 C 0 2 - 2 K2CO3 + 2 H 2 0
K2CO3 + C 0 2 + H 2 0 7 ^ 2 KHCO3

4 KOH + 3 C 0 2 K2C03 + 2 KHCO3 + H 2 0

In a scrubber test plant (Fig. 3) preliminary trials of

the C 0 2 scrubbing process with KOH were carried out. Behind a
HAN single-cylinder diesel engine a rotational C 0 2 scrubber
downstream of the exhaust gas tube was installed. This CO?
scrubber consists of a rotary reaction stage through which
the exhaust gas passes in counterflow to the scrubbing
medium. Utilization of the centrifugal force in the reaction
stage means that the scrubber itself is significali er smaller
than packed columns normally used.
The results obtained in the trials were sufficient to
incorporate the rotational C 0 2 scrubber in the closed-cycle
argon pilot plant.

2.3 Pilot plant closed argon cycle

In accordance to the preliminary engine and scrubber
trials a pilot plant with closed argon cycle was erected.
A main component is the smallest MAN 4-cylinder diesel engine
DO 224 with max. rating 32 kW at 1500 rpm and an exhaust gas
volume of 130 m'/h (Fig. 4 ) . The engine exhaust outlet is
connected to the intake manifold in closed circuit by
stainless steel tubes consisting of the following
components:
Exhaust gas silencer, exhaust gas cooler, water trap,
CO2 scrubber, process gas cooler. These components are dimen-
sioned to the diesel engine's exhaust output.
Downstream of the engine, C 0 2 scrubber and oxygen mixing
chamber, respectively, are gas sampling points to which the
gas analysis equipment and pressure sensors are attached.
Temperature measuring elements are also installed at various
points (Fig. 5 ) .
Gas analysis values are recorded by on-line 0 2 and C 0 2
measuring instruments and by a gas Chromatograph set to
register the expected gas components. In this way complete
gas spectra, and in particular also the argon content, are
recorded at 12-minute intervals.
The tests prior carried out with the pilot plant were to
ensure a functionable closed argon cycle m o d e . At the begin-
ning of the tests the test rig was started up in half open
argon cycle mode with switching over into the closed argon
cycle mode by closing the exhaust butterfly v a l v e s . Later on
with increasing operational experience the 0 2 process con-
trol system was improved and the start-up in full closed
argon cycle mode was established. The tests were carried out
with the diesel engine operating under various loads during
which very stable cycle operating conditions were consistent-
ly achieved. The exhaust gas cooling system and the separa-
tion of the resulting condensate worked s a t i s f a c t o r i l y .
788
With a self developed 2-stage rotational CO2 scrubber
the CO2 content in the exhaust gas could be reduced to about
1 Vol% CO2 consistently throughout the entire test, even with
the engine running at full load. This was achieved by dosing
in an adequate quantity of KOH fresh lye (45%).
Increased CO2 charging of the KOH lye and vice versa
reduced fresh KOH dosing rates are obtained. The MAN
rotational scrubber shown in Fig. 6 is a very compact unit.
KOH lye is fed into the two stages through the centre axis,
fresh lye partly used at the second stage is fed into the
first stage of the scrubber.
To sum up, with the pilot plant the overall
functionating of the diesel engine closed argon cycle process
was demonstrated at numerous trials.
The tests carried out confirmed the increase in
efficiency in closed argon cycle operation. The separation of
CO2 from the engines exhaust gases was also successful.
The experiences and information obtained with the pilot
plant form the basis for the construction of the prototype
unit.
3. M0ARK- ROTOTYPE_UNIT
The prototype of the surface independent subsea energy
supply system (MOTARK) is designed for installation in the
test machine room section of the autonomous subsea inspection
submarine "Seahorse II" of Bruker Meerestechnik.
The MAN diesel engine with 100 kW rating will serve as
energy source for the submarine's hydraulic driven propulsion
system and for its electric generator. In surface operation
of the submarine the diesel engine works with ambient air, in
submerged condition the engine works in the closed argon
cycle mode. The basic process diagram shows Fig. 7.
After the open cycle mode the argon cycle process gas
lines are flushed with argon/oxygen mixture to displace the
ambient air. Then with closed exterior butterfly valves the
engine is started in closed argon cycle mode directly. The
complete process controlling is managed by regulator.
When the engine is stopped in closed-cycle operation it can
be restarted again without problems.
3.1 Design and construction
Design criteria and boundary conditions for the energy
supply unit will be strongly influenced by the submarine's
special requirements. Consequently intensive coordination
with "Bruker Meerestechnik" was practised to design a space-
saving assembly. The prototype unit consisting of the diesel
engine, closed argon circuit, exhaust gas heat exchangers,
CO2 scrubber together with the various auxiliary systems form
a very compact system. All the auxiliary units such as liquid
pumps for KOH lye, condensate, cooling water, the CO2
scrubber and the process gas butterfly valves were driven by
hydraulic motors via on-board hydraulic network.
The storage tanks for fuel, argon, oxygen, condensate
and KOH lye are integrated in the submarine's hull and part
of "Bruker Meerestechnik". The transfer pipe lines between
the storage tanks and the prototype unit form the interfaces.
 789
All components, measurements and controlling equipment
of the complete argon cycle process were selected with re
spect to reliable and safe function. The argon process
components are constructed in stainless steel. A selfdevel
oped microprocessor control system is used for automatic
process operation of the prototype unit. Its small control
panel with select buttons and the plasma display will be in
stalled in the submarine's cockpit. The plasma display moni
tors the prevailing operating mode or current alarm. This in
formation can be read off via four different individually
selectable display pictures.
The individual process steps can be selected by the
buttons of the control panel.
3.2 Workshop assembly
The prototype unit was after production/delivery of the
components assembled at workshop site in the original
arrangement on appropriate steel frames. The diesel engine
was coupled with the output unit (clutch, generator,
hydraulic p u m p ) . For loading the diesel engine by the
generator and the hydraulic pump two electrical variable
resistors and a hydraulic circuit with oil coolers were
installed. The auxiliary systems for engine and heat
exchanger cooling were also installed as were the oxygen,
argon and KOH lye supply systems (Fig. 8 ) .
All electric consumers, measuring devices and switchgear
have been cabled and connected up. The connections are led to
the control box and regulator (Fig. 9 ) .
3.3 Works trials
When the assembly work had been completed the functions
of the individual components and subsystems were tested by
being put into operation individually.
Accordingly the first trials in closed argon cycle mode
were started. Thereby it was found that some modifications
were necessary at oxygen feedin, condensate trap, CO2
scrubber, electric measurements and regulator to improve
the complete system.
Following the abovementioned modifications their effec
tiveness was confirmed at further trials.
With the prototype energy supply unit a large number of
tests in closed argon cycle operation were carried out in
attempt to try out and improve its complete operational
behaviour.
The empirical values gained thereby were, by successive
adaption of process controlling parameters and auxiliary com
ponents, optimisation of the process run and of the con
trol system, evaluated and finally led to reproducible re
sults in all operating modes and load ranges. The prototype
unit works completely automatical in closed argon cycle
operation as well as in open cycle mode by means of the
microprocessor.
The change from surface operation in open cycle mode
into the closed argon cycle mode is also maintained automati
cally after pressing of the select button. Then the process
gas lines are flushed with argon/oxygen and the engine with
790

all of the process auxiliary components are set in operation.

The closed argon cycle process is controlled in function of
the engine load changes.
In case of a underwater stop the engine can be restarted
again in closed cycle operation without any problems. At the
end of the works trials 10.07.87 the desired goal of safety
and reliable operation of the prototype system was achieved
(Fig.10/11).
4. UB MERGED_DEMONSIRAIION_IISI
After the works trials the prototype unit was
disassembled and delivered to B ruker Meerestechnik for in
stallation in the submarine. At present the assembly work is
continuing. It is foreseen to begin the submerged tests in
the first quarter of 1988.
5. CONCLUSION
The goal of the development project to establish a func
tionating argon closed cycle diesel engine for autonomous
operation has been fully achieved.
The autonomous energy supply system MOTARK can be built
for a wide range of power ratings. If necessary it can also
be equiped with a reversible CO2 scrubber process.
Its features for offshore conditions are:
high efficiency because of argon recycling
safety and reliability of systems and components
compact and spacesaving construction
extended working period
Its operational field for power and heat generation:
inspections and working submarines
diver habitats
subsea working stations
remotely controlled vehicles.
 791

0.60 Efficiency

I
I
0.50
Argon

O.iO
yAir(N2)

A
co2
0.30

0.20

Adiabatic index

1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8

Fig. 1. Theoretically achievable efficiency for a diesel

engine with various inert gases (Seiliger process)

t
Absorption Coluan

ntitr
I
~
1%
/ C ool.

B"1

Scrubbing Mtdlua Scrubbing Htdiun.

CO 2 'Saturottd frtsh

Fig. 2. Glass apparatus for preliminary test for C0 2 scrubbing process

792

KD


^0~ tfJ ' ||\/]| (Kl
KS)
-

Brake
i KW
Engine D0221/1 C02 Scrubber
VV
Droplet Separator Scrubber Medium

Fig. 3. Scrubber test plant

Fig. 4. Pilot plant Argon diesel engine A DO 224

 793

Fig. 5. Pilot plant

Fig. 6. Pilot plant - Two-stage M A N COj rotational scrubber

794

ambient a i r | f exhaust
air _
fresh lye

1^J chamber *^

CO,
I(t) '
scrubber

[/w] ^ uused lye

Fig. 7. MOTARK prototype, process diagram

Fig. 8. MOTARK prototype underwater energy

supply workshop assembly
 795

Fig. 9. MOTARK prototype - Control Station with the plasma

display of the control and regulating unit

Fig. 10. MOTARK prototype - Works trials

MAN D 2566 ME engine (100 kW/1500 rpm)
796

Fig. 1 1 . MOTARK prototype - Works t r i a l s

Indication of space available in submersible
by means of dummy frame rings
 797

RANKINE CYCLE IMME RSE D E NE RGY SOURCE WITH

HIGH-PRESSURE COMBUSTION CHAMBE R AND CONSTANT MASS OPE RATION
D. GOFFE , D. GROUSE T, C. LE ONARD, H. MARTIN-NE UVILLE , J.C. MULE T,
C. MORILLON and D. RE BUFFAT
Socit BE RTIN et Compagnie
40220 TARNOS - FRANCE

Summary

Socit BE RTIN are tuning up a 60 bar combustion chamber with a thermal

power of WO kW, working with methanol/oxygen and cooled by recirculated
combustion products at 25C. In the future, this new combustion chamber
is assigned to be the heat generation unit of a constant mass subsea power
module. The work in progress and the main results obtained for the two
last years are described in this paper :
-The calculation method for the combustion chamber sizing is first presented.
It consists of a number of independant calculation codes; each of them
concerns a different function of the flame-tube. A 3D numerical simulation
code, FLUE NT, is also used to validate the previous calculations and to
give a detailed description of the flow inside the flame-tube.
-The test bench, with the combustion chamber, the fluid supplies and the
electrical circuits is then described. The start and stopping processes are
performed by a programmable automaton which furthermore checks the
value of the most important data (temperature, combustion chamber and
cooling water pressure) and can set on the emergency process.
-Lastly, atomization, ignition and combustion tests are presented. Atomi-
zation trials, performed on a specific test bench for atomization under
high pressure, enable us to validate the injector design. The measurement
of the droplet size is realized with a MALVE RN granulometer. The ignition
and combustion tests are in progress.

1. INTRODUCTION
The final objective of the projet consists in designing and tuning up a new
subsea energy module incorporating an organic Rankine cycle with :
- higher performances than a system with electrical batteries
- no exhaust of combustion products into the sea : the module mass remains
constant.
This latest characteristic involves to store the combustion products. To
reduce the storage capacity, the combustion gases (essentielly H ? 0 and CO_)
are condensed and stored in the liquid phase. This prescribes to work at hign
pressure (60 bar) in order to use sea-water for condensation at 25C.
At this stage of the project, the main difficulty rests in working out a
60 bar combustion chamber, with a high thermal power density (20 MW/m3 atm),
extrapolated from the aeronautical technology.

2. AIM OF THE PROJE CT

The project began in July 1985 and has a three year duration. It is divided
in main phases :
Phase 1 : Design, sizing, construction drawings, procurement and fabrication
of each component of the test bench
798

Phase 2 : Erection of test facilities : combustion chamber, fluid circuits, electri-

cal circuits for control, regulation and safety. Implementation of a data acquisi-
tion programme for measurements.
Phase 3 : Tests of the combustion chamber, including injection, ignition, thermal
behaviour, flame stability, combustion efficiency at various operating conditions.
Phase 4 : Synthesis and integration : analysis of the experiments and synthesis
of the results. The integration of the chamber in the global system will be
approached for various ranges of power according to the industrial needs eva-
luated by a prospective research.

3. SIZING OF THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER

3.1. Main features (figure 1)

Figure 1 : Cross section of the flame-tube and the equipped casing

The main characteristics of the combustion chamber are :
nominal thermal power 400 kW
mass flowrates 20 g/s methanol
30 g/s oxygen
335 g/s carbon dioxide
flame-tube sizes 0.132 m length and 0.062 m maximum diameter
operating pressure 6 MPa
power density 20 MW/mVatm
range of working power: 20 to 120 %
injection by a pneumatic nozzle
flame stability induced by a swirl
cooling of the flame tube by external flow and internal film-cooling of CO ?
dilution of the combustion gases by injection of cold CO-
ignition by a plasma sparking-plug and flame control by a photoelectric cell
internal pressure maintained by a sonic valve.
 799

3.2. Sizing calculations

The design of the chamber was driven by coupled calculations from inde-
pendant codes giving the drop size distribution, the pressure-drops, the adiaba-
tique gas temperatures, the kinetics of combustion, the wall temperatures. These
first iterative calculations ended in the sizing of the chamber. Before construc-
tion and testings, an aerothermochemical 3D code, FLUENT, was used to validate
the sizing and provide more information about the internal flows : recirculating
zones, film-cooling, dilution jets, droplets trajectories, and local wall and gas
temperatures.
All the calculations can be synthesized in the following organigram (figure 2).

DATA
Power - Fuel - Oxidizer
Operating conditions

CRITER Volume - L / D - main features :

Characteristic parameters swirl - f i l m cooling - dilution jets

Nozzle dimensions
JET Droplet size and velocity
Sizing of the nozzle Evaporation t i m e
Droplet penetration length.

EQUIL
Equilibrium temperature and composition Injected flow distribution
in various zones ol the flame tube

Refining of t e m p e r a t u r e
HOT
and concentration calculation
Combustion kinetics
w i t h a complete set of
in well-stired reactors
elementary reactions

COOL wall t e m p e r a t u r e calculation

Thermal balance from thermal balance between
o the flame-tube , r a d i a t n e heating and c o n \ e c t i v e coolin;

Number and size

DROP of the flame tube apertures
Sizing of the injection ports Pressure drops

Validation of preliminary calculations

FLUENT
velocity t e m p e r a t u r e , pressure
3D numerical code
and concentration fields,
droplet t r a j e c t o r y , efficiency
of conlirif films

SPECIF
Description of the combustion chamber
<

Figure 2 : Calculation organigram for the combustion chamber sizing

800

3.3. MESMA combustion chamber

3.3.1. Injectors (figure 3)

The injectors are pneumatic sprayers, with external mixing. The sizing of
the nozzles was realized to obtain a 30 urn mean diameter of the fuel droplets
at full power under 60 bar.
The tests performed with the first injector (old configuration) shown that
the mean diameter is about 25 m, but the geometry of the spray is not compa
tible with the geometry of the combustion chamber (only a 15 spray angle
and a 50 mm establishment length). So two new configurations were defined
and are currently on trial.

1 2 3

oxygen

old configuration new configurations

Figure 3 : The 3 MESMA injection nozzles
3.3.2. Flow repartition and combustion efficiency
The adiabatic flame temperature of methanol/oxygen is about 3300C . In
order to avoid mechanical and thermal problems in the flametube, as well
as in the possible downstream heat exchanger, the outlet gas temperature is
reduced to 900C by dilution. This is performed by carbon dioxide injection
at 25C with a mass flow equal to 6.7 times the mass flow of oxygen and methanol.
The chemical kinetic calculation program HOT shows that the combustion
efficiency would be equal to 0,997 at full power.
3.3.3. FLUENT calculations
FLUENT is a 3D calculation code which is used to give a detailed description
of the flows inside the combustion chamber. About 9300 grid modes and about
100 CPU hours on a Prime 850 are required to simulate the current configuration
with liquid methanol and oxygen injection.
Figure k displays the temperature field of the gases in a longitudinal plane.
It shows the combustion zone, the middle area of hot gas recirculation, the
film cooling effects and the profile of the gas temperature at the outlet.

Figure k : Temperature field of the combustion gases in a longitudinal plane

 801

3.3.4. Construction
The construction of the combustion chamber casing and equipment was
realized by BERT1N in their workshops.The flametube was realized by TURBOMECA .

4. TEST BENC H (figure 5 )

4.1. Circuit description

t* ril

Si* * P"""f r JS.oQ.Qj J)

Figure 5 : Diagram of the test bench

The test bench consists of :

oxygen, methanol and carbon dioxide supply circuits
a nitrogen circuit, devoted to clear the oxygen and methanol circuits at the
start and end of trials, in order to avoid any risk of explosion
two cooling water circuits, in order to cool the sonic valve and the combustion
gas sampling probe
an exhaust circuit, designed to absorb the pressure variations of the combustion
chamber during the ignition.
All the circuits are fitted out with flow meter, solenoid valve, flow control
valve, electronic flow controller, check, safety and drain valves.
802

4.2. Measurement equipments

Each circuit is equipped with a flow m e t e r and t e m p e r a t u r e and pressure
sensors as shown on figure 5. Gasanalysers are used to determine the combus
tion efficiency by measurement of the composition of combustion gases ( 0 ? ,
CO, COj and unburnt hydrocarbons).
A few sensors inside the combustion chamber serve to control the evolution
of t e m p e r a t u r e s and pressures during the trials.
All the m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e connected to a data acquisition system and can
be transfered to a computer for processing. C omputer programs were developed
and are used during the t e s t s .

4.3. Electrical equipments

An electrical operating desk allows :
the power supply of all electrical circuits
the visualisation of the most important p a r a m e t e r s : mass flows, combustion
chamber t e m p e r a t u r e s and pressure, supply pressures
the fitting of flows by action on electronic controllers
the emergency stopping process.
For all t e s t s , the s t a r t and stopping processes a r e performed by a program
mable automaton which furthermore checks the value of the most important
d a t a ( t e m p e r a t u r e , combustion chamber and cooling water pressures, chamber
ignition) and can set on the emergency stopping process : closing of supply
solenoid valves and clearing of the methanol and oxygen circuits with nitrogen.

^5 S "
wi "WT

Figure 6 : The electrical operating desk

 803

5. TESTS
5.1. Atomization tests
The atomization of the liquid fuel has to be of a high quality to obtain
a complete combustion and a good flame stability. So it appears that the measure-
ment of the drop size distribution is required to know the real mean diameter
under a high ambient pressure (60 bar). A specific test bench for atomization
was designed and constructed (figure 7) :
- the size of the droplets, which depends on the liquid nature and mass flow,
on the pressure ana on the gas-liquid mass flow ratio, is measured with a MALVERN
granulometer
- the spray angle and the establishment length are determinated from photographs
taken during the trials.
This test bench is assigned to the validation of injection nozzles for various
regimes and pressures :
- ignition phase : reduced mass flows and pressure
- at 60 bar : variable power

Figure 7 : The atomization test bench

804

5.2. Ignition tests

A first set of ignition trials was successfully performed in January 1988
at reduced flowrate and pressure (1/if of full flowrate) with the old injection
system (see figure 3). Without injecting carbon dioxide, the combustion was
stable but had to be stopped after a few seconds because the combustion chamber
temperature increased rapidly due to the lack of dilution gases. With injection
of carbon dioxide, ignition occured but was not stable. Nevertheless these trials
are very encouraging, specially as the injection design was not the best one.
Futhermore, it shows that all circuits and security devices work correctly.
The next ignition tests will be performed with the new injectors and will
be addressed to determine the ignition domain in term of :
- the pressure of the combustion chamber
- the methanol mass flowrate
- the dilution ratio : k =CO_ mass flow/(oxygen + methanol) massflow
- the methanol to oxygen mixture ratio : R

5.3. Combustion trials

The combustion chamber trials will be undertaken as soon as the chamber
ignition will be controlled. They will consist in studying the effects of parameters
(chamber pressure, oxygen excess, k, R, power) on the flame stability and the
combustion efficiency .
The combustion efficiency will be calculed from the data of the gas analysers
and from a calculation procedure already developed.
The measurements of massflow, temperatures, pressure and pressure drops
in the combustion chamber will be compared with the calculated values from
the codes (see fig. 2) in order to validate the flame-tube design.

6. CONCLUSIONS
The work of designing, sizing, test bench assembly, equipments connection
and checking are now completed. The first ignition tests have been successful
and have permitted to get sure that the ignition and stopping processes run
correctly.
A new test campaign is in progress, in order to improve the control of
the ignition. Then the combustion process will be investigated in the optimum
conditions.
The work program was planed to be completed at the end of June 1988,
and the encouraging results obtained up to now allow us to think that this delay
will be respected.
 805

DEEP DIVING HYDROGENATED BREATHING MIXTURE.

C. GORTAN, X. FRUCTUS, B. GARDETTE and HG. DELAUZE

COMEX.

SUMMARY

Traditional deep diving with hlium is limited by various factors :

- High Pressure Nervous Syndrome (HPNS) that causes motricity disorders
beyond 300 meters.
- Gas density which increases in proportion to the depth and impairs pulmonary
ventilation.
The use of hydrogen as a vehicle for oxygen, should extend the limits of the
actual deep diving techniques.
The studies carried out by COMEX within the development of HYDRA
experiments have evidenced up the physiological qualities of this new breathing
gas :
- Absence of toxicity
- narcotic potency that has an antagonistic effect on the HPNS
- easier breathing thanks to its very low density
- elimination of articular pains
- diminution of muscular pain during exertion
- improvement of the general physiological comfort, particularly a better nasal
respiration which is impossible on helium.
The HYDRA IV, V, VI and VII diving experiments, carried out from 1983 to
1986 at COMEX Hyperbaric Research Center in Marseilles, at simulated depths
down 300 m/520 meters have demonstrated that divers on hydrogen are not
affected physiologically by high pressure and retain all their intellectual and
physical capabilities.
The technological developments carried out simultaneously with the physiological
research have allowed the realization of specific equipment for hyperbaric
manipulation of hydrogen :
- system for regenerating and reoxygenating gas mixtures
- Leakage detection/extraction system.
- semi-closed breathing system for divers.
These equipment and diving procedures will be tested in open sea conditions at
520 m depth at beginning of 1988. The HYDRA VIII dive will be carried out at
sea from the Diving Support Vessel "ORELIA" which has been especially equiped
for hydrogen experiments and certified by the Lloyd's Register of Shipping.

1- INTRODUCTION
For more than 20 years all industrial deep diving has used breathing mixtures
made up basically of helium and oxygen. Helium opened up the continental shelf to
depths of 300 meters to professional divers.
With the development of offshore oil prospection and production in depth ranges
between 300 and 800 meters (North Sea, Brazil, Mexico, etc ...), the need for
underwater manned operations will undoubtedly increase, initially for installation of
the means of production and later for maintenance of automatic systems.
In spite of its undeniable advantages, however, helium cannot be used as a
vehicle gas for oxygen at very great depths. Two limiting factors must be overcome,
i.e. :
806

- High Pressure Nervous Syndrome (HPNS) ;

- The density of the breathing gas at great depths.
The combined effects of these two factors diminish the diver's efficacy.
Due to its anti-HPNS power and its low density, hydrogen is the only gas capable
of overcoming these limiting factors.

2 - TRADITIONAL DIVING GASES

The nature of the breathing gas used depends on the type of dive :
- AIR : is used to depths of SO meters maximum. Beyond this depth the diver is
subject to "rapture of the deep" or "nitrogen high", caused by the narcotic effects of
nitrogen on the Central Nervous System.
- NITROX : is a nitrogen/oxygen mixture used for longer dives at shallow
depths, called "saturation dives".
- HELIOX : is a helium/oxygen mixture used for both short and long dives at
depths below 50 meters. Since helium has no narcotic power it can be used as a
breathing gas at higher pressures. Heliox is the breathing gas mixture most commonly
used for professional diving.

3 - FACTORS WHICH LIMIT DEEP DIVING

At very great depths several limiting factors appear :
- High Pressure Nervous Syndrome (HPNS)
Is an effect of pressure on the Central Nervous System. It appears at around 300
meters and increases with depth, causing motor disorders which impair the diver's
efficacy.
- The Density of the Gas
increases in proportion to the depth of the dive making respiration difficult and
resulting in impairment of the diver's work capacity.
- Articular pains afflict the diver under pressure, particularly in the most
commonly worked joints, causing considerable discomfort.
- Fatigue is caused by living for long periods of time in a confined space,
producing sleeplessness, loss of appetite, thermal discomfort, blocked nasal respiration,
difficulty in swallowing, etc ... a generalized problem which is often accompanied by
considerable weight loss.
Helium unfortunately does not possess any of the properties necessary to
attenuate these limiting factors to a significant degree.
HPNS can be counteracted by adding a narcotic gas to the breathing mixture (see
figure 1). Such is the case with nitrogen, which has a pronounced anti-K?NS effect
(1). But the improvement in HPNS is won at the cost of an increase in the density of
the breathing gas containing nitrogen. At very great depths this can be a decisive
factor, precluding the use of nitrogen.
Hydrogen, the lightest of all gases, is the only one that combines the two
requisite factors :
- anti-HPNS narcotic power ;
- very low density.
Certain research on animals prior to 1983 gave us initial insight into the
physiological effects of hydrogen (2, 3). Since 1983 the COMEX Research team has
demonstrated both the validity of these effects on human beings and other properties
of hydrogen which make for a diving comfort hitherto undreamt of.

4 - HYDROGEN AND SAFETY

Before contemplating the use of hydrogen in breathing gas it was essential that
research be carried out on the flammability limits of hydrogenated mixtures in
hyperbaric conditions.
 807

A study was undertaken to determine the oxygen content below which the
mixture would not be flammable. Tests were run in 15 to 75 bar pressure increases
which showed that the safe oxygen limit fell between 4 and 4,5 %, irrespective of the
H 2 /He ratio (4). Since for physiological reasons the oxygen content of breathing gas
at depths over 300 m is always less than 2 %, there is a broad margin of safety, (see
figure 2).

5 - TOXICOLOGY RESEARCH ON HYDROGEN

Before trying human diving with a hydrogen-rich breathing mixture we tested
the effects of hyperbaric hydrogen on animals.
The first series of experiments in 1983 involved 40 white mice exposed to a
hydrox ( H 2 - 0 2 ) under the same conditions and at the same depth demonstrated the
non-toxicity of hydrogen.
In 1986 we exposed 110 mice to a hydreliox mixture (H 2 -He-0 2 ), with control
batches on heliox, at depths ranging from 1300 to 2000 m. The results of these
experiments confirmed the preceeding ones and revealed the "physiological comfort"
afforded by hydrogen. At 2000 m none of the mice on heliox survived, whereas 60 %
of those on hydreliox survived (5).

6 - NARCOTIC POWER OF HYDROGEN

As the anti-HPNS effect of a gas is a function of its narcotic power, we
investigated the narcotic power of hydrogen in the course of several experimental
dives undertaken for the HYDRA project.
- HYDRA III : In June 1983 sixteen bounce dives were carried out in the sea
near Marseilles to 75 and 91 meters on heliox, with 5 minutes of hydrox (97,5 % H 2
and 2.5 % 0 2 ) breathing at the bottom. No narcotic effects were observed, despite
partial pressures hydrogen of 8.3 and 9.8 bars (6).
- HYDRA IV : In November 1983 six divers in heliox saturation were exposed
for periods of 1 to 6 hours to hydrox mixtures (98 % H 2 and 2 % 0 2 ) at 120, 150, 180
and 240 meters.
The first signs of narcosis were observed at 180 m in some of the divers, with a
partial pressure hydrogen of 18.6 bars. At 240 m (PH, = 24.5 bars) narcosis was quite
noticeable in all of the divers, (see figure 2).
Two hydreliox mixtures were inhaled at 300 m :
- mixture 1 - 74 % H 2 , 24 % He, 2 % 0 2 , with PH 2 = 22.9 bars
- mixture 2 - 59 % H 2 , 39 % He, 2 % 0 2 , with PH 2 = 18.3 bars.
The respective narcotic effects were less pronounced than for hydrox at 180 and
240 m with nearly the same PH~ because the pressure reversal effect on the narcosis
became apparent around 300 meters (7).
- HYDRA VII : In January 1987 we exposed 4 divers to hydrox ( H , - 0 2 ) at 180,
200, 220, 240 and 260 meters, using a different procedure than that followed for
HYDRA IV.
In HYDRA IV the divers were switched abruptly from a helium medium to a
hydrogen medium. For HYDRA VII the divers were saturated on hydrogen and then
the partial pressure hydrogen was gradually increased. Thus we were able to go to 25
bars of hydrogen without any pronounced narcotic effects, whereas the same P H 2 in
HYDRA IV, with a sudden gas switch produced a definite narcosis.
This phenomena could be very useful at great depths to obtain a maximum anti-
HPNS effect with a minimum of narcosis, (see figure 3).
808

7 - ANTI-HPNS EFFECT OF HYDROGEN

The anti-HPNS effect of hydrogen was demonstrated for the first time on human
beings during the HYDRA V experimental dive in May and June of 198S. This was
also the first time divers (six) lived in saturation in a hydrogenated gas medium at a
pressure equivalent to 450 meters of sea water.
None of the clinical signs of HPNS appeared and we were able to observe a
complete absence of tremor in the divers, as well as the pressure reversal effect on
potential narcosis. Even at 450 m a PH 2 of 25.6 bars did not induce any significant
narcotic effect (see figure 4).

8 - PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF HYDROGEN

In the course of our experiments we discovered that hydrogen afforded
saturation divers a surprising degree of physical comfort.
Nasal respiration, impossible on helium at great depth, became possible again on
hydrogen, to the arrangement of the divers. This had an immediate effect on the High
Pressure Digestive Syndrome : being able to breathe through the nose they had no
trouble swallowing and were able to eat normally.
When breathing hydrogen, muscular pain during exertion diminished
considerably, and the articular pain characteristic at great depth on helium
disappeared.
This is extremely important for the general comfort of divers obliged to live
under pressure for several weeks in hyperbaric chambers.
The divers themselves qualified this breathing comfort as "extraordinary", and
this was confirmed by the measurements of respiratory resistance made during
underwater exercises, in comparision with helium breathing during HYDRA IV.

9 - DIVER PERFORMANCE ON HYDROGEN

Due to its anti-HPNS effect and its very low density hydrogen enables the diver
to retain all of his physical and mental faculties at great depth.
This was confirmed during HYDRA VI in November-December 1986. The
purpose of this dive, which was carried out at the COMEX Hyperbaric Research
Center, was to select divers for the actual sea dive to 520 m, HYDRA VIII, which will
take place early in 1988.
The eight divers who participated in HYDRA VI demonstrated their work
capacity during exercises performed in cold water at simulated depths down to 520
meters.
Cardio-respiratory measurements were made during work sessions on an
underwater ergo-meter on which the divers performed progressive efforts up to 150
Watts. The ventilatory limit was never reached, (see figure 5).
In addition the long-haul effort were definitely better than those recorded
during other experimental dives on heliox and on nitrogen trimix.
The level of intellectual performance was also checked (8) by having the divers
reconstruct in 4C water, from isometric drawings, a complex pipe puzzle upon which
they had not practiced, (see figure 6).
The average assembly time (1 hour 7 minutes) was quite significant compared to
the average time (1 hour 50 minutes) for the JANUS IV heliox dive to 460 m,
particularly since the JANUS IV divers had had the benefit of fairly extensive
practice in assembling a much less complex puzzle than the HYDRA VI one !

10 - SPECIAL TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS FOR HYDROGEN DIVING

Concurrent with the physiological research program we undertook a program of
technological development for handling hydrogen in hyperbaric conditions, with
safety as our main objective.
 809

- System for regenerating and reoxygenating hydrogen-rich gas mixtures :

This automatically monitors and controls the environmental parameters inside
the chambers ; it removes polluants, controls temperature and relative humidity, and
replaced the oxygen consumed by the divers living in the chambers. The development
of this equipment was what made it possible to undertake saturation diving on
hydrogen.
- Hydrogen leakage detection/extraction system :
This detects even minor hydrogen leakage and extracts the hydrogen,
maintaining a safe zone around the chambers in which the hydrogen content remains
well below the flammability limit of hydrogen in air.
- Gas dehydrogenation system :
Designed to selectively remove hydrogen from the breathing gas during the first
part of the decompression process, the system is based on the principal of heterogenous
catalysis ; the hydrogen is oxidized by the oxygen in the breathing mixture at a rate
corresponding to the rate of physiological decompression of the divers.
During HYDRA VI the first "chemical decompression" of hyperbaric chambers
was carried out : 1250 SCM of hydrogen were removed in 10 days, forming 1000 liters
of synthetic water.

11 - HYDRA VIII SEA DIVE TO 520 METERS

HYDRA VIII will take place early in 1988, its objective being to demonstrate the
industrial feasibility of this new diving method.
The operation will be carried out from the dynamically positioned DSV
"ORELIA", whose equipment has been adapted to hydrogen use and certified by
Lloyd's.
Six divers at 520 meters will perform construction work of a type which will
show that their mental faculties are in no way affected by the pressure. And the down
time, 6 hours per dive, will demonstrate in terms of productivity the efficacy of
divers on hydrogen at very great depth.
810

REFERENCES

(1) S. SIMON, Y. K ATZ and P.B. BENNET, 1975

Calculation of the percentage of a narcotic gas to permit abolition of the High
Pressure Nervous Syndrome.
Underwater Biomedical Research. 2, 229-330.
(2) R.W BRAUER, D.O JOHNSEN, FESSOTI and R.W REDDING, 1966.
Effect of hydrogen and helium at pressure to 67 atmospheres on mice and
monkeys.
FEDN Proc. 25, 202.
(3) J.C ROSTAIN, 1973.
L'effet des hautes pressions avec divers mlanges gazeux chez le singe Papio
papio.
Thse de Doctorat de spcialiste en physiologie animale. Universit de Provence.
(4) C. GORTAN and A. BENED, 1984.
Recherche exprimentale des limites d'explosivit des mlanges ternaires H 2 -He-
o2.
Rapport interne COMEX.
(5) B. GARDETTE, 1986.
Plonge ralise chez la souris 1300, 1400, 1500, 1800 et 2000 mtres aux
mlanges hliox et hydrliox.
Rapport interne COMEX.
(6) X. FRUCTUS, 1983.
HYDRA III : 16 dives in open sea with hydrogen/oxygen mixture. Pressure, 12,
(4), 14.
(7) X. FRUCTUS, B. GARDETTE and M. CARLIOZ, 1984.
Narcose l'hydrogne.
Xme Congrs E.U.B.S, Marseille, 4-6 Octobre 1986.
(8) C. GORTAN, X. FRUCTUS, B. GARDETTE, and A. BENED, 1987.
HYDRA VI.
Rapport interne COMEX.
 811

INCREASE

HYDROSTATIC NARCOTIC GAS

PRESSURE PARTIAL PRESSURI
INCREASE INCREASE

FIGURE 1 AntiHPNS effect of narcotic gas

02 %
6

UNSAFE
\
\
\
SAFE
\

.0,5 2
0,2 P^

100 200 300 400 500m DEPTH

FIGURE 2 Flammability thresold of H2He2 mixtures

versus depth.
812

NARCOTIC P OTENCY

Hydra 4

O Hydra 5

Q Hydra 7

' 300

180 m- /

/ 300
1 ._- 1 ^ - q ^
5 10 15 20 25 B P H;

FIGURE 3 - Quantification of the narcotic potency

in man diving during the Hydra 4, 5 and
dives.

60 % T-
DIVER 3

40 -- DIVER 1

20 DIVER 2

.. H,
"2 He
TH2
He H2 He

FIGURE 4 - Quantification of the tremor during

the Hydra 5 dive.
 813

US. NAVY COMEX

Heliox 424 m Hydreliox 426-478 m

POWER 0/5 4/5

100 W T I
2/4

1
4/4
50 W
4/4

I I
H 1 1 1
0 10 20 30 min
TIME

FIGURE 5 - Work performances during the heliox

US. Navy dive and Hydreliox C OMEX
Hydra 6 dive.

JANUS 4 - 460 m HYDRA 6 - 520 m

Time = 1 hour 50 min Time = 1 hour 07 min

FIGURE 6 - Comparison of the time required to carry out

the pipe puzzle tests during JANUS 4
Experiment on nitrogen trimix and during
HYDRA 6 Experiment on hydrogen trimix.
 815

ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY - RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT

Evaluation of water shut-off treatments

for several producing wells

EOR quality scleroglucan

Development of cellulose derivatives for

the use as viscosity builders in flooding
media for enhanced oil recovery

Preparation for miscible gas

injection on the Great Alwyn

oil well productivity, a pilot test

in the Pisticci oil field, Italy

Surfactants and polymers for enhanced oil

recovery from reservoirs with high
salinity brine

Emeraude vapeur: an offshore steam pilot

Heavy oil processing: a synthesis

of the Asvahl results

The Veba Combi cracking process

- state of the art and perspectives
in a low energy-price environment

The beneficial effects of distillation

to sweep efficiency enhancement of
steam drive recovery

Glucans for EOR: fermentation and workup

 817

EVALUATION OF WATER SHUT-OFF TREATMENTS

FOR SEVERAL PRODUCING WELLS

Norbert KOHLER and Alain ZAITOUN (I.F.P.)

Jean-Paul MESSINES and Jean-Pierre ZUNDEL (Elf Aquitaine)

Summary

The ability of processes based on single high molecular weight water

soluble polymers to reduce water production without affecting oil
flow was tested in the laboratory for three Elf Aquitaine producing
wells. In each case the most appropriate process was selected and
one field injectivity test has already been performed with success.

INTRODUCTION
The proportion of water in production has a tendency to increase
progressively during the lifetime of a well, either by the natural rise of
the water level frequently enhanced by bottom or edge coning, or by the
early breakthrough of the water injected during secondary oil recovery
operations. This additional water may create serious disposal problems,
especially in offshore conditions and also induces an earlier shutting
down of the overall production from this well.
The injection of water soluble polymers is certainly one of the most
effective methods of decreasing the amount of water produced (1). The
process consists in adsorbing in the vicinity of the wellbore, a
sufficient amount of polymer to considerably reduce water mobility without
affecting the oil or gas mobilities. Some service companies have proposed
increasing the efficiency of the treatment by using gels or crosslinked
polymers (2). The main disadvantage of this crosslinking is that, contrary
to an injection well, the treatment of a producing well is more risky, and
possible well impairment may lead to a severe and irreversible decrease in
oil or gas production from this well. Moreover treatments of this type are
applied indiscriminately on various producing wells without taking into
account the specific reservoir characteristics and the origin of the water
encroachement.
Three original processes, having in common the use of single high-
molecular-weight water-soluble polymers without any crosslinking agent,
were developed recently in the laboratory. Their ability to reduce water
production without affecting oil production was tested for three Elf-
Aquitaine candidate wells having different environmental reservoir
characteristics. The aim of this paper is to show how the basic polymers
perform with regard to the specific conditions prevailing in each case and
how we were finally able in the laboratory to select the most appropriate
process.

PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Three original processes were developed in the laboratory to fulfill
the environmental requirements existing in various sand or sandstone
reservoirs. The formulations proposed are based on the use of the known
818

Theological properties of different water-soluble polymers. Their field of

application with regard to two main production characteristics, i.e.
salinity of the brine produced and bottomhole reservoir temperature, are
illustrated in Figure I. It can be seen that their range of use is quite
complementary. Other important reservoir parameters are the clay content
and the permeability of the formation rocks and also the relative
oil/water mobilities. The proposed processes can be briefly described as
follows :
Process 1 is mainly based on the injection of hydrolyzed Polyacryla-
mides dispersed in a brine having a greater overall salinity than the
produced water (3) (4). The advantage of this procedure is that, compared
to the standard dispersion of the polymer in the production water, the
viscosity of the injected solution is considerably lowered and the amount
of polymer adsorbed on the reservoir rock is increased. The particular
properties of the basic polymers make the process more attractive if the
salinity of the produced brine is less than 5 g/1 [0.04 lb/gal] and the
reservoir temperature is below 60C [140F ] . Applications of this process
have already been performed in both an oil producing well and a gas
storage well.
Process 2 uses the specific rheological properties of different
polysaccharides whose compatibility with brines of various compositions
and origins is quite high (5). Preferred polymers are from the nonionic
type with a pronounced pseudoplastic nature and high adsorbing properties.
In normal reservoir environmental conditions, their thermal stability is
rather good, and the long-duration viscosity stability of their aqueous
solutions has already been successfully tested in the laboratory at I05C
[221F ] . In order to minimize bacterial degradation of the basic
polysaccharides, they should preferably be used at temperatures higher
than 50C [120F].
Process 3 consists mainly in adsorbing a nonhydrolyzed Polyacryla-
mide on the reservoir rock in the vicinity of the wellbore and, by an
adequate posttreatment, in chemically transforming the adsorbed polymer
(6). A thicker adsorbed layer compared to the initial Polyacrylamide may
thus be created. The particular advantages obtained by using a
nonhydrolyzed polymer lie in the increased compatibility with all types of
brines, in the reduced viscosity of the injected solution and in the
greater adsorbability on reservoir rock.

PROCESS EVALUATION
The comparative performances of the different processes were
evaluated for three well cases with different reservoirs characteristics
submitted by Elf Aquitaine. For each case the most effective process was
selected on the basis of core flow experiments performed in the laboratory
under conditions very similar to those existing in the field. Except for
well case B, where porous media were reconstituted starting from actual
reservoir sands, it was necessary to use either sandpacks or sandstones
having characteristics very similar to those encountered in the field.

WELL CASE A
The main characteristics of well case A are given on Table I. This
well started flowing production in 1983. A very sudden water encroach-
ment, probably due to severe water coning, shifted the water cut to a
value of 90% after only 10 days. This well was therefore proposed for a
polymer treatment in order to restore oil productivity by shutting off the
bottom portion of the reservoir.
 819

The low overall salinity of the produced brine and the presence of
some clay (2-3%) in the reservoir sand were found to be favourable
conditions for using process 1. Stability experiments performed in the
laboratory on Polyacrylamide solutions in reconstituted reservoir brines
at bottomhole temperature (104C) show that the temperature induces a very
quick total hydrolysis of the polymer, making it incompatible with the
divalent ions of the reservoir brine.
Flow experiments carried out through reconstituted shaly sandpacks
also confirmed that the temperature considerably increases the risk of
thermo-oxidative degradation of the polymer. Mechanical degradation of the
injected polymer solutions was finally shown to be another limiting factor
by requiring reduced pumping rates for the treatment thus extended
treatment time.
All these experimental results led us to test process 2 for this
well. The basic polymer in this process is a nonionic polysaccharide,
compatible with all types of reservoir brines with a very pronounced shear
thinning behaviour and having a strong adsorption tendency on the
reservoir rock. The combination of high viscosity and high adsorption
levels may induce high mobility and permeability reductions at some
distance from the well and thus high efficiency in water blocking.
Injectivity, radial propagation and a possible mechanical degradation at
the well bore were the factors tested in the laboratory under
reconstituted reservoir conditions.
The injectivity and radial propagation of 1 g/1 polymer solutions in
reconstituted production brine were tested by using three successive cores
having similar characteristics to those encountered in the field. Each
core represents a portion of the reservoir at a distance ranging between 0
and 25 m from the well bore. Figures 2 and 3 summarize the results of the
flooding experiments performed on shaly sandstones (k = 1 2 ) with
progressively decreasing flow rates and number of pore volumes injected. A
continuous pressure rise during flow through the first core is observed
with polymer A, so that plugging problems may be feared at the inlet face
of the formation. Satisfactory pressure stabilization is nevertheless
easily reached with polymer B. Both the apparent viscosity of the polymer
solution (R\) inside the porous medium and the permeability reduction to
brine are shown to increase progressively for the following cores as the
shear rate decreases.
Mechanical degradation of selected polymer in solution during field
handling and high shear flow through the perforated zone were tested in
another sandstone at 80C by progressively increasing the injection rate
and by measuring the viscosity difference between the inlet and outlet of
the core. For shear rates as high as 4500 s-', no degradation of the
polymer was observed. Thus, compared to the Polyacrylamides in process 1,
injection rates in the field may be considerably increased with this type
of polymer.
Numerical simulations were also performed with an existing R-Z model
(7). Three possibilities of polymer injection were examined: over 2 meters
through existing perforations or respectively above or below the water-oil
contact zone. In all cases production remains through the initially
perforated zone which is located over two meters at the top of the
formation. The best results are obtained with a polymer bank 2 meters
thick and a radial extension over 30 meters formed above the water-oil
limit. Nevertheless this solution implies the possibility of modifying the
present completion. Elf Aquitaine thus decided to drill a new well
equipped with a dual completion system rather than treating the old one.
This well was drilled in June 1985 and was found to be dry. The field test
was thus postponed.
820

WELL CASE
The treatment of well case was initiated in order to test the
injectivity of the polymer used in process 2. The main reservoir
characteristics of this well are given in Table 1.
Prior to the field test, polymer injectivity was checked by using, as
for well case A, successive porous media, reconstituted this time from
natural formation sand. The pressure rise during injection at high
injection rates (v - 22 m/d) was recorded for two polymer concentrations
(0.5 and 1 g/1) in reconstituted reservoir brine. For both concentrations
a progressive pressure increase was observed without stabilization. Thus
injectivity problems in the field must be feared. Nevertheless, at some
distance from the well bore, pressure is found to stabilize, giving
permeability reduction values (RR) between 4 and 6 in the presence of
residual oil. On the other hand, oil relative permeability was shown to be
unaltered by the polymer treatment.
According to the laboratory results, two specific recommendations
were formulated for the field injectivity test: (1) to start the polymer
injection at low polymer concentration (0.5 g/1), and (2) to place 10 urn
high-pressure cartridge filters between the injection pump and the well
head.
Surface facilities for the field test consisted of one water storage
tank with a heater, a dispersion tank equipped with a paddle mixer and a
mixing hopper, two maturation tanks connected with a centrifugal pump in
order to achieve the complete hydration of the polymer, a set of HP
cartridge filters, and finally various dial manometers to record the
wellhead pressure.
The operating sequence is given in Table 2. Contrary to the
laboratory results, neither injectivity problems nor filter plugging
occurred. Furthermore, the wellhead pressure remained far below what could
be anticipated from the laboratory injectivity tests (WHP _< 33 bars).
Shortly after the field test, the well was put back into production
for a few weeks, in order to test the efficiency of the polymer in
reducing water production. The productivity index was divided by a factor
of 4, thus confirming the laboratory results. Furthermore, no polymer was
produced as long as the well was producing.

WELL CASE C
The main reservoir data for well case C are given in Table 1. The
salinity of produced brine (7.3 g/1 TDS) and also the reservoir
temperature (60C) are favourable characteristics for the use of both
processes 2 and 3. In order to select the best process for this case in
the laboratory, we compared the performances of processes 2 and 3 with
two competitive processes (called hereunder processes 4 and 5
respectively). For each process the following parameters were examined:
1) The relative pressure rise measured while the different polymers
were being injected at high injection rate through cores having residual
oil saturation.
2) The estimate of the amount of polymer adsorbed at some distance
from the well.
3) The effect of the polymer on brine mobility.
4) The effect of the polymer on oil-water relative permeabilities.
The processes 4 and 5 were applied according to the recommendations
of their promoters. For this reason only limited quantities of chemicals
(1.5 to 2 PV) were injected.
 821

Table 3 summarizes the results of the comparative core flooding tests

performed with the different processes according to a procedure previously
described (8). The porous media were natural shaly sands whose
characteristics are very similar to the reservoir sand. Adsorption was
measured according to the well-known two-slug method (9). The high values
obtained are in good agreement with the nonionic nature of the polymers
used in processes 2 and 3.
Mobility and permeability reductions were measured at different shear
rates during injection of polymer solution followed by brine through the
sandpacks. The corresponding curves obtained respectively with processes 2
and 3 are given in Figures 4 and 5. The values of permeability reduction
are high for both polymers, although the shapes of the curves are quite
different: pronounced shear-thinning behaviour for the polysaccharide and
dilatant behaviour at high shear rate for the Polyacrylamide.
Table 3 shows that processes 2, 3 and 5 may compete for the planned
application on the basis of the limited pressure rise measured at high
injection rates. Process 4 must be rejected due to its high plugging
tendency. The final choice has thus to be made after analysis of the
water/oil relative permeability modifications after the different polymer
treatments.
Figures 6 to 8 illustrate the effect of the different polymers on
oil/water permeabilities. It can be seen that all three polymers induce an
increase in the irreducible water saturation and a sharp decrease in the
water relative permeability at all levels of water saturation. The effect
of the polymers on oil relative permeabilities confirms the selectivity of
the treatment by processes 2 and 3: oil relative permeability is only
slightly affected (k ro respectively divided by 1.3 and 1.1) while for
process 5 the permeability to oil is reduced to a great extent (k ro
divided by 3).
Thus processes 2 and 3 may be used for the treatment of well case C.
The costs of the polymer, taking into account the differences in
concentration, are quite comparable. Nevertheless the better shear
resistance and greater chemical stability of the polysaccharide prompted
us to select process 2 for the foreseen application.

CONCLUSIONS
Three original processes were developed in the laboratory in order to
reduce water production without affecting the oil flow from producing
wells. The treatments are highly selective and, contrary to treatments
using crosslinked polymers, there is no risk of well plugging.
Laboratory tests were performed on three different well cases having
specific environmental conditions, and for each case the most appropriate
process was selected.
A field injectivity test was performed and showed that
polysaccharides may be successfully handled in surface conditions,
injected without well impairment and help reduce the water production from
this well to a great extent.

REFERENCES

(1) SPARLIN, D.D. and HAGEN, R.W. Jr.: "Controlling Water in Producing
Operations -Part 5", World Oil, p. 137-142 (July 1984).
(2) BURKHOLDER, L.A. and WITHINGTON, K.C.: "New Gel Suppresses Water Flow
in Oil Wells", Oil and Gas Journal, p. 93-98 (September 21, 1987).
(3) CHAUVETEA, G. and MOULU, J.C.: "Improved Process for Reducing Water
Production by Polymer Injection", Proceedings, Eur. Symp. on EOR,
Edinburgh, p. 65-82 (July 1978).
822

(4) US Patent 4, 095, 651 (June 20, 1978)

(5) Patent filed in France No 85/12991 (August 29, 1985)
(6) Patent filed in France, No 87/03224 (March 6, 1987)
(7) SONIER F., BESSET Ph. and OMBRET R.: "A Numerical Model of Multiphase
Flow around a Well", SPE 3627 (1972)
(8) ZAITOUN, A. and KOHLER, .: "Modification of Water/Oil and Water/Gas
Relative Permeabilities after Polymer Treatment of Oil or Gas Wells",
4th European EOR Symposium, Hamburg (Germany) (October 2729, 1987)
(9) ZAITOUN, A. and KOHLER, .: "The Role of Adsorption in Polymer
Propagation through Reservoir Rocks", SPE 16274, SPE International
Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry, San Antonio, Texas (February 46,
1987).

Reservoir daca WELL CASE A WELL CASE WELL CASE C

Mineralogy Shaly sandstone Shaly sand Shaly sand

Permeability (in 3) 1 to 4 I 2 to 3
Payzone thickness
(in meters) 9 1 10 to 20
Perforations perforated perforated perforated
over 2 meters over 1 meter over 2 to 6 meters
Bottomhole
temperature 104C 3035C 60C
Brine salinity TDS 3.75 g/1 S 1 g/1 7.3 g/1
Oil viscosity (CP) 1.4 30 to 40 10 to 30
Water cut (Z) 92 100 50 to 70

Table I: Main reservoir characteristics of the different well cases

Injected Polymer Amount o f Injection Wellhead

volume concentration polymer rate pressure
in m' in ppm in kg in 1/min. in bars*

107 500 53.5 200 0

123 1 000 123 200 0
340 6
164 1 500 246 200 2.5
47 1 500 70.5 4 B0 15
650 26
800 33
* Unstabilized wellhead pressure

Table 2: Operating sequence for polymer injection in well case

Experimental results Process 2 Process 3 Process 4 Process 5

K r w at S o r 0. 18 0.15 0.29 0.22

Pore volumes injected 40 40 I.S 2
Pressure rise Polymer/P w 40 80 27,000 50
K r w after polymer 0.068 0.004 n.d. 0.017
Kro polymer /1.3 /I.I n.d. k /3
ro ro ro

Table 3: Comparative efficiency of different processes for well case C

(sandpacks with k = 3 1 at S = 30Z and 45 s )
 823

20 200 g/l SALINITY

1 h-
Ib/gal
Q04 Q17
l7
Process
1
Process 3
50 120
60 140

801176 j
Process 2

105 221

F
TEMPERATURE

Figure 1 Areas of u t i l i z a t i o n of the different processes

WELL CASE A
Process 2

polymer
brine

-300

Polymer

SECTION! 0-1 m
: 250 s-'

PORE VOLUME
400

Figure 2 Evaluation of pressure rise on section 0 to I m of the

reservoir.
824

WELL CASE A
Process 2

polymer
brine
150

100 SECTION 1525m

f :io s i
A - " * '

SECTION: 15 m
^ISOsi

PORE VOLUME
10 20 30

Figure 3 Evaluation of pressure rise on sections 1 to 5 m and 5 to 25 m

of the reservoir.
1 1 1 1 1

7V\ R
k
10'
A A WELL CASE C

"7 * ^ <
Process 2

" ^
HO2
>
^5
rlO'
^

SHEAR RA TE / ( s )
10' 10 10' 10* )5
....1 1 . . 1

Figure 4 Mobility and permeability reductions following treatment by

process 2.
 825

H-r,
R
X. R k WELL CASE C
s Process 3
10

10z
V )
rA*.
^
rlO'

SHEAR RA TE / ( s " 1 )
K30 3> K)2 >
*1 l_

Figure 5 Mobility and permeability reductions following treatment by

process 3.
I I 1

1.0 . 102

\ WELL CASE C ID

\ Process 2 UJ
2
< tu
UJ UJ
.
0.75 2 Uj 075
UJ

>
I
5
I
UJ
5
_l CE
UJ
a: rr
_1 Ul
b
0.50 O g 0.50
*0.44\

! \
j \ \ BEFORE POLYMER
\ / \
0.25 ! ^ \ / \ 0.Z5
om
!AFTER / \ \\
POLYMER N Y\
\.^
%
N
j X. Of
^ < V t o O0.O68

0.25 050 0.75

WATER SA TURA TION
Figure 6 Modification of water and oil relative permeabilities
following treatment by process 2.
 1 1 1 I CD

CD

WELL CASE C WELL CASE C

1.0 Process 3 1.0 Process 5

>
1
>
H
1
_l
m

WATER RELATIVE PERMEABILITY

0.75 2 ^< 0.75 1.5

S oc D
cc UJ
OL
1
. ui

t
2
cc
> < # 1.06
5 ,,0.53 _J

S
0.50 0.50 10 UJ
cc
0.37>. cc >
i
UJ
ti

\ \^
I _l
UJ

N
tr

s XBEFOF E POLYMER
I Q5
0.25 I 0.25 o \ ^ BEFORE POLYMER 0.5
1

^ *V/ 0.27 A FTERN

/ \ \\ > LO.I5 S^ POLYMER
AFTER POLYMER
i I
1
1

"^\ 1 1

^^i^ 0 0 1 7

j^0.004
. V r ^ _ S _ _ .
0.25 0.50 0.75 0.25 0.50 0.75
WATER SA TURA TION WATER SA TURA TION

Figure 7 Modification of water and oil Figure 8 Modification of water and oil
relative permeabilities relative permeabilities
following treatment by process 3. following treatment by process 5.
 827

EOR QUALITY SCLEROGLUCAN

by A. DONCHE*

SUMMARY

Due to the rigidity and the non-ionic character of its molecule in

aqueous solvents, scleroglucan is a very attractive candidate for polymer
flooding in high salinity and high temperature reservoirs. To ensure its
industrial development, both improvements in its filterability and better
know-how on its properties in reservoir conditions are necessary.
Definite progress has been obtained in these two areas. Purification
processes were found, leading to very good filterability of scleroglucan
solutions. With this new EOR quality polymer, both salt insensitivity and
good stability at high temperature are confirmed. Tests of purification
processes are now in progress for industrial production.
Some preliminary studies on polymer behaviour in porous media were
carried out on this improved scleroglucan quality. Both mobility and
permeability reduction measurements show there is no plugging tendency as
expected for a non aggregated rigid polymer. Bacterial stability has been
evaluated in wide temperature and salinity ranges. No biodegradation was
detected in hot reservoir conditions and for lower temperatures,
protection can be ensured by using bactericides.

INTRODUCTION

Currently, polymer flooding to improve sweep efficiency in oil

reservoirs was found to be successfull in many cases.
This method is nevertheless restricted to the exploitation of
reservoirs of mean salinity and not too high temperature due to the lack
of suitable products and significant progress has to be made to ensure the
treatment of such reservoirs. Therefore scleroglucan, a non-ionic and
rigid polymer produced by fermentation from a fungus, offers new
prospects. Scleroglucan solutions are very viscous and highly shear
resistant and viscosity is expected to be insensitive to both salts and pH
and slightly affected by temperature. These characteristics make this
polymer very promising for the treatment of hot reservoirs with high
salinity which cannot be treated with the currently available polymer..

* The studies reported in this paper have been carried out in

collaboration between Elf Aquitaine and IFP ; Mrs J. Ausseur and
Mr G. Brigand, C. Gancet, J. Orosco, R. Rivenq, D. Truong from
Elf Aquitaine and Mrs C. Noik and J. Lecourtier from IFP participated
in this work.
828

PROJECT DESCRIPTION

To-day, soleroglucan is an industrial product (1) but up to now, its

use for polymer flooding has been restricted due to the unsatisfying
filterability of its solutions, which could lead to a plugging of
injection wells. This poor filterability comes from aggregates or
aggregation tendency possibly created during manufacturing process which
includes chemical, thermal and mechanical treatments.
Ensuring both high viscosity and good filterability for an industrial
polysaccharide like soleroglucan requires a very well controlled process
particularly for obtaining concentrated solutions and powder. This
explains the lack of soleroglucan samples of good filterability and
consequently poor reliability of previous data concerning the behaviour of
soleroglucan solutions in porous media, despite the importance of this
knowledge for technical and economical evaluation of this product for EOR.
In addition, polysaccharides such as soleroglucan are specially
sensitive to bacterial degradation. Conditions for ensuring stability of
polymer during its propagation through reservoirs had to be studied mainly
under high salinity and high temperature conditions.
Soleroglucan development for enhanced oil recovery needed to have a
new EOR quality industrial polymer and to study its performances for
evaluating the best utilisation conditions for oil recovery.

1. IMPROVEMENTS OF EOR QUALITY SOLEROGLUCAN

1.1 Filterability
The poor filterability of some soleroglucan samples can be due either
to the presence of microaggregates in solutions or to aggregation
tendency. High shear stress treatments can improve temporarily the
filterability but reaggregation phenomena are observed. Aggregation
phenomena can be induced either by impurities or by polymer-polymer
interactions. Impurities can be eliminated but polymer-polymer
interactions can induce intrinsic associating properties of the polymer.
A laboratory method has been developed for evaluating aggregating
tendencies. This method is based on the relationship between rheological
properties and filterability. By using two purification-separation
treatments which gradually eliminated the impurities, this relation
between rheology and filterability could be established (2).
Figure 1 shows the variation of reduced specific viscosity versus
polymer concentration for more and less extensive treatments.
Extrapolation at zero concentration gives the intrinsic viscosity value of
soleroglucan polysaccharide (SGPS). For all samples, the intrinsic
viscosity is constant [nJo = 8000 cm3/g showing the soleroglucan
molecules were degraded during this treatment. The Huggins constant (k')
which characterizes the aggregating tendency of polymer decreases with
treatment intensity, until a value k'= 0.6, close to the theoretical value
which corresponds to strictly repulsive molecules.
Filterability tests have been performed by injecting treated polymer
solutions through Millipore filters. The pressure drop was measured
through the filter as a function of time. In figure 2, mobility reduction
is plotted as a function of injected volume of polymer solution. The
filterability curves show a definite correlation between the treatment
intensity and the improvement in the filterability. The more extensively
treated solutions have an excellent filterability. Mobility reduction is
constant over more than 100 pore volumes and has nearly the same value as
solution relative viscosity (3).
 829

These results show that a complete elimination of impurities from

polymer solutions leads to a scleroglucan without any intrinsic
aggregation tendency.

1.2 Adaptation to manufacturing Process

Manufacturing process consists of a fermentation step followed by
different treatments such as heating, homogeneization and filtration.
Every step can induce both molecular weight reduction and plugging
tendencies of polymer solution. Solutions produced at every manufacturing
step have been studied and polymer characteristics have been determined
following the experimental procedure described before (intrinsic
viscosity, Huggins coefficient, filterability). Thus, both the origin of
aggregation tendencies and reductions in molecular weight could be
identified.
The characterization of the aggregating impurities allowed to develop
a simple and new specific purification process leading to a good
filterability of polymer solutions.
This process which was shown to be successful at laboratory is
currently tested at pilot scale. To prevent polymer degradation during
the successive steps of manufacturing process, changes in operating
conditions have been done. Due to this new technique, the initial
molecular weight of scleroglucan can be maintained and thus an improvement
in the viscosity of the final product has been obtained.

2. EOR QUALITY SCLEROGLUCAN EVALUATION

2.1 Physico-chemical properties

Rheology
The variations of the specific reduced viscosity at zero shear rate as
a function of polymer concentration show that scleroglucan solutions
exhibit very high viscosities both in 20 g/1 NaCl and sea water (Fig. 3 ) .
The Theological behaviour of scleroglucan solutions (Fig. 4) is in good
agreement with theoretical predictions for rigid polymers : a newtonian
regime is reached at low shear rate where relative viscosity is constant
and a strongly shear-thinning regime is observed at higher shear rates
where relative viscosity decreases with shear rate according to a power
law.

Salt tolerance
The salt sensitivity of scleroglucan solutions was tested in presence
of different concentrations in sodium and calcium. As expected for a non-
ionic polymer, the addition of monovalent and divalent ions has no
influence on the Theological behaviour of scleroglucan as shown in figure
4. Moreover, the constant value of k' (k' = 0.55) in NaCl solutions and
in sea water (Fig. 3) shows that the presence of multivalent ions does not
induce any aggregation tendency of polymer chains (4).

Polymer stability
Figure 5 shows that scleroglucan solutions are very stable over a long
period of time at 30C, with no increase in viscosity even for high
concentrations. This result confirms that the aggregation phenomena
previously observed were not related to intrinsic properties of
scleroglucan but to the presence of aggregating impurities which have been
eliminated in EOR quality product. Long term chemical stability at high
temperature (90C) was tested under anaerobic conditions ([02| < 5 ppb)
without stabilizing agent. No decrease in viscosity was detected after
830

three months (figure 6). Test of stability over longer periods of time
are now in progress.

2.2 Behaviour in porous media

Scleroglucan solutions have been injected at 90C at low shear rate
through Millipore filters and silicon carbide (SiC) particle packs which
are both adsorbing for scleroglucan. SiC particles surface was shown to
carry silanol groups like quartzitic sands and thus SiC packs are good
model porous media for representing siliceous reservoirs. Mobility
reduction in the Millipore filters remains constant over more than 200
pore volumes (Fig. 7) and equal to the value expected from the relative
viscosity of polymer solution. In case of SiC pack of 300-400 md
permeability the same results are obtained. Permeability reduction were
found very close to 1 as expected for a rigid polymer molecule which
adsorbs in a flat conformation on the mineral surface (3). Some
preliminary adsorption measurements have been done on silicon carbide and
kaolinite minerals. Adsorption levels are about the same as xanthan in
high salinity environment at 30C and decrease with temperature between 30
and 90C.
Injection experiment of E0R scleroglucan has been carried out at 90C
in a Berea core with sodium chloride environment and under aerobic
conditions. Very satisfying results were found, corresponding to that
expected for a non-aggregated and non-associating rigid polymer. Mobility
reduction is close to relative viscosity, permeability reduction is quite
negligible and adsorption retention is low. Moreover, no decrease in
viscosity was found between the inlet and the outlet of the core, thus
confirming the good stability of this polymer at high temperatures.

2.3 Bacterial degradation : risk and prevention

Even if the reservoir temperature is high, polymer solution
temperature may be low around injection wells when injection flow rates
are high like in offshore North Sea reservoirs. Moreover, scleroglucan
could also be used in moderate temperature reservoirs. Thus a complete
evaluation of the risks of bacterial degradation must include experiments
at different temperatures.

Bacterial degradation risk

Biodegradation risk at low temperature- has been studied using
bacterial flora coming from Chateaurenard oil field (low salinity) and
from a high salinity lagoon (Brusc). Flora selection has been performed
after growth with scleroglucan as the only source of carbon. Whatever
testing conditions at low temperatures, low or high salinity, aerobiose or
anaerobiose, these flora degraded the polymer very quickly. In figure 9
is given an example of one of this flora activity.
Wellhead sampling in another oil field around Paris (50C and low
salinity) was used to evaluate biodegradation risk at moderate
temperature. After flora selection work only one strain was found to
degrade scleroglucan at 55C. This strain is active only in low salinity
environment and under anaerobic conditions.
Biodegradation risk evaluation at higher temperatures (> 60C) and in
salted media has been performed on different samples taken at well heads
(Montastruc, Vic Bilh and Saint Faust reservoirs). Under these
conditions, no biodegradation has been found. So, biodegradation risk
decreases as salinity and temperature increase until a point where no
activity can be detected. Activity range of enzymes responsible for
degradation has also been determined. These enzymes are systematically
desactivated at temperatures higher than that of growing process. In
 831

order to ensure no enzymatic activity bacterial growth must be prevented

by using an efficient bactericide.

Protection
Scleroglucan protection has been studied in temperature ranges where
there is biodegradation risks. Some bactericide have been found to
protect the polymer both in low and average temperature conditions.
Moreover, some bacteriostatic activity has been evaluated in severe
environment conditions and after reinoculation tests. Nature of products
and needed concentrations were determined to ensure polymer protection.

CONCLUSIONS

1. EOR quality scleroglucan having an excellent filterability was

obtained by elimination of impurities.

2. EOR scleroglucan solutions exhibit very high viscosity, insensitivity

to the presence of ions and very good long term chemical stability in
the absence of oxygen.

3. A purification process that should be easily extended to industrial

production is currently under evaluation at pilot scale.

4. Behaviour in porous media corresponds to that expected for

unaggregated and non-associating rigid polymer.

5. Protection against bacterial degradation can be ensured in any

conditions of temperature.

6. As a final conclusion, new EOR quality scleroglucan meets quite well

the requirements to be used in high temperature and high salinity
reservoirs.

REFERENCES

(1) G. BRIGAND - Scleroglucan, Industrial gums.

Academic Press Inc. (in press).

(2) Ch. NOIK, J. LECOURTIER, G. CHAUVETEAU, A. DONCHE .

"Rheological behaviour of a New Scleroglucan"
ACS Meeting, New-Orleans, Sept. 1-5, 1987.

(3) G. CHAUVETEAU "Rodlike Polymer Solution Flow through Fine Pores :

Influence of Pore Size on Rheological Behaviour"
J. of Rheol. 1982, 26, 111

(4) J. LECOURTIER, Ch. NOIK, P. BARBEY, G. CHAUVETEAU

"Semi-rigid Polysaccharides for Polymer Flooding in High Salinity
Reservoirs"
4th European Symposium on EOR, Hamburg, Oct. 1987.
832

SGPS
2 0 g / I CI
t=30C

POLYMER CONCENTRATION [ml

Figurei : Intrinsic viscosity a t t = 30C for nontreated ( )

and treated ( , , ) scleroglucan solutions.

3 x 5 jim MF Millipore Filters

t = 30 C , 8 = 4 . 8 1
Cp s 200 ppm

SGPS
20 g/l NoCI

PORE VOLUME

Figure 2 : Filterability testsatt = 30Cfornontreated ( A )

and treated ( , , ) scleroglucan solutions.
 833

1 I
'
SGPS
t30'C
.

10000
K' 0.S5

3000 2 0 g / l No CI
A Sa water

POLYMER CONCENTRATION (ppm)

Figure 3 : Intrinsic viscosity of scleroglucan in

20 g/l NaCI and in sea water.

100
SGPS
pH7 ,30*C

K),20,50,)00g/I NaCI
5g/l NaCI
5g/l NaCI+15g/ICaCl t
tn
o


Si
I 240 porr
a.
125 ppm

r ' '
SHEAR RATE ("')

Figure 4 : Shear rate dependence of viscosity for scleroglucan solutions at

different NaCI and CaCI2 salinity.
834

60

S6PS

50 2 0 g / l NoCI
t30C Cp s 640ppm

g40,
o
ui
> ; :

UJ Cp = 200 ppm
" 5

1 2 3 4 9
TIME (MONTHS)

Figure 5 : Viscosity stability at t = 30C of scleroglucan solutions

in 20 g/l NaCI.

'
SGPS
Sea water
t=90*C_0 2 <5ppb

Cp=505ppn

TIME (MONTS)

Figure 6 : Viscosity stability at t = 90C of scleroglucan solutions

in sea water.
 835

3 x 5 u m MF Millipore Filters
SGPS t90'C , tS = 4 . 8 i - 1
2 0 g / l NoCI A Cp s 427 ppm
Cp s 200 ppm

PORE VOLUME

Figure 7 : Filterability tests for scleroglucan solutions

a t t = 90Cthrough Millipore Filters.

SGPS - 9 0 ' C
2 0 g / l No Cl
SIC pock
Seo Woter

2>l
Water Injection

. Water injection

-//-
PORE VOLUME INJECTED

Figure 8 : Filterability tests for scleroglucan solutions

att = 90Cthrough SiC pack.
836

SGPS t 3 0 C
Cp*3000ppm
Fresh Water
Aerobiose

Flora Xhateaurenord
Yeast extract as storter 200pprr
Viscosity cp Q 2 7 7 s'
Metobollic activity RLVxlffVml
y Number of cells l O V m l

4 5 6
TIME (DAYS)

Figure 9
Scleroglucan biodgradation at 30C in
fresh water and aerobic condition.
 837

DEVELOPMENT OF CELLULOSE DERIVATIVES FOR THE USE

AS VISCOSITY BUILDERS IN FLOODING MEDIA FOR
ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY

R. KNIEWSKE, K. BALSER and K. SZABLIKOWSKI

Wolff Walsrode AG, D-3030 Walsrode

Summary

The aim of the project is the development of cellulose derivatives

that can be used as viscosifiers in flooding media and mobility con-
trol agents in micellar-polymer-processes. The project schedule in-
cludes two main parts:
- the modification of carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and
- the development of novel cellulose derivatives.
In accordance to that, preparations and characterizations of CMC,
modified CMC, and novel cellulose derivatives were accomplished.
Optimization processes of CMC resulted in increased solution vis-
cosity. A second substitution improved the stability against electro-
lytes. Moderate injectivity, compared with a novel cellulose deriva-
tive, however, has been found. High viscosity, good injectivity beha-
viour and compatibility with mono- and multivalent cations were rea-
lized by cellulose products with novel substituents.
Lab tests for the deoiling properties revealed an enhancement
of 2 to 3 % OOIP caused by the novel derivatives in comparison with
3 to 6 % using Xanthan. The standard of Xanthan is hoped to be reach-
ed by further developments.

1. INTRODUCTION
Polymer flooding is one promising procedure in enhanced oil recovery.
Potential types of polymers for flooding operations can be selected from
two general classes
- Biopolymers
- synthetic polymers.
Only a few types of polymers have been described to more or less satisfy
the technical and commercial demands of polymer flooding. This is due to
the fact, that the principle of displacing the oil from the deposit is
strongly connected to the following requirements concerning the polymer
properties :
- viscosity builder at low concentration,
- good injectivity,
- stability against salts,
- temperature resistance,
- price/effectiveness.
Following polymers, such as :
- Xanthan,
- Polyacrylamide (-copolymers),
- Cellulose derivatives
are suitable for enhanced oil recovery. These polymers, however, do not
fulfil the overall demanos. It is difficult, for example, to combine a
sufficient injectivity with a good salt stability or even both characte-
ristics at a low price.
838

Concerning cellulose derivatives, hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC) is

characterized by an excellent salt and temperature resistance, but an
insufficient injectivity behaviour. Contrarily, carboxymethylcellulose
(CMC) distinguished by good injectivity properties shows an unsatisfac
tory salt stability.
The injectivity of the polymer solution into the oil field without
any plugging effects is one of the most important criteria. Therefore, it
seemed to be of great interest to look for novel or improved cellulose
derivatives as many advantages are evident in order to meet the specifica
tions of enhanced oil recovery:
Cellulose derivatives can be produced in large scales
without problems.
The technology of cellulose derivative production as
powders or granules is well established and easy to handle.
Cellulose ethers are non toxic.
The properties of cellulose derivatives can be optimized
by changing the
kind of substituents,
degrees of substitution (DS),
raw materials.
If, by an intensive research a cellulose derivative can be developed,
which meets or exceeds the properties of Xanthan, we could expect a better
price/effectiveness ratio for the modified cellulose. Moreover, an addi
tional class of polymers would then become available, which could reduce
the risk of possible incompatibilities of polymer and micellar slug.

2. OBJECTIVE
In view of the aforementioned the aim of our project is to develop
cellulose derivatives which can be used as viscosifiers in flooding media
as well as mobility control agents in micellarpolymer processes.
With respect to an effective handling of the subject the project
work (Fig. 1) is divided into two parallel fields:
The modification of carboxymethylcellulose
The development of novel cellulose derivatives

Sept. 85 March 86 Jan. 87 Jan. 88 Aug. 88

J I _L I I
1, The modification of carboxymethylcellulose (CMC):
Optimization of CMC
>>>>> >>> >>>>>>'>>

Second substitution of CMC

2. The development of new cellulose derivatives:
Cellulose derivatives with novel sub
stituents

3. Further substitution of new cellulose

derivatives:
Second substitution
*+**>> mm>>>n>>>HH*t*>>n>)M
Insertion of bulky
substituents

Screening of the products under practical aspects

Fig. 1. Project schedule

 839

2.1. The modification of carboxynvethylcellulose (CMC)

Preliminary studies within the project "Development and application
of a chemical system for enhanced oil recovery", supported by the BMFT,
have proved that among the known water soluble cellulose derivatives a
special CMC designed by Wolff Walsrode AG exhibits a very good injecti-
vity behaviour. Regarding this key criterion and a similar temperature
stability in comparison with HEC, CMC seems to be the most suitable ob-
ject for modification. Apart from these good properties, however, a weak
salt resistance is evident.
The project studies have originally been started with the intention
to improve the injectivity and specific viscosity further by process opti-
mizations and different cellulose raw materials with the result that we
were able to improve the viscosity but not the injectivity.
Our second step was to lower or to eliminate the sensitivity of CMC
against mono- and multivalent cations by inserting a second substituent.
An improved electrolyte stability was gained.

2.2 The development of new cellulose derivatives

Parallel or slightly shifted in time to our activities with CMC new
cellulose derivatives with novel substituents were to be developed. Mono-
substituted cellulose derivatives with properties differing from those of
CMC have been prepared. The linkage of sulfonic acid groups to cellulose,
for example, was one possibility to create salt resistant cellulose deri-
vatives. Comprehensive investigations of product properties were planned
and executed as follows:
- specific viscosities,
- viscosity stability in saline solution,
- filtration behaviour/injectivity,
- long-term viscosity stability in high temperature media.
Promising products have been optimized as far as possible.
A high viscosity, good injectivity and compatibility with mono- and
multivalent cations have been achieved.

2.3 The second and third substitution of novel cellulose derivatives

Further improvements concerning the desired properties have been
intended by specially designed second and third substituents and these
investigations are still well in hand.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Background
The development of novel or improved cellulose derivatives have been
carried out by means of factorial design methods. Systematic variations
of key factors such as:
- raw materials (cellulose types),
- reaction parameters,
- combinations and ratios of substituents,
provided information on the significances of variables of important pro-
duct properties in the most effective way.
840

3.2 The modification of CMC

3.2.1 The improvement of the specific viscosity of CMC combined with a

good filtration behaviour
During a preceding project, supported by the BMFT, we prepared CMC
samples with very good filtration properties using specific reaction con-
ditions. The filtration properties, determined in a lab test, can be
correlated with the injectivity required for EOR application. In the lab
test 3 1 of a 0.25 wt-% solution of cellulose ether were filtered through
a filter membrane with pores of 1.2 um diameter at 1 bar pressure. The
amount of cellulose material, which leads to filter plugging, G , is
determined using a double reciprocal plot of polymer throughput vs. time
by linear extrapolation to t + . The higher the value the better the
filtration property. Regarding the application field a G i 12 g has
been found to be appropriate to provide a good injectivity. Two CMC re-
ference samples met this requirement (Table I ) .

Tab. I: The viscosity and filtration behaviour of CMC in aqueous solution

sample viscosity in dist.jH20 G /g

(20 C, D = 2,5 s ) (max. poTymer throughput)
mPa-s
2 % 0,25 %

CMC 01 , 23,500 179 13

Reference
CMC 02 20,700 143 14

CMC 1 New series 37,100 162 7

CMC 2 Section 3.2.1. 48,000 200 5

A new series of CMC samples with even higher viscosities were synthe-
sized based upon this result (Table I). The G values, however, were
always lower. Variations of cellulose raw materials did not improve these
findings.

3.2.2. The second substitution of CMC with novel substituents

The viscosity of the carboxymethylcelluloses in aqueous solutions is
sensitive against the addition of salts. This phenomenon is distinctive
especially for multivalent ions. Under the influence of Ca - and Mg -
ions, for example, aggregation occurs leading to a drastic viscosity de-
crease and precipitation at concentrations used for polymer flooding
(about 0.1 % ) . This sensitivity should be decreased by a second substi-
tution with salt resistant groups. The novel substituents used for this
purpose will not be disclosed here, because of the as yet unclarified pa-
tent situation.
The solution properties of the new CMC derivatives have clearly been
improved (Fig. 2 ) .
Some of the new samples are characterised by a high viscosity but a
moderate filtration property (Tab. II). Further improvements seem to be
necessary.
 841

Vscosty/mPas
10.000

L
8,000

J
^^~"V
i i- a
1
6,000
' ""

4,000

2,000 / \
'
Precipitation
0J
6 8
w t % CaCl 2
Fig. 2: Viscosity in dependence on Ca concentration.
Polymer concentration: 1 wt%
: second substituted CMC, : CMC, : Xanthan

Tab. II: The viscosity and filtration behaviour of CMC

in aqueous solution

sample viscosity in dist. H 2 0 G /g

(20 C, D = 2,5 s ) (max. polymer throughput)
mPas
2 % 0,25 %

CMC 01 23,500 179 13

Reference 20,700
CMC 02 143 14

CMC 1 New series 37,100 162

CMC 2 Section 3.2.1. 48,000 200

2nd
s bst. Section 3.2.2 43,500 308
CMC 3

3.3 The development of new cellulose derivatives

3.3.1 New cellulose derivatives with novel substituents
The preparation of a novel cellulose derivative has been intensively
studied. The product properties were compared with those of CMC and second
substituted CMC. Distinct progresses were demonstrated in favour of the
novel product (Tab. Ill).
842

Tab. Ill: The viscosity and filtration behaviour of cellulose derivatives

in aqueous solution

sample viscosity in dist. H a 0 G /g

(20 C, D = 2,5 s ) (max. polymer throughput)
mPa-s
2 % 0,25 %

CMC 01 . 23,500 179 13

CMC 02 trence 20(700 ^ ^

CMC 1 New series 37,100 162 7

CMC 2 Section 3.2.1 48,000 200 5

2nd
subst. Section 3.2.2 43,500 308
CMC 3

Novel Cell. Deriv.

No. 4 69,000 333 10
No. 5 49,000 261 16
No. 6 56,000 212 23

3.3.2 The behaviour of novel cellulose derivatives against electrolytes

and pH-value changes
The examinations of electrolyte stability with "critical" cations,
such as Ag and especially multivalent cations of alkaline earths and
heavy metals demonstrated the improved salt compatibility of the novel
cellulose derivatives similar to Xanthan (Tab. IV). The viscosity in
dependence on CaCl2 - concentration was similar to that of the second
substituted CMC (Fig. 2).

Tab. IV: Salt compatibilities of Xanthan and cellulose derivatives in

saturated electrolvte solution

Xanthan Novel cellulose product

AgN03 + +
MgClj + +
CaCl. + +
baCl + +
Pb(CH3COO)2 - +
ZnCl2 + +
CuSO^ + +
FeCl, + +

+ stability / - precipitation
 843

The excellent solution stability of the novel product was evident as well
regarding the insensitivity of solution viscosities against pHchanges
(Fig. 3 ) .
Viscosity/mPas
5.000

4,000
. , . < ' *"*'>
3,000

2,000
,_

f Vec/pAjfion'
1
'7
r
I 1I 1 1
'II

i
1,000

0 t
0 1 2 :3 I 3 ( 7 i 10 11
pHvalue
Fig. 3: Viscosity in dependence on pH. : Novel cellulose product,
: CMC, A : Xanthan, polymer concentration: 1 wt%

3.3.3 Behaviour in synthetic formation water

The decisive criteria for the product classification are first the
viscosity behaviour and second the injectivity in the presence of electro
lytes. As already shown above.the stability of novel cellulose derivatives
against most electrolytes is excellent. This has been confirmed by samples
tested in synthetic formation water adapted to a certain oil deposit
(Tab. V ) .

Tab. V: Viscosity and filtration behaviour of novel cellulose deriva

tives in synthetic salt water
(SEN90: 11.7 % KaCl, 0.73 % CaCl , 0.37 % MgCl )

sample viscosity*/mPas G /g
max

Ko. 7 25 15
No. 8 38 13
No. 9 36 25
No. 10 58 27

* 0.25 * solution, 20 C, D = 2,5 s l

3.3.4 Longterm temperature stability

Aqueous solutions of the novel cellulose derivatives exhibit good
longterm temperature stability as shown in Fig. 4. The stability depends
on the substitution degree.
844

Viscosity/%
100

80

60-

40

20-

0J
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Ti me/days

Fig. 4: Long-term viscosity stability of novel cellulose derivatives with

different degrees of substitution at 50 C. Polymer concentration
2 wt-%.

3.3.5 Flooding lab trials

The evaluation of the novel cellulose derivatives as viscosity buil-
ders in flooding media has been examined at the Bayer AG. These flooding
tests were carried out by using a specific test program for Xanthan. Bent-
heimer Sandstone was chosen as the core material with 70 cm in length and
5 cm in diameter. The cores were saturated with oil, were then extracted
from the oil by SEN-90 and flooded by 0.5 PV polymer solution. The deoil-
ing was enhanced by 2 to 3 % (Tab. VI). In comparison, flooding with Xan-
than solutions of equal viscosity, however, enhanced the deoiling by 3 to
6 %. The lower deoiling achieved with cellulose derivatives could have
been caused by an unfavourable mobility reduction and/or modest struc-
ture viscosity. This will be the subject of further investigations.
The flow pressures were normal in all the flooding trials. No plugg-
ing effects or unusual injection pressures were observed.

Tab. VI: Flooding trials with novel cellulose derivatives

d i s t . wat
sample viscosity/mPas G /g deoiling
max , ,
(20 "C, D = 2,5 s~>) maximal polymer enhancement
2 wt-% 0,25 wt-% throughput %

No. 7 14,000 195 15 2.3

No. 8 19,200 118 28 2.4
Nc. 9 37,000 204 20 3.0
No. 10 44,900 210 17 2.6
 845

3.3.6 The second substitution of the new cellulose derivative

Recalling the improved properties of the novel cellulose derivatives
such as high viscosity, good filtration behaviour and excellent salt re-
sistance it is obvious that the novel substituent is subject of fundamen-
tal research. Further substitution, however, is necessary and of great
interest, considering the insufficient deoiling enhancement. A second
substitution is, for example, one method for improving the rheological
behaviour and the mobility of a polymer. Another argument for the produc-
tion of such cellulose products is the optimization of the solution beha-
viour by a certain hydrophilic/hydrophobic ratio. Moreover, the second
substitution ought to contribute to an improved thermo resistance.
The insertion of some second substituents such as methoxy-, hydroxy-
ethyl and hydroxypropyl groups into the novel cellulose derivatives have
been and are still being tested. Comprehensive investigations of reaction
parameters, levels and ratios of substituents have also been started.

4. CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK

The project status and the next steps are summarised in Tab. VII.
All the accomplishments are in accordance with the project schedule.
The results demonstrate that in view of the projected aim a success-
ful development of cellulose derivatives for possible EOR application has
partially been reached for the time being. It has to be stressed that the
fundamental product development, accomplished so far, forms a valuable
frame work for a further product optimization. We hope to fulfil the pro-
ject aim within the scheduled period.

Table VII: Project Status (October 1987)

Project steps Results Next steps

1. Optimization of CMC Enhanced solution Terminated

viscosity
2. Second substitution Improved electro- Injectivity Optimiza-
of CMC lyte stability tion
3. New cellulose deri- High solution vis- Improvement of tem-
vatives with novel cosity as well as perature resistance
substituents good injectivity. and process tech-
Compatibility with niques
mono- and multi-
valent cations
4. Second substitution Improved tempera- Improvement of vis-
of new cellulose ture resistance cosity levels at an
derivatives adequate injectivity
5. Insertion of bulky Has not yet been
substituents approached
6. Screening of prac- Lab trials: En- Further lab trials
tical aspects hanced deoiling of using cellulose
up to 2 - 3 % COIP derivatives with mixed
with novel cellu- substituents
lose derivatives
 846

PREPARATION FOR MISCIBLE GAS INJECTION

ON THE GREAT ALWYN

G. AUXTTE
TOTAL - Compagnie Franaise des Ptroles

Summary
AU the fluids present in the ALWYN reservoirs are in more or less critical
conditions always very difficult to model on the thermodynamic models, based on
equations of state, due to the imperfections inherent in the models and to an
inaccurate knowledge of the reservoir fluids. More and more research work is being
undertaken on the equations of state by highly specialized teams.
Our interest, within this domain has been focussed on better knowledge and
representation of reservoir fluids, particularly the heavy cuts. The aim is to develop
algorithms for calculating liquid-vapor equilibria of fluid-mixtures under pressure and
for adjusting the parameters of models representing the heavy cuts of reservoir fluids.

1. INTRODUCTION
Volatile oils and condensate gases contain a large number of components, and in
spite of the considerable progress of analysis techniques it is vain to hope that their
complete composition will ever be known. It should also be noted, that even if this
composition was known, it could not be used in automatic calculation programs, as the
vast number of components it would demand, would not be compatible with the
capacity of the computers.
A simplifying modeling is therefore absolutely essential to represent the
properties of the heavy cuts of the reservoir fluids.
The condition which must prevail before any study of heavy cut modelization can
be started, is to have reliable and effective calculation methods, both in order to
determine the states of the fluids and to adjust the parameters.
During the first phase, the simplest models at present employed in the oil
industry, were used. In this work, the corrected Peng Robinson equation, specific case
of the general cubic equation, Rauzy correction (1982) was used.
However, these equations of state, applied to mixtures demand the use of mixing
rules, in which the molecular interactions are represented by a binary interaction
parameter, usually known as "kij". Even for the simplest systems, the choice of this
parameters is always difficult. It is usually adjusted to experimental data for each
mixture, but its correlation is very difficult, depending both on the temperature, and
on the nature of the components.
The purpose of developping modifications of the calculation methods of the
thermodynamic functions of the reservoir fluids, using equations of state so as to make
better use of the analytical information provided by the Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
(NMR), and related to the contents of the groups (CH3, CH2, aromatic ring etc..) in
the various cuts. Therefore, in this second phase, it is a question of adapting the group
contribution models to the pressurized liquid-vapor equilibrium calculations, by
replacing the parameters of binary interaction by the group contributions.
Petroleum fluids in reservoir conditions are made up of components such as
alcanes, cyclanes, aromatics, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide. The method
proposed must give acceptable results for the mixtures of these components ; on the
other hand, it can only be valid for these actual components, which are hardly at all
 847

polar and non-associated.

The following were taken into consideration for the adaptation :
- the liquid-vapor equilibria at low pressures, in order to take advantage of the
information contained in the numerous experimental determination done
under these conditions,
- the mixture enthalpies, so as to be able to define the laws of equilibria
variation with temperature accurately.

2. MATCHING MODEL PARAMETERS WITH LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS

RELATING TO PETROLEUM FLUIDS
The modelization of the heavy fraction of petroleum fluids is, at present, done
by hand in the oil industry. The parameters which are characteristic of the heavy cuts,
critical values, acentric factor and binary interaction parameters, are estimated,
either from the various correlations (Kesler and Lee, 1976, Winn, 1957, Sim and
Daubert, 1980, Cavett, 196*, Pedersen and al., 1984a, 1984b, 1985) or matched step-
by-step through series of tests (Whitson, 1983, Wilson and al., 1978) until a satisfactory
match is obtain between the data and the model used. Thus the results usually depend
on the operator.
A strict procedure, which had to satisfy the following conditions, has been
established :
- use of maximum information provided by the laboratory experiments for
parameter estimation,
- take as a basis, the statistical bases at present used sucessfully for processing
liquid-vapor equilibria at low pressures, i.e., the principle of maximum
likelihood,
- carry out an automatic estimation of the characteristic parameters of the
heavy fraction.
This procedure is independant of the modelization adopted for the heavy
fraction.

2.1 Experimental measurements carried out in the laboratory

The objectives of the experimental study of the physical properties of a
reservoir fluid, commonly called PVT studies, are the following :
- determination of the fluid composition,
- determination of the volumetric characteristics and phase equilibria as
the fluid expands,
simulation of this behaviour throughout all the phases of production in
porous media and in the pipelines and separators.
The experiments required to reach these objectives are as possible, and
implemented according to the same procedure in most oil company laboratories
(Pedersen et col., 1984b).

2.2 Maximum likelihood - Objective function - Method of observed deviations

The correct methods for statistic estimation of the parameters of a model
are derived from the Fisher principle of maximum likelihood : research workers of the
world are unanimous in taking this as a reference (Fabries and Renon, 1975, Kemeny
and Mane Ziniger, 1978, Anderson and al., 1978, Patino-Loal, 1979, Rubio and al.,
1983, Skjold-3orgensen, 1983).
According to this principle, the "most probable values" for the m, A
parameters of the model, are those which minimize the objective function :
FE = 6Et v" 1 E, (O
Vg is the matrix of the measurement variances and covariances,
E is the vector of estimated deviations.
5E = E" - E(A), (2)
848

E is the vector of the measurements,

E(A) is the vector, which, in the model, corresponds to these measurements.
In the absence of covariance between these measurements, the matrix Vg is
diagonal, and the objective function (1) is written simply :
9 >
FE = (E0 / / ( ) (3)
i=l i i e i
being tne number of measurements and ae(E) the experimental error on E.
This application of the maximum likelihood principle is valid when the
measurements variances and covariances are taken as known parameters. Peneloux and
al., 1976, worked on the general case and produced a procedure for estimating
experimental errors, applicable, obviously only with a model having no systematic
errors.
2.3 Observed deviation methods
The direct application of the maximum likelihood method, meant finding the
minimum with constants of the objective function (3) in relation to the N+m variables,
E and Aj connected by the model E(A). This is the method of estimated deviations, as
given by Anderson and al., (1978), which involves the use of very high rank matrices.
Duhem (1979) showed that the measurements can be grouped by independant
determination, and that the calculation can be lightened by finding the "local minima".
The procedure still remains heavy and cannot be considered as rigourous in
the case of petroleum fluids, as the matrix Vg is not diagonal.
The method of observed deviations which is equivalent to the method of first
order estimated deviations, for any model (Neau and Peneloux, 1981) was preferred to
the above procedure.
The N, E measurements are divided up into q measured variables, X o , and
into measured functions, F (N = + q). We will assume that :
F
= E (i=l n), Xo = E (J=l q), (4)
i i J J+n
The observed deviations are :
AF = F F(X, A). (5)
The comparison between the measurements and the model F (,) is carried
out, as well as for the measured values, X o , of the variables, so the only values to be
determined are the the m parameters, A.
Given is the matrix of the partial deriviatives of the functions in relation
to the variables.
Bj = C F . / x . ) . (6)
The variances and covariances of the observed deviations are the resultant
variances and covariances which form the matrix V, whose elements are expressed as a
function of those of the matrix Vg, and if the partial derivatives of the functions in
relation to the variables, using the laws of error combination :
q q
+ (7)
* = . .. B k l V
ik j=1 1=1 J+n.l+n
When the matrix Vg is diagonal, the diagonal elements of V, i.e., the
resultant variances of the measured functions, are :
q
V.. = , 2 (F.) =2 ( F .) + BJ.,2 (Xj). (8)

j=l
This is the Gaussian law of error propagation.
The most probable values for the m A parameters are those which minimized
the objectives functions :
FO = AFC V_1 AF (9)
 849

2 Minimization methods
Among the various methods of minimization, the Newton method was
adopted. This method requires the calculation of the D derivatives (Djj = Fj/ Aj) of
the functions in relation to the parameters, A. The increments which allow one to go
to iteration (k) to iteration (k+1) are obtained by solving the linear system of m
equations with m unknowns :
D t(k) V Kk) 00 (A (k+i) .. A (k), . D t(k) V Kk) AP (k) (io)
In this equation, the variations of the matrix V, as a function of the
parameters are not taken into consideration, and the function to be minimized is
developed at the first order.
The matrix V of the resultant variances and covariances is a function of the
parameters though the derivatives (equation 6). If these variations are not taken into
consideration a minimum of the objective function, FO (equation 9) is the solution of
the nonlinear system :
D V _I AF = 0. ()
The linearization obtained by considering a first order development of F
around F^*) :
F (k+1) . F (k) + D ( A ( k + 0 _ A U0) (12)
without considering the development of D, will give the equation (10).
As the model used is an implicit model, and the covariances are very
important, the implementation of Newton's method, demands much more complicated
calculations than in the case of running applications.
measurements were made ; they are classified in measurements on the
functions, F", and in q measurements of the variables, X o .
The matrix V of their variances and covariances if of the rank N. We assume
that is not diagonal, i.e., that these measurements are not "primary measurements".
The implicit model, with m parameters, A, is written, within the observed
deviation method :
M(F,X,A) = 0 ; (13)
it must contain a number of relations at least equal to that of the functions, i.e. n. The
derivatives of the model, in relation to the functions, ' to the variables, '>, and
to the parameters, M'A, are :

M = OiyF^, (1=1 ; i = l , . . . , n ) , <14>

M =(dM1/X^), (l=l,...;n k=l,...q), (15)

M! ( M . / A . ) , (l=l,...;n j=l,...m). (16)

A J
ij
The variables Xo are data ; the parameters A have set values. The functions
F must be found, calculated according to the model, solving the implicit system (13),
which demands an interactive process. The solution can be approached using the
fastest method, which may be a method of substitution, but it would be best to
conclude with Newton's method, which allows one to go from iteration (k) to iteration
(k + 1) as follows :
. (k) ( F ( k + i ) _ F ( k ) } = _ M ( k ) . (]7)

when the solution is reached, we thus have the derivatives M'p, which are used in the
rest of the calculation.
850

The calculation of the matrix V of the resultant variances, demands a

knowledge of the derivatives, B, of the functions in relation to the variables (equation
6) ; knowledge of the parameters, and of the derivatives D of the functions in relation
to these parameters. The model being "satisfied", we should have :
M ( dX + D dA) + M dX + M^ dA = 0. (18)
The derivatives are thus given by :
M = M. (19)
o
As the q components, X of the vector X are independant variables, we
have here a set of q linear systems of equations with unknowns.
If the model is made up by equilibrium conditions between phases, the matrix
expression (18) can be considered as the generalized form of C lapeyron's equation. For
the liquidvapor equilibrium of a pure body, the equilibrium condition being the
equality of the chemical potentials, g' and g" in the two phases we can write :
F = P, Xo = I e , M(P,T) A'(P,T") M '(P,T) = 0,

(M/P) dP/dT = ( M / T " ) , (" ' ) dP/dT = s" s ' (h" h , ) / T "

For the derivatives, D, of the functions in relation to the parameters, we also

have :
(20)
"A"
This matrix expression represents all of the linear systems of equations with
unknowns.
The systems 19 and 20 can be solved by C holeski's method after
symmetrization ; this operation is of no use, and hazardous, as it can create rounding
errors in the calculations. We have uses the GaussJordan method (Durand, 1960).
Together, the calculation of F and it's derivatives, form a set which demand
the resolution of linear systems, all of * dimensions, plus the calculation of the
matrix M'p, as summarized on the following table :

I 1
1 C alculated I Equation n" Second |
I Number of
1 value 1 | systems member 1
1 1
I 1
1 F(X,A) 1 17 M |
I 1 19 I <20 M'x |
1 q
1 D I 20 1 m "M'A j
I
1 of the D derivatives of the functions in relation to the
It is clear that a calculation
parameters, cannot increase, the running time of the program excessively. This means
that the use of Newton's method is perfectly justified for adjusting the parameters.
The matrix V of the resultant variances and covariances having being
calculated (equation 7), we look for the values of the parameters which minimize the
objective function (9) by solving the system (10).
The two matrix products have to be calculated
1 D and DC V~' F.
The inversion of the matrix V, of dimension * , is well presented, as it is
symmetrical.
 851

We can consider it as the product of a triangular matrix and of its transpose :

V = I l ' , avec V 1 = T t _ 1 T _ 1 . (21)
The matrix is calculated inverted and the reduced values considered :
DR = 1 D, AFR = T 1 AF. (22)
The system (10) is then written as
(k
D > D<k) ( A ( k + 1 ) A ( k ) ) = D^ ( k ) AF<k> (23)
R R R R
and is easy to solve using the Choleski method.
The only serious problem which may occur during this series of calculations,
is that of rounded errors, which may occur when the number, n, of measured functions
is very large.

2.5Application and results

Petroleum fluids have been represented by the following components or
pseudocomponents : H2S, N2, CC>2> CI (methane), C 2 (ethane), C 3 (propane), C * (iso
butane, butane), C 5 (isopentane, pentane), C 6 (isohexane, hexane), C 7 (iso
heptanes, benzene, cyclanes C 7, heptane), C 8 (isooctanes, toluene, cyclanes C 8,
octane), C 9 (isononanes, aromatics C 8, cyclanes C 9, nonanes), C IO (isodecanes,
aromatics C 9, decane), C11+ (all other components).
In the thermodynamic model used, each component, i, is defined by four
parameters : T c , P c j, co, and ZRAJ, and the parameters of binary interaction kj of
this component with the other components, j , of the mixture.
The parameters of the components, up to C 3 have known values (Table 1) ;
the parameters of the groupe C11+ are parameters of the model to be adjusted.
For the groups from C * to C IO, it was decided to use, for each subgroup CN,
the properties corresponding to alcane of atoms of carbon (Table 1).
The model adopted can adjust a selection of a maximum six parameters,
corresponding to the heavy fraction C 11+ : T c , P c , ZRA a n t t n e parameters of C 11+
interaction with three other components, which could be, for instance : CO2 C I and
C2 or CI, C 2 and C3.
The acentric factor is fixed at the beginning of the adjsutment. For natural
gases, the experiments are often all carried out at the same temperature ; i.e., TQ>
reservoir temperature. With the Peng Robinson equation, two parameters b and a (TQ)
are sufficient in this case to determine the properties of a pure component, for which
it is impossible to adjust three independant parameters, T c , P c , . There are
therefore two possibilities : either to adjust T c and P c with set, or to use an
empirical relation betwezen T c , P c and ; we have adopted the first method.
The number of parameters to be adjusted is determined by the nature of the
data which serve as the basis for adjustment, i.e. depending on the information
contained in these measurements. If we only consider the measurements of liquid
deposit, only three parameters can be adjusted : T c , P c , ZRA, when measurements of
the liquid or gas composition are added to these data, it is possible to estimate the six
parameters.
The measured values which have been considered are the following :
stocktank equilibrium,
study of expansion at constant volume,
study of expansion at constant weight.
The following are the inaccuracies allowed :
<re(T) = 0,l e C
ffe(P) = 0,1 bar
(V) = 0,1 cm3
W = 0,0001 g/cm3
ere ( V) = 0,05 cm 3
852

ae (xi) = 0,007 xi + 0,001 (according to the inaccuracies given by the ASTM

according to the molecular fraction, xi, of the component i, for a gas
analysis by gaseous C hromatograph).
ae (yi) = 0.009 yi + 0.001 for density fractions whose inaccuracy is not well
known ; the data given by the ASTM have been used.
An inaccuracy of 5 to 10 % on the molecular weight, defined by
cryometry using benzene as solvent.
oe (GOR) = 0.5 m3/ m 3.
In order to avoid the effects of systematic errors due to imperfections
inherent in the thermodynamic models, theoretical laboratory reports have been made
up from a real reservoir fluid (Table 2) and errors defined as above.
This method has enabled the presentation of an "exact" thermodynamic
model. The results are given in Table 2, and examples of adjustments in Figures 1, 2
and 3.
Figures 1, 2 and 3 give the typical results obtained when processing fictivious
reports. The experimental values of the liquid deposit are always adjusted correctly
with the method using diagonal weighting. The curves calculated with total weighting
of the data may show a positive bias (Figure 1) or a negative bias (Figure 2) or
completely smooth the data (Figure 3). The dew point, taken as reference, is lower
than the measured value, but it is very well restored by the process using diagonal
weighting of the data.

3. C ON C LUSION
In conclusion, use of total weighting of the data, based on the analysis of
variances and the principle of maximum likelihood, gives the "best" values for the
parameters, i.e., the "most probable" ; although this cannot restore the measured
deposit curve with such a good match as the method using diagonal weighting. This
means, that given the errors made, and the covariances between the various values
considered, it is " not very probable" that the experimental deposit curve will make
the composition adopted for the fluid placed in the cell.
The choice to be made between these two methods, depends principally on the
objective set : to obtain parameters which are likely to be better, or a good
restoration for the experimental deposit curve.

. REFEREN
C ES

Anderson, T.F., Abrams,D.S. and Grens, .., 1978. Evaluation of parameters for non
linear thermodynamic models. AIChE 3., 21:2029.

Cavett, R.H., 196*. Physical data for distillation calculations vaporliquid equilibria.
API Division of refining, 27th Midyear Meeting, San Francisco.
Duhem,P., 1979. C ontribution l'tude numrique des mlanges "eau hydrocarbure
solvant polaire". Reprsentation des quilibres de phase par le modle NRTL. Thse de
DocteurIngnieur, Universit d'AIX MARSEILLE II.

Fabries.J.F. and Renon,H., 1975. Method of evaluation and reduction of vaporliquid

equilibrium data of binary mixtures. AIChE 3., 21:735743.

Gramajo,A., 1986. Algorithmes pour le calcul des quilibres liquidevapeur et

l'ajustement des paramtres caractrisant les fractions lourdes des fluides ptroliers.
Thse soutenue l'Universit de Droit, d'Economie et des Sciences d'AIXMARSEILLE
Chimie Applique.
 883

Kemeny,S. and Manczinger,3., 1978. Treatment of binary vapor-liquid equilibrium

data. Chem. E ng. Sci., 33:71-75.

Kesler,M.G. and Lee,B.I., 1976. Improve prediction of enthalpy of fractions.

Hydrocarbon Processing, 5:153-158 (55).
Neau,E. and Peneloux,A., 1981. E stimation of model parameters. Comparison of
methods based on the maximum likelihood principle. Fluid Phase E quilibria, 6:1-19.

Patino-Leal.H., 1979. Chemical E ngineering. Application of the error in variable

model. Thesis, University of Waterloo, Ontario.

Pedersen,K.S., Thomassen.P. and Fredenslund.A., 198* (a). Thermodynamics of

petroleum mixtures containing heavy hydrocarbons. 1. Phase envelope calculation by
use of the SRK equation of state. Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 23:163-170.

Pedersen,K.S.,Thomassen,P. and Fredenslund,A., 1984(b). Thermodynamic of petroleum

mixtures containing heavy hydrocarbons. 2. Flash and PVT calculations with SRK
equation of state. Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 23:566-573.

Pedersen,K.S., Thomassen,P. and Fredenslund,A., 1985. Thermodynamics of petroleum

mixtures containing heavy hydrocarbons. 3. E fficient flash calculation procedures
using equation SRK of state. Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 24:9*8-954.

Peneloux.A., Deyrieux,R., Canals,E . and Neau, E ., 1976. The maximum likelihood test
and the estimation of experimental inaccuracies. Application to data reduction for
liquid-vapor equilibrium. 3. Chim. Phys., 73:708-716.

Rauzy,E., 1982. Les mthodes simples de calcul des quilibres liquide-vapeur sous
pression. Thse d'E tat - Sciences, Universit d'AIX MARSE ILLE .

Skjold-3orgensen,S., 1983. On statistical principles in reduction of thermodynamic

data. Fluid Phase E quilibria, 14:273-288.

Whitson.C.H., 1983. Characterizing hydrocarbon plus fractions. SPE 3. 23:683-694.

Whitson,C.H., 1984. Effect of C7+ properties on equation of state predictions. SPE 3.,
24:685-696.

Winn,F.W., 1957. Physical properties by monogram. Pet. Refiner 36:157-159.

 854

Table 1 - Hypothesis on the nature of the components and the model

1. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the reservoir fluid components :

Const. frac. mol. Tc/K Pc/bar omega Z

RA Mol. weight
N2 .00820 126.26 33.97 .0400 .2897 28.013
C02 .02616 304.21 73.79 .2250 .2728 44.010
CI .82910 190.55 46.01 .0111 .2894 16.043
C2 .04062 305.43 48.75 .0970 .2803 30.070
C3 .02931 369.82 42.48 .1536 .2767 44.097
C4 .01790 425.16 37.96 .2008 .2731 58.124
C5 .00939 469.64 33.72 .2523 .2686 72.151
C6 .00634 507.35 30.10 .3000 .2636 86.178
C7 .00892 540.15 27.34 .3496 .2606 92.000
C8 .00807 568.76 24.87 .3981 .2571 105.000
C9 .00531 593.60 22.90 .4546 .2548 120.000
CIO .00325 617.65 20.95 .5014 .2507 135.000
C11+ .01481 673.39 13.14 .5641 .1803 179.000

2. Model : c o r r e c t e d general cubic equation, g a m m a = 4.82843.

3. Binary energy p a r a m e t e r s kij :

.000-.021 .035 .028 .060 .082 .095 .130 .130 .130 .130 .104 .104
. 0 2 1 .000 .088 .131 .125 .113 .125 .115 .099 .099 .099 .107 .107
.035 .088 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .297
.028 . 1 3 1 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .141
.060 .125 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .109
.082 .113 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
.095 .125 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
.130 .115 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
.130 .099 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
.130 .099 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
.130 .099 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
.104 .107 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
.104 .107 .297 .141 .109 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
 855

Table 2 - Results on the parameters

1. DISTRIBUTION OF ADJUSTED PARAMETERS

Adj us ted with weigltit ing

Diagonal Total
Postulats average stand, dev. average stand. dev.
Parameters
Tc/K 673.39 668.40 11.85 671.00 7.90
Pc/bar 13.146 13.19 2.09 13.12 0.68
Z
*RA
R 0.18029 0.1716 0.0199 0.1803 0.0067
klN 0.29562 0.3008 0.0434 0.2994 0.0148
k2N 0.14103 0.1626 0.2246 0.1260 0.0872
k3N 0.10852 0.1108 0.0369 0.1116 0.0364

2. RESULTS ON DENSITY OF SOTCK-TANK LIQUID

Weighting % relative deviatio'n

Diagonal 3.72
Total 0.51

3. RESULTS ON LIQUID DEPOSIT CURVE

Weighting Average dev. Average bias

Diagonal 0.03751 0.00533

Total 0.25713 0.23875
856

liquid fa
Figure 1 . Liquid deposit curves at 409.5$ K
c a l c u l a t with unbroken line t diagonal
weighting.
dotted line : total weighting.
: experimental points.
Reservoir fluid composition :
N2 0.008 IS
C 0 2 0.02188
CI 0.82377
C2 0.03874
C3 0.02807
C4 0.01801
C5 0.00928
C6 0.00537
C7 0.00966
C8 0.00811
C9 0.0O560
CIO 0.00317
C l l < 0.01716

Parameters adjusted with weighting t

Diagonale Total
Tc/k 649.07 6)8.19
P c /bar 15.382 13.700
Z 0.18395 0.18375
RA
k 0.31354 0.30593
IN
k 0.12048 0.15813
2N
/har k
3N 0.14387 0.13421

400

v liquide Pta Figure 2 . Liquid deposit curves at 409.35 K

calculated with unbroken line : diagonal
weighting.
dotted line : total weighting.
: experimental points.

Reservoir fluid composition

N2 0.00751
C02 0.02416
CI 0.82713
C2 0.04185
C3 0.02820
C4 0.01695
C5 0.00866
C6 0.00667
C7 0.00823
CS 0.00909
C9 0.00522
CIO 0.00315
C1U 0.01318

Parameters adjusted with weighting

Diagonale Total
T c /k 688.09 678.68
Pc/bar 11.924 12.651
ZRA 0.17737 0.17661
k
lN 0.28949 0.29403
k
2N 0.07488 0.08582
k
3N 0.14818 0.16241

200 400
 857

liquid Pta Figure 3. Liquid deposit curves at 409.95

calculated with unbroken line t diagonal
weighting.
dotted line : total weighting.
: experimental points.

Reservoir fluid composition :

N2 0.00765
C02 0.02453
CI 0.82766
C2 0.0*035
C3 0.0288
C* 0.01659
C5 0.00856
C6 0.00550
C7 0.00887
CS 0.00788
C9 0.005*2
CIO 0.00330
C l l 0.01*83
Parameters adjusted with weighting
Diagonale Total
T c /k 668.02 670.18
Pc/bar 13.16* 13.28*
2
RA 0.17977 0.18166
k
lN 0.308*2 0.30283
k 0.019*6 0.0*681
2N
k
3N 0.0768* 0.08933
858

CO HUFF-AND-PUFF TO IMPROVE HEAVY OIL WELL PRODUCTIVITY

A PILOT TEST IN THE PISTICCI OIL FIELD, ITALY

G.Cassi, G.D'Ali, A.Delle Canne, V.Gili

Agip S.p..

Summary

The Pisticci field is producing heavy oil since 1960 from Upper
Cretaceous limestones at an average depth of 2000 m ssl. The oil
characteristics (23 mPa.s viscosity at reservoir conditions, 11 API
gravity and 4500 mPa.s viscosity at stock tank and a naphtenic base)
and the low well productivity (20 m /d/well as average) are very
similar to those of reservoirs, even of remarkable size, discovered
in the Adriatic offshore, Italy. Therefore the Pisticci field,
onshore, was selected as the best candidate to test a C O
huff-and-puff process to improve well productivity at a cost much
lower than an analogous pilot in an offshore well.
The Pisticci 13 well was selected to conduct the experiment.
Two complete cycles (injection, soaking and production) were run, by
injecting 190 tons per cycle of CO at supercritical conditions.
A complete monitoring of well performance and the detailed sampling
of produced fluids allowed a clear understanding of the phenomena
occured in the reservoir.

1. Introduction
Low or even very low productivity is common to all the wells which
have encountered heavy oil accumulations, even of remarkable size, in the
Adriatic offshore,Italy (Emilio, Emma, David, Gianna and Piropo
fields). Along the Adriatic coast there exist onshore gas reservoirs
showing a high CO content.
The CO could be used in a C O huff and puff process designed to
increase the well productivity, should this technique prove to be
efficient.
The selection of Pisticci field for conducting a CO huff-and-puff
pilot experiment was dictated by the following considerations:
- the oil reservoir of the Pisticci field has viscosity characteristics
and chemical base (naphtenic) very similar to those of the reservoirs
already discovered in the Adriatic offshore,
 859

NNAPOLTsl

*\'v5^**<? V
%\ \ *l'e>/ fy ^

^ \ X \ ? ^ # ) \\
X^^^JX

Fig. 1 Pisticci reservoir: top of Cretaceous

even though the reservoir rock is lithologically different from that of

the heavy oil accumulations in the Adriatic offshore, it presents some
similarities as regard the heterogeneity of the rock, that is to say
the presence and distribution of fractures,
since the Pisticci field is located onshore, the cost of the huffand
puff pilot project is from 6 to 10 times smaller than it would be for
an analogous pilot in an offshore well of the Adriatic sea.
The chosen reservoir,Pisticci, is onshore in Southern Italy (Fig. 1 ) .
Its characteristics, as known at the beginning of the project, are
summarized in Table 1.
860

Table 1 - Summary of main characteristics of the Piaticci

reservoir

Reservoir rocks : fractured and karstic Mesozoic limestones

: average porosity 5%
: interstitial water saturation 40%
Depth : ca. 2000 m s.s.l.
Initial conditions : Temperature 67C
: Pressure 20.1 MPa
Oil characteristics : - API gravity: 11
- Viscosity: 23 cp at reservoir conditions
4500 cp at STC
- bubble point pressure: 17.6 MPa

2. Description of the activities

The activities related to the project were divided into the following
phases:
Phase 1 : reinterpretation of all existing data,and run of a production logs
survey.
Thermodynamic characterization of the reservoir oil and its mixtures
with carbon dioxide.
Phase 2: Choice of the well to be used for the pilot test;its recompletion
(if needed) and connection with sampling and monitoring instruments.
Phases 3 and 4: Conduction of two cycles of: CO injection,
soaking, production, with all measurements and sampling needed for
evaluating the results.

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Phase 1: Collection of well and reservoir data
Drilling, geologic, reservoir and production data of all wells in the
field were collected, stored in a DATA BASE and analysed.
The available cores were re-sampled and special analyses(capillary pressure
curves, relative permeability, grain density) were re-analysed to
complete the data.
The reservoir rock can be described as vuggy,fractured limestones showing
extremely variable petrophysical characteristics, both horizontally
and vertically. This instability, together with the different flow
characteristics in the various reservoir blocks, accounts for considerable
differences in the productive behaviour of the wells.
Two blocks showing different production behaviour were identified,
as follows :
- the Northern Block - including the well Pisticci 13 - is characterized
by no water-cut and good productivity index.
 861

the Southern Block is characterized by an average to low productivity

index and an oil production with water cuts ranging between 15 and 45%.
Classic PVT tests were carried on bottom oil samples, followed by
tests with oil enriched with CO , at saturation pressures increasing up to
formation pressure.
Fig.2 shows the main results for the original oil and the CO enriched
2
oil. Laboratory analysis has excluded irascibility of the two systems,
but confirmed the improvement in crude characteristics.

13 100 2 100
/ 2
80. / , 80 _
1? / r
>
t zlfc60. % 60
/ ( /
E
/ *** .1 o
11
* 40 /' ^40 .

r '
20.
y
/ /
20

.1
2
1 0.
0 .
0 10 20 30 40 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
PRESSURE, MPa PRESSURE, MPa PRESSURE, MPa

Fig. 2 PVT analyses. Comparison between original oil (1)

and oil saturated with CO (2).

As the PVT cell tests excluded any possibility of firstcontact

miscibility, "slimtube" (20 m) and "sand pack" (1 m) tests were carried
out to examine the possibility of multiple contacts miscibility. The main
conclusions in the pressure range (20.1 mPa 49 mPa) are as follows:
a) the displacement is not of the miscible type,at least in the pressure
range examined, due to the relatively low reservoir temperature and the
crude composition.
b) increasing displacement pressure favours CO dissolving in the crude,
and this produces various effects. Some tend to increase oil recovery
due to "swelling" and viscosity reduction, whereas other effects
are unfavourable, such as the precipitation of asphaltenes whenever
the CO comes into contact with the oil;
2
c) finally, the displacement mechanism, although nonmiscible,
has chemical/physical analogies with miscible displacement, that is,
the concentration of the C C group at the front and the formation
of asphaltene precipitates.
862

3.2 Phase 2: Well completion, and production characteristics

The choice of the well on which to test the "huff-and-puff" technique
was based on the results of the production test surveys conducted in
Spring 1984.
The tests showed the Pisticci 13 well, dry oil producer since December
1964, to be an ideal candidate for the cyclic injection pilot process.
This well had produced at
an average rate of 30-35
m /day and 213.770 m
cumulative before cyclic 2" 7/8 TUBING
injection.
Well completion test results
suggested the use of new
7" CASING
well-head control valves
for the huff and puff
operations and the use of
SA PACKER 2011 m

continuous temperature and 2029.5 m 2" 3/8 TUBING

5" LINER I.D. = SO mm
pressure measuring devices.
The production string and
packer held up perfectly 2069 m
to the stresses induced
during the injection cycles 2078 m
(see Fig. 3 ) . -MANOMETER 2086 m
2090
The last tests made before
injection gave the following 5" LINER
I.D. - 112mm 2129
production characteristics:
BOTTOM
2131 7 m
Pstat = 19.45 MPa at 2086 m.
kh = 110 000 mD.m Fig. 3 - Pisticci 13 bottom
P.I. = 3.88 m /d/kg/cm well completion

3.3 Phase 3 & 4: test conduction and principal results obtained

The first cycle of C O injection in supercritical conditions was
started on the 26th November 1985.
190 tonnes of CO at an average flow rate of 3.86 tonnes/hr were injected at
an average well-bottom pressure of 20.7 mPa abs. (211 kg/cm at 2086 m ) .
After a shut-in period of 18 days the well was produced at an average rate
of about 30 m /day for the first four days.
After bottom-hole sampling, the well was produced at an average flow
rate of 60 m /day, showing a marked reduction in C O content in the
separator gas.
After six days the well showed an unexpected rise in G0R, and a notable
increase in CO in the separator gas
The flow rate was then reduced to 30 m /day again, and the well produced
without further problems, with the C O content progressively
decreasing (see Fig. 4 ) .
 863

210.
**_ 200

* 180.
<
170. co
co ^ " l^ ~* f ' _ _

m
160. >
Q.

I I I20I I I I |25l I I I I30I

October 1985

Fig. 4 Pisticci 13. Start (a) evolution and end (b) of gas
coning during first cycle.
864

Before starting the second cycle,an acid job was carried out, to
remove the damage in the occluded perforations, followed by a production
test, in order to evaluate the new production performance, of the well. The
main results are:
Kh = 229 000 mDm
3 2
PI = 144 m /g/kg/cm
CF = 100%
Production logs showed that the injection took place in the
2102-2103 m interval in the first cycle and in the 2091-2093 m in the
second cycle.
The second injection cycle was started on 12th February 1986. The same
CO quantity as used in the first cycle (190 tonnes) was injected in
16 hours. The different production conditions, with respect to the first
cycle, drastically reduced the duration of the operation.
After injection, the well was shut-in for 14 days.
The well was re-opened with a production rate of 30 m /day, as in the
first cycle. After a cumulative production of 50 m , the rate was
increased to 140 m /day.
In the second cycle, a sharp increase in G0R and consequent drop in oil
flow were also experienced (see Fig. 5 ) .
The separator-gas CO content underwent a notable increase at that
moment. This concurrence can be presumed to be due to a gas coning of free
CO present in the formation.
The fact that the subsequent reduction in production to 45 m /day brought
the G0R and CO content down to the level of the previous trend, supports
this hypothesis.

3.4 Results of PVT sampling during production

Bottom-hole samplings were made for PVT analysis during the production
phase following the first injection cycle.
The first sampling was taken four days after the well re-opening, and
represents oil produced after 92 m of cumulative production out of a
total of 830 m STO.
Table 2 shows the main results of the two samplings, compared with
the laboratory analysis of the reservoir oil and the CO
saturated oil, in reservoirs conditions.
The changes in the reservoir oil characteristics produced by the CO
are clearly shown by this comparison.
The following is evident: increase in dissolved gas, increase in saturation
pressure, enrichment in CO for both monophasic oil and released gas,
and viscosity reduction.
The comparison with the PVT samples saturated with CO at reservoir
conditions shows that although the laboratory sample has a higher
dissolved gas content, it has a lower saturation pressure.
This apparent incoherence is due to the different CO contents of the two
monophasic liquids, consequent to the different processes the fluids have
undergone. Laboratory sample was subjected to forced CO dissolution under
 865

150.

26 I 27 I 28 I 1 I 2 I 3 I 4 I 5

FEBRUARY MARCH 1986

Fig. 5 - Pisticci 13. Start (a) evolution and end (b) of gas
coning during second cycle.
866

Table 2 - Pisticci . 13 - 2090-2129 m interval

OIL ORIGIN. CO OIL PRODUCED

CHARACTERISTICS OIL SATUR. AFTER
AT
19.71 1st 2nd
MPa cycle cycle
1st 2nd 2nd
sampl. sampl. sampl.

BP (MPa) 17.56 19.71 18.38 17.75 17.07

3 3
R (Nm /m ) 54.84 67.89 85.80 62.20 66.80
5

(dimless) 1.1631 1.1908 1.2198 1.1735 1.1838

o
Viscosity
(MPa sec) 19.80 14.96 12.15 15.97 17.22

Spec, density
(kg/m3) 895 896 922 911 910

% moles CO in
2
monophase oil 0.27 9.09 31.80 8.63 16.17

Separator test
data at
0.1 MPa

GOR (Nm /m ) 63.33 77.84 93.70 69.70 73.00

O.F.V.F. 1.2005 1.2376 1.256 1.197 1.219

% moles CO in
2
free gas 0.54 16.00 52.96 16.11 29.16
 867

formation conditions in a closed system (the laboratory cell), the well

sample was subjected to material exchanges with the stream of CO , which
flowed through the reservoir.
In this second process, a certain volume of more volatile components
passes from liquid to gas, while a larger volume of gaseous CO dissolved
in to the oil, tending towards equilibrium conditions. Equilibrium depends
upon the contact time of the two phases.
The PVT analysis for the 2nd bottom-hole sample after 850 m cumulative
production confirms the conclusions of the 1st sample. The 2nd oil sample
also has a lower dissolved gas volume, a lower saturation pressure, lower
CO content and higher viscosity than the first.
Two series of bottom-hole sample were made, also in the second injection
cycle. The first sampling series, taken 24 hours after well-opening, was
found not to be representative of the fluid produced. The results of the
second PVT analysis, on samples taken after 450 m cumulative oil
production, were found to have good correlation with the previously
acquired data (see Tab. 2 ) .
The lower saturation pressure of both the original oil and the
oil sampled in the first cycle after 830 m of production, can be
explained by the different CO contents in monophase oil. This is due to
the dissolving of different CO volumes in the gas phase from those in the
liquid phase. This difference must be attributed to the different contact
times.

4. Conclusions
During the production period after each injection gas coning,
resulting from the production increase, was observed.
PVT and laboratory displacement tests have excluded any possibility of
miscibility in the CO /reservoir oil system.
The analysis of the CO content in the separator gas indicated that gas
coning is due to the presence of free CO in the reservoir. This
presence is due to the incomplete CO solution in the reservoir oil.
PVT analysis carried out on the samples collected during the production
period of each cycle, compared with those carried out on the original
reservoir oil clearly showed an increase in saturation and solution gas
pressure and a decrease in oil viscosity.
In the Pisticci 13 huff-and-puff case the benefits of lowering the
reservoir oil viscosity are balanced by worsened flow conditions due to
the presence of free CO .
868

SURFACTANTS AND POLYMERS FOR

ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY FROM RESERVOIRS
WITH HIGH SALINITY BRINE

E. Causin, E. Rossi
Agip S.p.A. Petroleum Engineering
C. Corno, E. Platone
Eniricerche S.p.A.

Summary

Microemulsion/polymer flooding appears to be the most promising

EOR process. Nevertheless, when the reservoir brine has a high
ionic strength it is very difficult to form good microemulsions
with commercial surfactants. On the other hand, most reservoirs
have a brine salinity higher than 5% (as NaCl). Therefore, an
attempt to find and characterize some promising surfactant
families for high salinity brine was made, synthesizing pure
surfactants to better study the phase behaviour of microemulsions
and their structural conformation by NMR analysis.
Another attempt to obtain cheaper biopolymers derived from guar
gum was a failure, but confermed Xanthan polymers as the best
candidates to date for high salinity brines.

1. INTRODUCTION

In micellar/polymer flooding processes most commercial

surfactants do not form microemulsions with high salinity brine at
reservoir temperature and biopolymers used for thickening the
displacement brine are still very expensive. On the other hand, a
lot of reservoirs have a brine salinity higher than 5% as NaCl, with
++ ++
Ca and Mg to further complicate the process.
For example in Italy 60% of Agip's reservoirs have a brine
salinity higher than 5%, 25% have a salinity higher than 10%.
Abroad, Agip's reservoirs with salinity higher than 5% are 85%, 65%
with salinity higher than 15%. Therefore, after a preliminary
selection of chemicals on the basis of the technical literature (1)
(2) (3), a number of surfactant families was selected among
commercial products; others (about 100) were expressly synthesized.
Additionally, bibliographic informations (4) (5) oriented the
research on polymers towards biopolymers.
 869

To better study the behaviour of the mixtures of the

surfactant-models with high salinity brines, the fluids of
Cortemaggiore oil field were selected, since the salinity of this
reservoir is, more or less, representative of Agip's reservoirs. The
main properties of Cortemaggiore brine were:
Total Dissolved Salts 154 g/1 (at 180C)
Ca concentration 5.4 g/1
Mg concentration 2.2 g/1
3
The Cortemaggiore stock-tank oil had a density of 858 Kg/m and
the average reservoir temperature was 54C.

2. SURFACTANT EVALUATION

2.1 Preliminary screening tests

Using the "grid point method" (6), the phase behaviour was
studied on pseudoternary diagrams for all the available surfactants
mixed with different brines and mixtures of hydrocarbons having
different "Equivalent Alkane Carbon Numbers". Phase behaviour was
qualitatively classified into "monophase", "twophase",
"three-phase", gel, etc. Establishment of "Phase Inversion
Temperature" (PIT), by means of conductimetry, permitted the
evaluation of the external phase of microemulsions (brine-in-oil or
oil-in-brine) at different temperatures.
Measurements of "Cloud Point" (clouding of aqueous surfactant
solutions as a function of temperature) and solubilization
parameters (oil volume or brine volume on surfactant volume)
completed the preliminary tests.

2.2 Surfactant families selected for high salinity

Surfactant families that satisfactory passed the preliminary
screening tests were:
- aliphatic polyethoxylated and carboxymethylated alcohols;
- aliphatic polyethoxylated and sulphonated alcohols;
- polyethoxylated and carboxymethylated alkylphenols;
- polyethoxylated and sulphonated alkylphenols;
- sulphonated surfactants from OC-olefins.

2.2.1 Synthesis of surfactant-models

Synthesis process of surfactant-models was concentrated on
systematic structural variations inside the mentioned families,
modifing the length and branching of the hydrocarbon chain, the
number of ethylenoxides and the linearity of ether chain.
Aliphatic polyethoxylated and carboxymethylated alcohols and
alkylphenols were synthesized by an original process (7), that uses
ethylenoxide in the presence of NaOH or KOH at 150-160C and a
870

direct catalytic oxidation with oxygen for carboxymethylation at

temperatures from 40 to 80C on Pt/C as catalyst. Surfactant
pureness was 9697%. Sulphonated alcohols or alkylphenols were
obtained through reaction of ethoxylated alcohols or alkylphenols
with SOCI and pyridine at 150C, then with Na SO in water.
2 2 3
Sulphonated surfactants from .olefins C i C were obtained
12 18
in a film reactor where OC olefins reacted with SO and air. The
3
surfactants produced were heterogeneous and consisted mainly of
alkanesulphonates and hydroxyalkanesulphonates. Therefore this type
of surfactant will require the use of large quantities of
cosurfactants to improve the microemulsion quality and to reduce
the selective adsorption on rocks.

2.2.2 Characterization of microemulsions with surfactantmodels

Referring to Cortemaggiore fluids and on the basis of PIT and
Optimal Solubilization Parameters (S = V /V = V /V , the optimal
number of ethylenoxide groups (E0) in the surfactant molecules was
evaluated. Fig. 1 shows PIT vs. E0 group for C H 0 (EO) CH COONa
and 4alkylphenol (0) COONa mixed with Cortemaggiore fluids.
Fig. 2 shows S* vs. salinity at 54C for different
surfactantmodels mixed with Cortemaggiore fluids in WOR (water/oil
ratio) equal to 1.
Using the spinning drop tensiometer (SITE 4 ) , the interfacial
tension (IFT) of systems brine/oil/surfactant was measured at
different temperatures; some results of these measurements are
showed in Fig. 3.
Finally, phase behaviour of many brine/oil/surfactant systems was
studied at the reservoir temperature. Fig. 4 shows an example of
phase behaviour of C 0 (EO) CH COONa with n= 5.24, 5 and 4.16.
12 25 2
We found that a lot of surfactants with good PIT, S and IFT values,
were not as effective when mixed with Cortemaggiore fluids.
Many pseudoternary diagrams showed wide zones with high viscosity
gels, precipitates or persistent emulsions. Fig. 5 shows the
pseudoternary diagrams of two 4alkylphenolethoxycarboxymethylated
surfactants with different numbers of E0 groups, where the phase
viscosity is pointed out.
2.2.3 Structural study of surfactantmodels
While there is a wide literature on polyethoxylated nonionic
surfactans, very few studies have been reported on
polyethoxylatedcarboxymethylated surfactant structures. Since we
had synthesized a series of monodisperse polyethoxylated surfactants
both nonionic and 100% carboxymethylated , we have carried out some
comparative structural studies on the two classes of compounds.
 871

It is known that diffusion and solubilization mechanisms of

polyethoxylated surfactants depend on the conformation of the
polyether chain (7).
13
By joining solidstate CCPMASNMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
of Carbon 13 Cross PolarizationMagic Angle Spinning) and Xray
analysis, the crystal structure of monodisperse ethoxylated
dodecanols in the form of both nonionic and carboxylated
derivatives was elucidated (8).
For all the investigated compounds, NMR analysis in the solid
state confirms the generally accepted zigzag structure of the
paraffinchain. Xray analysis had evidenced a doublelayer three
dimensional ordered structure for the EO chain, with a linear
increase of the "long spacing" as a function of EO number. For the
carboxylated derivatives two crystalline modifications were
detected, corresponding to 7/2 helix (Modification I) and zigzag
conformation (Modification II) for EO segments (Fig. 6 ) . The
quantitative ratio between two conformations depends on the process
for synthesizing thesurfactants and not on the chain length (at
least for 4 ^ 10). For nonionic derivatives the 7/2 conformation
appears favoured.
By means of transient fluorescence probing (intramicellar excimer
formation by pyrene), some preliminary measurements on the micellar
aggregation number of carboxymethylated drivtes showed that it is
less than the corresponding number for nonionic derivatives (9);
besides, additionally, this micellar aggregation number does not
strongly increase with temperature as in the case of nonionic
ethoxylated alcohols.

3. POLYMER EVALUATION

On the basis of technical literature the following biopolymers

were selected:
hydroxyethylcellulose;
guar gum (natural etheropolysaccharides);
Xanthan gum;
scleroglucan.
From preliminary viscosity and filterability tests, studies were
oriented towards Xanthan gum and guar gum derivatives.

3.1 Guar drivtes

We considered guar gum because it is considerably cheaper than
Xanthan gum.
872

An attempt was made to modify guar macrostructure through

chemical reactions in order to obtain derivatives with better
chemical-physical characteristics than the original polymer. From
commercial guar, which included about 20% of insoluble substances,
such as cellulose fibers and proteins, and had poor thermal and
enzymatic stability, the following derivatives were produced:
- hydroxypropyl guar;
- carboxymethyl guar;
- hydroxypropyl-carboxymethyl guar;
- guar aerylamide.
Significative differences among these derivatives are summarized
in Tab. I. The best results with regard to viscosity and
filterability were obtained with carboxymethyl guar. Fig. 7 shows
some Theological curves of this polymer vs. substitution degree of
chloroacetate group (DS).
Unfortunately, the lower cost of these derivatives does not
sufficiently compensate the considerable difference in performance
from Xanthan gum, particularly in terms of thickening properties.

3.2 Xanthan gum

The best promising polymer for high salinity brines seems to be
Xanthan gum. For this polymer, which is available from numerous
industrial sources, special studies were performed in order to
characterize its solutions in a standard manner.

3.2.1 Polymer dissolution

Particular importance was given to polymer dissolution in brine
to have a good reproducibily of the solutions. The best results were
obtained when the polymer was dissolved in a small brine volume by
mechanical stirring at 3000 rpm for 0.5 hours, and then diluted to
the desired volume.
By using a Coulter Counter apparatus, analysis of suspended
macroaggregates was performed after every dissolution. Fig. 8
compares the macroaggregate dimensions of Flocon 4800 after three
different dissolution tests.

3.2.2 Pyruvic acid and acetyl-group contents

Every commercial polymer, before pyruvic and acetyl-group content
evaluation, was purified to reduce the presence of cellular
bacterial residues (10).
Then pyruvic and acetyl-group contents, which characterize the
bacterial group and the polymer fermentation process, were evaluated
using the procedures described in Ref. 11 and 12, respectively.
These two parameters seem to be strictly connected with Theological
 873

properties and filterability of biopolymers (11). While a connection

between pyruvic content and polymer filterability was found, as Tab.
II shows, no trend was seen between pyruvic content and Theological
properties, as Tab. Ill summarizes, at least for the commercial
products checked. In Tab. II the filterability increases as pyruvic
content increases.

3.2.3 Ageing tests

Ageing tests were performed on polymer solutions to check their
viscosity maintenance. Samples were kept for a long time in a
thermostatic air bath at test temperature without bactericides. At
the end of the test period their viscosity was measured again. Fig.9
shows viscosity reductions of three polymer solutions after two
months.

CONCLUSIONS

Tests such as PIT, Optimal Solubilization Parameter, Cloud Point,

IFT and phase behaviour studies on pseudoternary diagrams have
allowed us to characterize some promising surfactant families which
could be used with success in micellar/polymer flooding process in
high salinity reservoirs. Original process to synthesize these
surfactants were developed. An approach with NMR analysis has
clarified the chain structure of these surfactants.
The studies on polymers for high salinity brines have confirmed
that biopolymers and, particularly Xanthan gums, are still the best.
A procedure to characterize the commercial biopolymer was developed.

REFERCENCES

1. Akstinat, M.H. : "Surfactants for Enhanced Oil Recovery Process in

high Salinity Systems - Product Selection and Evaluation -", Proc.
I o Europ. Symp. EOR, Bournemouth, 21-23 September 1981.

2. Kraft, H.R., Pusch, G. : "Mobilization and Banking of Residual Oil

in High Salinity Reservoir Systems with the Use of Aqueous
Surfactant Solution of Ethoxylated Carboxymethylates", SPE/DOE 10784
(1982).

3. Balzer, D. : "Carboxymethylated Ethoxylates as EOR Surfactants"

Proc. 2 Europ. Symp. EOR, Paris, 8-10 November 1982.

4. Hill, H.J., Brew, J.R., Claridge, E.L., Hite, J.R., Pope, G.A. :
"The Behaviour of Polymers in Porous Media", SPE 4748 (1974).
874

5. Akstinat, M.H. : "Polymers for Enhanced Oil Recovery in Reservoirs

of Extremely High Salinities and High Temperatures", SPE 8979
(1980).

6. Reed, R.L., Healy, R.N. : "Some Physicochemical Aspects of

Microemulsions Flooding: a Review", Improved Oil Recovery by
Surfactant and Polymer Flooding, Ed. by D.O. Shah and R.S.
Schechter, Acad. Press. Inc. (1977).

7. Faggiano, L., De Simone, R., Platone, E. : "Alkali metal salts of

polyethoxycarboxylic acids", Ger. often. DE 3,446,561 (1983-1985).

8. C orno, C, Ghelli, S., Perego, G. and Platone, E., in preparation.

9. C orno, C, unpublished data.

10. Holzwarth, G. Biochemistry (1976) 15 (19), 4333.

11. Sandford, P.A., et al. : "Characterization of Xanthan Products of

Differing Pyruvic Acid C ontent", Extracellular Microbial
Polysaccharides, A . CS . Symp. Ser. (1977) 45, 192-210.

12. Mc Comb, .., Mc Cready, R.M. : "Determination of Acetyl in Pectin

and in Acetylated Carbohydrate Polymers", Anal. C hem. 29,5,819-821
(1957).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper describes work organized by Prof. G.L. Chierici, who was
project-leader. Dr. G. Della Fortuna, Dr. E. Sorta and Dr. A. Re were in
charge of the polymer evaluation; Dr. De Chirico of the screening tests
and characterization of surfactants on CEE contract TH 05.45/83.
We wish thank Prof. Zana in whose laboratory the fluorescence
measurements were carried out.
 875

Table I Characteristics of guarderivates (concentration 0.15%)

no(20C) H(20C) Residuua

(Pas) (Pas)

Hydroxypropyl Guar 15.2 11.5 3.1

Carboxyaethyl Guar 415 107 0.8

Hydr. Carb.Heth Guar 106 9.6 3.5

Acrylaaide Guar 98.6 11.5 1.2

distilled brine filter

water 100 g/1 NaCl 0.8JM

Table II Viscosity Measurements of polyaer solutions through different Hillipore filters

Pyruv. Viscosity (Pas! of Solution with Polyeer Cone. 0.12%

BIOPOLYMER Acid Shear Rate : 1 s"' Shear Rate : 10 s"' Shear Rate : 100 s"1
(% wt) O.S. 0.8 0.45 0.3 0.22 O.S. 0.8 0.45 0.3 0.22 O.S. 0.8 0.45 0.3 0.2Z

ENORFLO X140 2.08 200 170 150 82 1.8 56 53 48 32 1.8 13 12 11 8.6 1.8
ZNXC 3.88 no 90 70 4.5 1.5 46 41 34 44 1.5 14.5 13 12 3.2 1.5
FLOCON 4800 C 4.63 78 70 38 37 14 14

O.S. Original Solution; (l) concentration used was 0.9%; filter pore :0.80.450.30.22 yin
Brine Salinity7 :15% NaCl + 2% CaCl 2 + % HgCl
y 2

Table III Viscosity behaviour of different conwercial polyer solution

Pyruvic Acetyl Viscosity (Pas) of S olution with Polymer Cone. 0.12%

BIOPOLYMER Acid Group Shear Rate = 1 s"1 Shear Rate 30 s'1
(% wt) (% wt) . 20 C = 50 C = 70 C = 20 C 50 C 70" C
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

ENORFLO X140 2.08 3.90 270 340 88 178 38 87 46 39 25 31 17 24

XFL 3.23 5.78 120 95 48 45 20 33 25 25 17 16 11 12
KELZAN S 3.65 5.51 145 115 60 57 21 31 28 27 19 18 11 13
ZNXC 3.88 4.54 105 110 45 54 24 28 23 26 16 17 11 11
SIGHA 3.98 4.55 90 77 40 64 20 28 22 23 15 15 10 11
CX 12 4.62 3.81 158 180 62 113 26 38 27 31 18 22 12 14
FLOCON 4800 C 4.63 4.51 56 78 19 36 6 31 18 23 11 15 5 10

1. B rine salinity : 0.1% NaCl

2. B rine salinity : 15% NaCl + 2% CaCl + 1.4% HgCl
876

O 40ctylPH0(EQ) n CM I C00Mo
D C 12 H2s00}nCH2C00No ( t o t . b. )
V C^HHOCEtUnCHjCOOHo (unlt.ub.)
CMHM0E0)nCH2C00No
X C.oOtEOJnCHCOONo
* CtztttOEOJnCHjCtXMo Cbreiched)

5 6 7 9 10 11 12 13 14
ETHYLENOXYDE GROUP NUMBER

FIG. I PHASE INVERSION TEMPERATURE va. ETHYLENOXIOE CROUP FOR

BRINE/OIL/SURFACTANT 5 0 / 5 0 / 2 * t .

O 40ctylPH0(E%MCH,C00Na S*
D CiHnOrtOijuCHjCOONo s*
7 CiHa0(EO)jCHjCOOH S*

C 1 s C | J 0 1 r i n auIphonoUd {.
* Ct2uO(EO)6gsCH7COONa S*!

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 20
BRINE SALINITY (%)

FJG.Z SOLUBILIZATION PARAHETER . BRINE SALINITY. FOR

BRINE/OIL/SURFACTANT 5 0 / 5 0 / 2 t .
 877

O 4OctylPH0(E0) 5 M CH 2 COQNa
D Ci 2 H n O<EO>s.,jCH 2 COC*4o
V C^H^OtEO^CH^OOMo
* C12,gO(EO)g.HCH2COONa

41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59

TEMPERATURE (C

F I C . 3 INTERFACIAL TENSION OF SYSTEM BHINE/OIL/SURFACTANT .

TEMPERATURE. FOR SYSTEM WITH O. 1 % *U OF SURFACTANT

Q S i n g l e p h o M O/V

S i n g l e phamm V / 0

^ ^ Twopho V K V / 0

^ T*ophoM 0 K 0/V

(T) T>ophoM both with

urfoctont

p4 Thrpho

Q High vlecoalty gal

FIO. 4 PHASE BEHAVIOUR OF SYSTEM BRIKE/OIL/Ct^WECDnCHiCOONa

WITH n5.24, S and 4.16 a t 54C
878

F I E . 3 - VISCOSITY HAP FOR SYSTEM BRINE/0IL/4-0CTYLPHEN0L(E0> n CH 2 C00Nei

WITH n - 6 . 41 ond S. 58 a t 54*C.VALUES I N Pa.

/ / / / / /

mod. II

<CM,I ilgug (CH,-CH,-Ol, Hg- t a ,

Wtmmi ( C H , - C H , - O l n 7ih.ll -CHj-COONa

FIC. 6 - DOUBLE LAYER STRUCTURE OF POLYOXYETHYLEN-CARBOXYHETHYLATEO

SURFACTANTS.
 879

1000

D.S. RESIDUUM ()

0.761 0.67
G 0.428 O.BO
O 0.250 28.90

100
A DISTILLED WATER

t
*

O O D * OD D
10
0

g S S H

BRINE (101 NoCl)

I I I I I II

SHEAR RATE (s 1 )

FIC.7 VISCOSITY OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OK CARBOXYHETHYL GUAR (0. I5X) at 20C.

100 f
*

90

CUMULATIVE
60

70
. *

60


50
V MAGNETIC STIRRING
O MECH. STIRR. 3000 rpa
40 O NECH. STIRR. 5000 rp.

30 t
a
20 " O
10 s
INCREMENTAL 0

8 s a <> H
1 I I I
IC
MACROAGGREGATES DIAMETER ()

FIG. PERCENTAGE OF MACROAGGREGATES vs. HACROAGGREGATES DIAMETER OF

FLOCON <00 (0. IX) FOR DIFFERENT DISSOLUTION PROCEDURES.
880

1H

D
. '

0.75.

*N
V
05 \ .
\

0.25.
0 FLOCON 4B00
KE LZAN S
* 140

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
DAYS

FIO.9 - VISCOSITY REDUCTION v.. TIME FOR DIFFERENT POLYMERS (0. It).
 881

EMERAUDE VAPEUR
AN OFFSHORE STEAM PILOT

. COUDERC, D. MONFRIN, L. QETTIER, B. SAHUQUET

ELF AQUITAINE
Avenue Larribau 64018 PAU CEDEX FRANCE

SUMMARY
The Emeraude field is located offshore CONGO, on the
West African coast. Very adverse conditions apply to
this field : water depth is 65 m, reservoirs depth is
shallow (200 m to 500 m) and they consist of silt
layers alternating with thin fractured limestone beds.
In addition these very heterogeneous reservoirs are
strongly depleted and oil is viscous [0.1 Pa.s (100 cp)
at reservoir conditions].
In 1980, a steam drive pilot was decided in order to
estimate a recovery rate and an oilsteam ratio on two
superposed and independent reservoirs.
The adverse environmental conditions required original
solutions : tilted conductor pipes, a tilted rig, and
adapted pumping units on one platform because of
reservoir shallowness and steam production equipment on
a second platform because of the distance to shore.
Steam injection started in March 1985, after 18 months
of preliminary tests (injection and interference tests)
and of primary production. A clear significant response
in oil production has been noticed on some wells. After
two years of steam injection, the incremental recovery
rate is promising and the oil steam ratio is 0.28 V/V
in the pilot area. Some wells outside this area show an
oil rate increase. Numerical simulations of the pilot
behaviour were made with a thermal pseudocompositional
simulator.

INTRODUCTION
The Emeraude field represents a large amount of oil in
place, several hundreds MT of viscous oil [0.1 Pa.s(100 cp)
at reservoir conditions]. After 14 years of production (from
882

1972 to 1986), 22 MT only have been recovered, which

represents about 3% of the oil in place, and the reservoir is
now severely depleted.
In order to produce the remaining reserves on a primary
recovery basis, in a 15 to 20 years period, several
additional platforms would be necessary. The final recovery
would not exceed 5% to 10% in any case.
Various enhanced oil recovery methods were considered to
meet the challenge of this large amount of oil associated
with this poor recovery rate. But steam injection tests under
laboratory conditions turned out to be the most promising. As
a consequence, a steamflood pilot was implemented, with the
following goals :
- prove the technological feasibility of such a pilot in
adverse conditions : drilling with a tilt-rig, crossing and
cementing of depleted and fractured zones, pumping tilted
wells, and producing steam from sea water ;
- evaluate reservoir responses to steam injection, steam
injectivity, steam breakthrough time, recovery rate and oil
steam ratio.
GEOLOGICAL. RESERVOIR AND FLUID CHARACTERISTICS
The Emeraude field lies 20 km offshore CONGO and 30 km
south of Pointe-Noire. The structure is an anticline with a
Northwest-Southeast axis. It is crossed by a curved fault
(fig. 1).
Reservoirs are shallow from 200 m/MSL to 500 m/MSL and
can be described as a silt-limestone series in the Senonian
(fig. 2) and a limestone dolomite series in the Turonian.
The pilot is concerned with the two upper reservoirs of
the Senonian, called Rl and R2, which contain most of the oil
in place and are respectively 50 m and 48 m thick.
The lithology is a quick succession of siltstones and
compact limestones. The siltstones cover the range from
unconsolidated, even loose, clean silts to argileous
-4
cemented
limestones ; their permeability vary from 10 m to 0.05
m2(.l mD to 50 mD) . The limestones have virtually no
permeability and are not impregnated ; however they may be3
highly fractured ; the typical aperture of fractures is 10~
m, allowing a fracture permeability far above 1 m 2 ( I D ) .
The average thickness of the compact beds is 0.2 m while that
of the siltstone beds ranges from 0.2 m to 3 m.
This highly heterogeneous vertical organization
contrasts with a good horizontal continuity as shown by
excellent correlation between wells. However the exact
extension of the compact, fractured limestone beds is
 883

difficult to ascertain. On the other hand, the continuous

beds of shaly siltstones make efficient permeability barriers
and divide the Senonian into a number of layers as can be
seen on fig. 2.
Reservoir Rl includes layers A to K. Here the silty
matrix is generally rather sha]^ and the permeability is low
between 10 - 4 m and 5.10-3 mr (. 1 and 5 mD) ; in addition
the fractured limestones are thought to have a very large
extension, which enables the drainage of oil ; they are
mainly located in levels C and G.
Reservoir R2 consists of levels L, M and 0. The
permeability barrier is very efficient between levels O and
M, less so between levels M and L. Within beds L and 0, the
density of limestones beds is very high so that these layers
can be considered as drains even if the individual limestone
beds correlation between wells is not granted. The M level is
the thickest of the reservoir (25 ml ; its matrix
permeability is the highest (up to 0.05 m 2 (50 mD) and the
density of limestones streaks is the lowest. These limestones
beds do not necessarily correlate between wells and fissures
appear to be randomly connected. They can insure sufficient
injectivity and productivity without jeopardizing the
horizontal sweeping of the matrix by acting as a by pass
between wells.

This stratigraphie description has been refined to

minute details within the pilot area, thanks to a
comprehensive coring program and the use of multipad
microresistivity correlations on every well, calibrated on
core descriptions.
Fluid characteristics can be summarized as follows :
lightly undersaturated oil with a bubble point of 2.3 MPa
(333.6 psi), a solution gas-oil ratio of 12 m /m3 (266
Scf/bbl), a rather high in situ viscosity [0.1 Pa.s (100 cP)]
and a stock tank oil specific gravity of 0-.920 (22 API).
Water formation salinity is 0.070 kg/m (0.265 g/gal).

PILOT DESCRIPTION
Based on promising experimental results (ref. 4), two
steam-drive five spots (4 producers and 1 injector) with a
13 0 m spacing were implemented on reservoirs Rl and R2
(fig. 3). The underlying idea was that with continuous steam
injection, the heated zone could cover a large area, which
would provide a maximum expansion and vaporization effect as
well as pressure maintenance in these depleted reservoirs.
Three criteria determined the location of the pilot :
- a low-dip region in order to minimize steam overriding
effect ;
884

- a low water-oil ratio and gas-oil ratio zone in order

to have a regular thermal front ;
- an area with low oil recovery rate.
For these reasons, the pilot was located on the southern
structure between platforms AA, II and CC.
Because of the larger spacing and non thermal completion
of old wells, adjacent platforms could not be used for this
pilot experiment. Two new platforms were then necessary in
order to fulfill the pilot requirements. On the first
platform, called EMVF, drilling, work-over and production
equipments were set up.
The two injection wells are vertical and the eight
producing wells were drilled using tilted conductor pipes and
a tilt rig to obtain a 130 m spacing (fig. 4).
This spacing was chosen after preliminary numerical
simulation in order to obtain the best compromise between
optimum oil steam ratio and acceptable life time for the
pilot. Because of reservoirs shallowness, it was not possible
to drill this spacing with a conventional rig. For the
producers, 30 inclined conductor pipes had to be used and
wells had to be drilled with a tilt rig.
As it could not be brought from the shore, steam had to be
made on site using sea water. A second platform, called EMVU,
was necessary to carry the steam making equipment. Associated
gas is used as energy and it is collected from BB, CC and HH
platforms where compressors are installed.

SPECIFIC FACILITIES
Specific facilities were required for pumping and for
steam production.
Long stroke pumping units had to be adapted to work in
an inclined position. They are connected to bottomhole pumps.
An original feature is that the wells are equipped with a
bottomhole gauge and the units are electronically regulated
in order to optimize production.
Steam generation required the seawater desalination
which is provided by two units. Both work by vacuum
distillation. On the first one, it is obtained by means of
mechanical compressor, while on the second one, steam
ejection is used.
Steam is made out of this desalinated sea water through
two generators providing a maximum 7.3 MW (25 MBTU/hr) each
at 240C (464F), with a maximum pressure of 6.9 MPa (1000
psi). The quantity of steam injected is limited by well head
 885

pressures (100 T/D and 160 T/D in level RI and level R2

respectively). The maximum capacity of the equipment
installed is 550 T/D.
DRILLING AND COMPLETION OF WELLS
Drilling and completion were two key problems because
reservoirs are fractured and strongly depleted (fig. 5): the
risk of plugging the formation with mud or cement was high.
To minimize risks, sophisticated drilling programs were
developped. They included several intermediary casings as
well as lightened completion fluids and temporary plugging
agents, in order to protect fissured zones while drilling and
to minimize losses.
After drilling and completion of the first wells, it
turned out that these programs could be simplified. The
drilling program is given in fig. 6.
All cements used were thermally protected with silica
and thermal slurries were lightened with beads and glass ;
they proved to be totally satisfactory.

Two types of completions were used depending on whether

the well was an injector or a producer.
Injectors were completed by perforating a tie-backed
7"5/2 cemented liner and were equipped with a 3"l/2 tubing
with a thermal packer and an expansion joint located near the
surface. Thermal tubing insulation is provided by air in the
annulus.
Original completion programs called for production wells
with internal gravel pack but initial tests and experience on
"conventional Emeraude" indicated that this was not
necessary. All production wells were equipped with a 3" 1/2
tubing without any packer as the annulus are vented to the
flare. Long strokes pumps were positionned below the
perforations which were done with 4" hyperjet with 13 shots/m
density. In addition, pressure and temperature gauges were
positionned next to the pumps.
At level Rl, the idea was to inject in level G and
produce level C, both layers being depleted and highly
fractured, in order to sweep the reservoir vertically. In
addition, heat conduction transfer from drains to the silt
matrix should exude oil.
At level R2, layer M is thick and relatively homogeneous
as well as isolated from adjacent permeability streaks so
that a horizontal steam drive could be attempted by
perforating both producers and the injector at the base of
886

level M. An efficient cimentation was required on both

levels, for these schemes to work out.

STEAMFLOOD OPERATIONS AND PERFORMANCE

After a period of primary production, steam injection
started in March 1985 on level R2 and in June 1985 on level
Rl.
Oil production, water cut,gas oil ratio, temperature and
pressure are regularly measured and produced fluids are
analyzed.
On level Rl, 55540 of steam had been injected by the
end of July 1987. Monthly injection rate varied greatly as
can be seen on fig 7, with an average injection rate of about
70 T/D.
Up to March 1987, no specific response has been noticed
in the five spot area, on this level. However 70% of injected
steam has been produced back by adjacent wells which are
perforated on level G in which steam is injected. All the
produced water is cold, and that justifies the completion
scheme based on the assumption that the thermal conductivity
is high and all the heat is transferred from the limestone
beds to the matrix.
To increase and to accelerate the oil rate production,
the initial completion scheme was modified in April 87 and
additional perforations were shot between layers and K. As
a result, oil production rose from an average rate of 30 m /D
to 200 m3/D.
Although most of this oil is of primary origin, it is
believed that part of it is exuded oil produced through layer
G, in which steam is injected. In addition, water cut
increased and is around 55%, while gas-oil ratio declined. In
July, temperature increased on one well.
On level R2, results are much more encouraging.(fig. 8)
After five months of injection, a first response was noticed
on well EMV07, where oil production increased from 10 m3/D to
a maximum rate of 45 m /D. As the same time GOR declined, and
water cut went up from 10% to 50%. Bottomhole temperature was
monitored continuously and rose from 30C to 90" C (77"F to
194 F) . As of July 1987, its production is declining and is
now around 28 r/D, with a water cut of 54% (fig.9). In
addition to these measurements, some indicators such as water
salinity showed a continuous concentration trend from 0.05
kg/nr to 0.025 kg/m3 and at the3 same time. silicium
concentration increased from 10 g/cm to 25 g/cm3 (fig.10).
Gas analysis on this well indicated an increase in CO, and
H 2 S. These last two facts had already been observed during
 887

laboratory experiments (ref. 4) . On Lacg Superieur pilot

(France) a C0 2 uptrend had also been noticed.(ref. 5 and 6),
C0 2 percentage rises as a result of decomposition of the
limestone rock by steam and silicium concentration variation
is due to an increase in the solubility of silica
correlatively with temperature.
Water salinity decrease and solubility of silicium
increase show that condensed water is diluting field water
and corroborate the fact that the steam drive is efficient in
the well direction. Among other pilot wells, EMV02 oil rate
increased from 10 to 20 m3/D. GOR and water salinity
decreased. No temperature change has been noticed up to now.
In this well direction, matrix sweeping is taking place, but
the reaction is slower than on EMV07.
No reaction has been noticed on EMV08 and EHV09 as far
as oil production is concerned, but recently temperature
seemed to be on an upward trend on EMV09. Other indicators
like gas or salinity do not present any variations.
The pilot oil rate is now in the range of 60 m3/D, about
35 m3/D of which can be attributed to steam. Thermal oil
reached a maximum of about 45 m3/d at the time when EMV07 was
at its peak.
By comparing measured cumulative oil and the results of
depletion simulation, the tertiary oil production has been
estimated at 31100 T by July 1987, which represents a
cumulative oil steam ratio of 0.28 v/v.
In addition to these responses on the pilot, some other
wells located on adjacent platforms showed a reaction to
injected steam. On the CC platform, temperature increased
significantly on two wells completed on that level, from 30C
to 45"C and 70C. Water salinity also decreased on these two
wells and silica concentration presented a peak before
returning to initial values (fig. 11) . A small oil rate
increase was noticed, but it is not significant. After a
recent build-up interpretation, it turned out these wells are
plugged and a stimulation is planned.
NUMERICAL INTERPRETATION
A thermal, three dimensional pseudo-compositional
simulator, called MEPHISTO, has been developed to interpret
thermal recovery processes in heterogeneous reservoirs and
more specifically to be able to interpret results of this
particular pilot.
As mainly the R2 reservoir responded so far to steam
injection, numerical interpretation was concerned with this
level. Interference tests were interpreted with the MEPHISTO
simulator, analytical methods being inadequate for such an
888

heterogeneous reservoir with three phase production. This

method enabled to obtain basic input data for the model, and
using all the pressure data obtained during logging
operations, led to a match with primary production and
allowed simulation of the reservoir depletion.
The second step was the simulation of steam injection.
The model consists of 1904 grid blocks and concerns layer M
only. This layer has been subdivided into seven horizontal
layers, of which layers 2 and 5 represent the limestone beds.
Other layers represent silt with a few interspersed limestone
beds. Therefore, a permeability of 1 m 2 (1 D) has been given
to these layers (to be2 compared with the actual silt
permeability of 0.03 m (30 mD) . Particularities of
limestone layers have been taken into consideration, as well
as the special configuration. These layers were assigned non
homogeneous permeability and porosity values to take into
account areal anisotropy as shown by production well
response. Relative permeabilities determined by experimental
methods and computation were used (ref. 4).
Up to July 1987, computed results show a good
qualitative agreement on oil rate production for all wells
(fig. 12) , even though EMV07 maximum computed oil rate is
lower than the observed one (fig. 13) ; history matching of
this well is still in progress.
The model forecasted a thermal reaction on well EMV09. A
temperature increase has been measured lately.
The isotemperature at the base of the reservoir is shown in
fig. 14 after two years of steam injection.
Some additional numerical work is in progress to improve the
match with observations. But due to the heterogeneity and
random limestone beds connections, simulation of this
reservoir is very delicate.

CONCLUSIONS
The Emeraude steam drive pilot is an original solution
to recover a larger amount of oil in place than by primary
production, despite difficult conditions (offshore, shallow,
heterogeneous and depleted reservoirs).
All the technological problems have been solved.
1. Obtaining a sufficient well spacing thanks to a tilt-
rig.
2. Drilling and cementing depleted and fractured zones.
3. Pumping units adapted to tilted wells and
electronically regulated.
4. Facilities for steam production from seawater on a
platform.
 889

In addition to these technological solutions, some reservoir

engineering answers have been obtained.

5. Steam can be injected at a sufficient rate in the Rl

and R2 reservoirs.
6. Steam improves oil production rate in heterogeneous
reservoirs as proved by the response given on level
R2 by EMV07 where oil rate increased four times and
by responses on other wells, even these located on
adjacent platforms.
7. An oil steam ratio of 0.28 V/V is estimated in the
five spot area on the R2 reservoir.

The pilot is still in progress, and additional results

are expected.

NOMENCLATURE
h thickness (m)
k absolute permeability ( m )
kh horizontal permeability ( m )
kV vertical permeability ( m 2 )
krg relative gas permeability (fraction)
kro relative oil permeability (fraction)
krw relative water permeability (fraction)
MSL mean sea level
pressure (MPa)
Q flow rate (m3/D)
S ge critical gas saturation (fraction)
Sir irreducible water saturation (fraction)
Sorg residual oil saturation in gas-oil system (fraction)
Sorw residual oil saturation in water-oil system (fraction)
T temp erature ('C )

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the Popular Republic of the C ONGO for making
this pilot possible. We also thank Socit Nationale ELF
AQUITAINE, ELF C ONGO and AGIP RECHERCHE C ONGO for permission
to publish this paper and acknowledge the contribution of all
the persons who work (and worked) on this project both in the
laboratory and on the pilot itself. Special thanks are given
to R.H. COTTIN for his large contribution and creativity. We
also wish to emphasize the support of EEC in this project.

REFERENCES
1. R.H. C OTTIN "Preparation d'un essai pilote d'injection de
vapeur sur le gisement d'Emeraude Marine". Paper presented at
the 2nd European Symposium on Enhanced Oil Recovery, PARIS,
Nov. 8-10, 1982.
2. QUETTIER L. , EYMARD R. : "MEPHISTO : un modle numrique
pour simuler les injections de vapeur dans les rservoirs
890

trs htrognes" Paper presented at the 3rd European

Symposium .on improved oil recovery, Rome, April 16-18, 1985.
3. C ORRE ., EYMARD R. , QUETTIER L. : "Applications of a
thermal simulator to field cases". Paper SPE 13221 presented
at 59th Annual Technical conference and Exhibition of the SPE
Of AIME, HOUSTON, September 16-19, 1984.

4. QUETTIER L.:"Determination of three-phase relative

permeabilities under reservoir conditions by not water and
steamflood experiments" Paper presented at the 4th European
Symposium on Enhanced Oil Recovery, Hambourg Oct. 27-29,
1987.

5. SAHUQUET B., FERRIER J. : "Steam drive pilot in a

fractured carbonated reservoir : Lacq Superieur Field", J.
Pet. Tech. (April 1982) 873-80.

6. SAHUQUET B., C ORRE . : "Injection de vapeur en milieu

carbonate fissur pilote de LAC Q SUPERIEUR" Paper presented
at 2nd European Symposium on Enhanced Oil Recovery, Paris,
Nov. 8-10, 1982.
 891

Flg. 1. Location of the steam p i l o t on the Emeraude s t r u c t u r e

SERIES RESERVOIR LAYERS LITHOLOGY

SENONIAN

Allemancts
looee alitatone
- fractured
limestone beds
- filly and
calcarooui t h a i

'''' f f

Fig. 2. Geological description of the Senonian reservoirs

892

XCC
EMV04(R1)
EMV 08(R2)O
\
, _ , _ EMV05(R1) \
EMVF/ USJEO E M V 0 9 ( R 2 ) \
EMV06(R1L EMVU
EMV0 7 ,R 2 , V O I f R I , , , ^ ^ , , /

F i g . 3 . General view

6 verticil conductor pipei

2 iteim generator I IIrin
i /12 tilled condi

: dlitince between producing

I end ln|ecllng Weill
I 130 m

F i g . 4 . General scheme
 893

ce EMV01 O EMVM EHVOT

2 depth EMV02 EMVOS A EMVOB
o EMV03 EMVOB EMV11
E, retoranc <topth EMV 03
ITS

A
0 6 ^
\'
C < " V

925


?=
G
_.
I
*
250 L . Initial gridlnt

M
275 ^ \
O
\ % L
300
I/Il \

225
A
e
E1
W \\
250 x
E2

Pn
1 0.5 10 15 2.0 24 0 *""
MPI

Fig. 5. Vertical pressure distribution

(m/MSL)

| C ASING "| tompttratur ind

prtuure gaug

Fig. 6. Drilling and completion programs at level R2

894

OIL P R O D U C T I O N AND
STEAM INJECTION RATES WATER CUT.
(m'/D)
M

Fig. 7. Monthly production at level Rl (pilot)

GOR
(M'/M 3 )

yv
200 100
'OIL PRODUCTION AND WATER CUT
' STEAM INJECTION RATES
K') STEAM (CWE) J M

1 ,,Mj

Fig. 8. Monthly production a t level R2 (pilot)

 895

F i g . 9 . Monthly p r o d u c t i o n a t w e l l E MV 07

H,S co 2
(% vol) (% vol)

WATER SALINITY (g/L)

SILICIUM CONTE NT ( H T 3 g/L)

7
V
. . ; './^SILICIUM
- 1
W -

F i g . 1 0 . Monthly i n d i c a t o r s measurements on E MV 07
896

WATER SALINITY (g/L)

SILICIUM CONTE NT (10' 3 g/L)
CC 328-1

100
OIL PRODUCTION WATER CUT 90
(mVD)
80

70

1985 1986 1987

F i g . 1 1 . Monthly production and i n d i c a t o r s

measurements on w e l l CC 328-1

OIL PRODUCTION RATE

(m'/D)

. depletion (tlmulellon
' " without i t e i m
ln|ecllon)

-11II I I III I I lll I L_l_

1985 1986 1987

Fig. 12. Measured and computed monthly oil production rates (R2)
 897

OIL PRODUCTION RATE

(mVD)

I measured

U L,
.J
rH /computed

0 I I I I I I III111IIItill * '

1985 1988 1987

Fig. 13. Measured and com puted m onthly o i l production r a t e s (EMV 07)

I II I N I I I I I I I
35 C

EMV 07 EMV 08

AA
CC

EMV 02

II

J I U l u l i l i in L
Fig. 14. Isotem perature a f t e r two years of steam injection
898

HEAVY OIL PROCESSING

A SYNTHESIS OF THE ASVAHL RESULTS

J.C. CHARLOT - ELF FRANCE

J.L. COUDERC - CRD TOTAL FRANCE
J.F. LE PAGE - IFP

1. INTRODUCTION

In the depth of the 1979 oil crisis, CRD TOTAL France, ELF France
and Institut Franais du Ptrole joined their efforts to tackle a series
of refining treatments of heavy oils in view of making them transportable
and then suitable for a further processing in existing conventional
refineries.
ASVAHL, Association for the Valorization of Heavy Oils, was then
created to carry out the two following successive tasks :
- research and development at the laboratory and pilot scale of new
technologies, processes, methods and quipements and the comparison of
various processing schemes,
- conception, erection and operation of an experimental minirefinery to
assess at a demonstrative scale the feasibility of the processes and
processing schemes previously studied in the first phase of the
program. The main characteristics of this ASVAHL minirefinery are
summarized in table 1.
Results issued from the first phase of the program have been
presented in the 1984 CEE symposium. The present paper will deal with the
most interesting results obtained during the second phase of the program.
A special care will be taken to point out, for each process or processing
route, the major advantages, improvements or innovations which are worth
being mentioned. The first part of the presentation will be devoted to
the various ASVAHL processes, their performances and their most typical
features. The second part will cover, some heavy oil processing routes
which seems peculiarly feasible to provide a synthetic crude first
transportable and then processable in existing conventional refineries.

2. ASVAHL PROCESSES

In this review giving the results for each unit, it is difficult to

dissociate information coming from tests performed in the ASVAHL
minirefinery and that coming from research and development carried out by
the three partners in their respective laboratoires on the basis of a
joint program. For the main units, let us look at the process-by-process
results after merely mentioning that the services expected by the
secondary units (storage facilities, utilities) were consistent with the
expectations.
 899

2-1. Feedstock preparation

Four heavy oils have been desalted and distilled : Boscan,

Rospomare, Pilon, Athabasca.
Concerning the distillation units, let us merely say that they are
operating as expected. With regard to the desalting demo-plant, it has
achieved better performances than were expected from the results obtained
on the pilot-plant scale. Table 2 sums up the list of operational
variables (2-1) as well as the performances achieved in processing Boscan
and Rospomare crudes.

2-2. Deasphalting process - Solvahl

The following feedstocks have been investigated : Boscan,

Rospomare, Pilon, Morischal, Athabasca, Cold Lake, Arabian-heavy, Maya
and at only pilot scale, North Battleford, Cerro Negro, Tia Juana heavy,
Laguna once.

Process design

Solvahl process as demonstrated on the ASVAHL demonstration

facility, has several technological improvements or innovations which are
worth being mentioned (table 3) :
. An original extractor design combining an excellent selectivity of
extraction and the capability to run at large through put and at low
solvent/oil ratio (2 Mt/year per unit).
. An original and new concept of supercritical operating conditions
(opticritical) for solvent recovery. Compared to other supercritical
techniques, this one.not only drastically reduces the amount of energy
consumed in the solvent-deasphalted oil (DAO) separation but can be
carried out very selectively, as far as DAO content of the recovered
solvent is concerned, even when applying low solvent/oil ratios.
. An overall deasphalting plant design conception allowing a flexible and
smooth operation capable of producing extremely hard pitch (up to 210C
softening point) or some kinds of resins ; hard pitches can be produced
as solid flakes or as liquid by blending with a fluxant or by emulsion
in water.

Performances

Experiments have been carried out with various solvents : C , C.,

C , light gasoline. Table 4 shows the influence of the temperature of
dcantation and the effect of the temperature gradient between the
washing and the settling zones in the pentane deasphalting of the
Rospomare crude ; table 5 give the yield and product quality evolution
with the Boscan atmospheric residue as a feedstock. Fig. la, b, c, gives
the changes in product characteristics versus the DAO yield when changing
T, ^ T and solvent/oil ratio in the pentane-deasphalting of Morichal.
These operations have been worked out with both of the following aims :
- maximum yield of DAO,
- DAO pure enough for undergoing a further hydrotreatment at a moderately
high pressure (10 MPa) ; C As and mainly C As contents are the tracers
of the feasibility of such an operation.
900

Regarding table 6, it refers to some typical deresining operations

performed in the demo-plant with the Safanya vacuum resid. Such a set of
results illustrates the flexibility of the unit, if we refer to the
yields and qualities of resins which are varying on a very large range
the high values of the asphalt softening point bear out the possibility
of handling very hard pitches in the Solvahl process.
The only pentane deasphalting is rarely sufficient to make the DAO
transportable ; some lighter diluent has to be added to DAO for meeting
the requested specifications : Venezuela 400 est at 37,8C ; Europe
200 est at 10C ; Canada 120 est at 20C. A lighter solvent, C + C s , C ,
can also be used but at the expense of the DAO yield. Fig. 2a shows, for
the North Battleford heavy oil, the variation of the viscosity (log
) as a function of the asphalt percentage rejected through a
selective and progressive deasphalting carried out with solvents
exhibiting lower and lower molecular weight. Curve 2 gives the amount of
condensate (fi M O f , = 0.3 est) which must be added to meet the canadian
pipe-lining specifications (120 est at 20C or 12 est at 100C).
As a matter of fact, there is a very close analogy in the behaviour
of the heavy oils when they are progressively deasphalted : from a survey
of ASVAHL results, it seems that for all of them the relative viscosity
and the relative specific gravity are varying according to the curves of
figure 2b and 2c, respectively. Such a correlation probably means that
the molecular weight distribution of the heavy molecules as well as their
chemical structure are very similar for all these extra-heavy oils.

2-3. Thermal treatments Tervahl process

Three types of thermal treatments have been thorougly experimented

by ASVAHL with extra-heavy oils as feedstocks : visbreaking,
hydrovisbreaking, catalytic hydrovisbreaking ; accordingly, three thermal
cracking processes have been developed by ASVAHL and are commercialized
under the trade names of Tervahl T, Tervahl H and Tervahl C.
Thermal cracking of heavy oils is indeed a good and cheap way to
decrease their viscosity : all of them are very sensitive to heat
activation. Unluckily, the transformation of resins or asphaltens is not
intrinsically selective and these heavy molecules, acting as free
radicals, in the range of applied temperatures can undergo a
polycondensation as easily as they crack. Such a side reaction leads to
the formation of a high-viscosity pitch, if the operation is not
submitted to a close control.
In visbreaking, the only way to delay this pitch formation is the
selection, for each feedstock of the right "temperature-residence time"
couple. In hydrovisbreaking, the hydrogen partial pressure also slackens
the polycondensation of heavy radicals. In catalytic hydrpvosbreaking,
besides the selection of the suitable temperature, residence time and
hydrogen pressure, the minute amounts of catalytic additive (50 to 100
ppm) considerably help to slow down and to delay the pitch formation.
For all these thermal operations, the spot test value is the
characteristic of the product which is used to appreciate the severity of
the operation and to adjust accordingly the operating conditions and more
specially the temperature. This severity index estimation consist in
blending to 1 volume of cracked product, 5 volumes of a solvent composed
of X percents of o-xylene and (100-x) percents of iso-octane. For a
certain value of x, the flocculation threshold is overshort and there is
a transition from the collodal asphaltene and resin solution to a
micronic suspension of the same compounds. The spot test is based on the
 901

fact that flocculated particles migrate less quickly than the surrounding
liquid when a drop of product is deposited on a filter paper. After
drying, an uniform spot will mean there are no particles in suspension
whereas the appearance of a darker zone in the middle of the spot will
reveal the presence of flocculated asphaltenes. By definition, the
flocculation threshold improperly called "merit" corresponds to the value
x/10 that brings out the last aureola visible on the spot. The higher the
"merit" value, the worse is the quality of the cracked product. When the
merit is less than 7, we consider that the product is stable and can be
handled without asphaltene deposit.

Process designs

Figure 3 gives simplified process flow diagrams of Tervahl

(visbreaking) and Tervahl (hydrovisbreaking) ; for Tervahl C, consider
that a pump for soluble catalyst injection should be added to the Tervahl
flowsheet ; for Tervahl and C , the pressure lies in the 8-14 MPa
range.

Performances

Most of the available results concern Tervahl and Tervahl H.

Experimentation with minute amounts of soluble catalysts has been only
recently achieved and the results are just being analysed. Heavy crudes
that have been treated are, for most of them, the same as those mentioned
above in connection with deasphalting.
Table 7 gives a comparison between the performances of Tervahl
and those of Tervahl H. For about the same merit of the whole products,
yields in distillates are higher for Tervahl H as well as the decrease in
viscosity which is about twice more important. Note also the evolution of
the AsC contents which does not change in Tervahl whereas they are
noticeably decreasing in Tervahl H.
Figure 4 confirms, for the same severity, the advantage of Tervahl
H, when treating a Boscan crude with the only aim to produce a syncrude
with a viscosity as low as possible and still stable enough to be
pipe-lined without any problem.
Table 8 compares the Tervahl and the Tervahl C performances when
treating the Prime-Rose Lake heavy oil. All the operating conditions
being similar, 50 ppm of metal catalyst ($ 1.6/t) yields 15 % less
residue. Moreover, this residue has a better value since twice less
viscous.
Figure 5 shows that it is necessary to add 8 % of condensate to the
syncrude issuing from a Tervahl H type operation to obtain a blend which
should be transportable ; only 3 % are necessary when the syncrude is
flowing from Tervahl C.
In short, the conclusion of ASVAHL experimentation when thermally
cracking heavy-oils to make them transportable are as it follows :
- through visbreaking, conversions are not deep enough to meet the
viscosity specifications, whatever be the considered country,
- through a catalytic hydrovisbreaking, it seems that most of the heavy
oils become transportable if a severity index as high as 5 can be
applied. To avoid any precipitation of asphaltic particles during
pipe-lining, the maximum merit value acceptable is 7.
It must be lastly point out that processes as Tervahl or C lend
easily themselves to a coupling to a further deasphalting or
hydrotreating.
902

24. Catalytic hydrotreatments Hyvahl processes

Compared to conventional vacuum residues, heavy oils are chemically

easier to crack but technically more difficult to hydrotreat ;
asphaltenes and resins are more labile but the levels of various
impurities are generally a lot higher. The sophistication of the
hydrotreating technologies during the two last dcennies must be directly
related to overcome economically the deposits of carbon, metals and
sediments on the catalyst, specially when high conversions involving a
high heat release are required.
As far as ASVAHL is concerned, the program involved not only the
experimentation of its own processes but also the comparison of various
technologies : (1) fixed bed, (2) counter current moving bed, (3)
expensed bed, (4) ebulliating bed, (5) suspended bed of collodal
particles.
As a result of this comparison ASVAHL has focused its effort on the
technologies (1) (2) and (5) ; the corresponding processes Hyvahl H, M
and C have been developed.
In spite of in spite of the fact that they are welladapted to the
treatment of feedstocks which contains a large of amount of deposit
precursors, specially sediments, expensed bed and ebulliating beds have
not been taken into consideration for the following reasons :
huge consumption of catalyst,
high attrition of catalyst ; behind such beds, a fixed bed placed in
series cannot be operated without being quickly plugged,
performances per unit of reacionai volume are higly unfavourable, due
to the kinetics of the various reactions,
necessity to operate at a relatively high temperature to achieve
economically high conversions,
possible erratic temperatures for the only expensed bed.

Hyvahl processes Flow sheets

Figure 6 gives the process flow diagram of Hyvahl type which is

an arrangement in series of Tervahl (dark strip) and Hyvahl H.
Figure 7 shows a more detailed flow sheet of a catalyst loop
grafted on a demetallation reactor. This loop, entirely automatized, has
been experimented on the scale of 0.5 during several months without any
problem ; such an equipment could be used whatever be the type of bed :
moving or ebulliating ; most of the time has been devoted to the
experimentation of the countercurrent moving bed alternative.
Concerning the Hyvahl tpe C, the processing scheme is about the
same as for Tervahl C, but as more catalyst is used at a higher pressure,
a larger conversion is achieved with a higher heat release ; the reactors
and their internal equipments have then to be designed accordingly.

Performances

DAOs, short and long resids issued from a dozen of heavy crudes
have been, hydrotreated by ASVAHL either in pilotplants or in the
Solaize minirefinery. Table 9 gives a set of typical results concerning
the hydrotreatment of Cold Lake, Rospomare and Llyodminster topped crudes
through Hyvahl F, at high conversions. Table 10 concerns the performances
of the countercurrent moving bed associated with a fixed bed, both of
them aiming more specially at a deep demetallation.
 903

Beyond these some samples of results, is the analysis of ASVAHL

concerning the respective scope of applications for the various Hyvahl
alternatives . Assuming that the objective is to approach a one year
length for every run without stopping the unit, the following conclusions
can be shortly stated :
- Below 150 ppm of metals plus sediments fixed beds in series can be
selected.
- Between 150 ppm and 2 000 ppm of metals plus sediments, there is a
possible choice between two Thervahl alternatives, either to foresee
swing reactors for the demetallation or to use a moving bed technology.
- Above 2 000 ppm, Tervahl C, with a suspended bed of minute amounts of
catalyst should be recommended, specially when one looks to high
conversions.
It must be pointed out that the ranges of impurities above
mentioned are based on the very high capacity of ASVAHL demetallation
catalyts to support the progressive deposits of sediments, carbone and
metal sulfides. Such catalysts are able to support amounts of deposits
ranging between 100 and 150 % of their own initial weight before loosing
completely their demetallation activity.
A last observation concerning the quality of the vacuum resid
issued from heavy oil conversion has also to be pointed out : whatever be
the process, thermal or catalytic, there is a conversion over which the
polycondensation prevails over the cracking with formation of a pitch
having a viscosity and a Conradson Carbon higher and higher as the
conversion increases ; fig. 8 shows this evolution when treating a heavy
arabian vacuum resid according to the Hyvahl F process. This divergence
towards the pitch production occurs the sooner as the hydrogen partial
pressure is lower, the temperature higher and the hydrogen activation
more intensive ; the following classification can accordingly be stated
for any feedstock, whatever be the process considered : visbreaking,
hydrovisbreaking, solvent donor process, hydropyrolysis in presence or
iron sulfide + coke and finally the various catalytic hydrotreaments in
the following order : suspended bed and ebulliating bed, moving bed and
fixed bed.

3. PROCESSING SCHEMES

For processing heavy oils, there is not a only and universal

solution. On the contrary, many processing schemes can generally be taken
into consideration to upgrade heavy oils. The main problem is to select
the most adapted according to the characteristics of the feedstock, the
production site, the objectives aimed at (simple upgrading or deep
refining). It is a great advantage for ASVAHL to have conceived the
Solaize demo-plants and the relating program so as to be able to study
and compare these various processing routes on an experimental basis.
Comparative feasibility studies concerning all these processing schemes
are presently carried out ; they will be completed by the middle of 1988.
For the time being, we will only present four typical examples to
illustrate this aspect of the program.
Fig. 9 shows the favourable effect of a hydrovisbreaking treatment
before a pentane deasphalting with Boscan heavy oil as a feedstock.
Compared to the only pentane deasphalting the synthetic crude yield is
increased by 8 % in weight and by 11 % in volume with a prior
hydrovisbreaking because the specific gravities of the synthetic crudes
are respectively 0,950 and 0,920. Moreover, the insertion of this
cracking step makes the fuel transportable ; that was not possible with
904

the only deasphalting operation. It can also be devised that the

hydrovisbreaking step should be achieved on the production field whereas
the deasphalting step is carried out in a refinery where the location
factor is more favourable.
The second example deals again with the coupling of both
deasphalting with hydrovisbreaking treatments. The objective is to obtain
a fuel which could be pipe-lined with preserving the characteristics of
the syncrude as a feedstock for bitumen production. As schematized on
figure 10 half of the heavy oil, C old Lake in the present case, is
hydrovisbroken and then deasphalted ; hard asphalt is used to provide
steam (or C O ) for enhanced recovery. The synthetic crude issued from
deasphalting is blended with the second half of the heavy oil to give
another synthetic crude fluid enough to be transported and usable, if
required, for bitumen production.
The third example concerns a process flow sheet involving a thermal
hydrovisbreaking step followed by a hydrocatalytic step. The feedstock is
a short resid of a blend composed of a Kirkouk conventional crude and a
Syrian heavy oil. The realization of a thermal step before the catalytic
one increases by 12 % the conversion of the vacuum resid into distillates
as shown in table 11.
The fourth example refers to a processing scheme involving a
pentane deasphalting of Athabasca bitumen followed by a hydrotreatment of
the DAO. Hyvahl F and Hyvahl have been compared as shown on figure 11
with a substantial advantage for Hyvahl T, as far as conversion into
middle distillates is concerned.

4. CONCLUSION

This paper is only a limited sample of the huge mass of results

which have been gathered and written down by ASVAHL, these 5 last years,
in more than 100 reports. Improvements and innovations concerning the
processes, quipements, catalysts and processing schemes have been
covered by about 35 patents. The first phase of the demonstration program
in the Solaize mini-refinery is ended but a reduced program at a pilot
scale will still go on : reliable correlations between the results from
pilot plants and demo-plants are presently available. Economic studies
are also carried on. The first phase including an estimation of
investment costs and running expenditures for the separate processes has
been achieved as shown in table 12 ; investment costs are considered at
battery limit on an existing refinery site to avoid any assumption
concerning location factors and extra equipments. The second phase is
running on ; it concerns the economic comparison of various processing
routes to make heavy oils first transportable and their processable in
existing refineries.
A last mention must the made of the large effort devoted by ASVAHL
to study the various uses which could be considered for asphalts and
pitches :
- coking in the L-R coking in cooperation with Lurgi,
- deep catalytic hydroconversion,
- feedstock for syngas production
- combustion as a high viscosity liquid fuel, or as a solid fuel.
This use as a solid fuel is worth being pointed out : asphalts from
C deasphalting can be handled, stored, ground and burnt as easily as
coke.
 905

Table 2
Table 1
HEAVY OIL DESALTING UNIT
ASVAHL PLANT

IT INCLUDES: 1. OPERATING VARIABLES STUDIED

DESALTING VISBREAKING Diluent typt (gisollnt gaa oil)
ATMOSPHERIC DISTILLATION HYDROVISBREAKING Diluent nil '
VACCUM DISTILLATION HYOROTREATMENTS Water Injection rate
DEASPHALTING (FIXED BEDS, MOVING BEDS) Wet Injection dlttrtxiMon type
Wateroil mixer type
STORAGES UTILITIES REFINERY CONNECTIONS (conventional or peciei varm,
stelle mixere)
CAPACITY: 20 ODO Va B?.niulalr>liig 0 and Injection rate
Oilwater Interlace level
ENGINEERING: TECHN1P Electric device
Number ol desalting steps (1 or 2)
Tempratures, Ilo rates

2. TREATED CRUDES

BOSCAN ROSPOMARE

NaCI 706ppm 30040 ppm

WATER 0.8% 0.7%

SOLVAMI main fartum

tega uGtf product

New type kmervant/ great nssbaYty

ftsd rata
Table 3
bth extraction iHNKifti and stable
operat.

Energy isviiaj
DA0
MIIURIISQ sonrsnt suitable for hard pitea
recover procsn and rann produdion

ROSPOMARE
P s n l a w loog rid dassphahlng
A B C FEED.
(T) SETTLING OUTLET TC (T10) (T20)
O) ASPHALT WASHING (MO) (MO)
)
DA0YIELD WTX 54.7 su SU 100

**Xi U95 UM UM) lies

v100C cSt 31 47 49 4180
CO CARS WTX li M U 2U
Table A ASCeSWT 0.12 U 0.73 34.1
ASCTKWT 0.06 0JN 0.11 2&2
SKWT (JM uo 124 8.1
*lw.| 7 10 78
SO *
69 si 274
w
ASPHALT C H A R /t C T E R I I T I C S
PABC 159 197 169
Se.gr. 1.143 1.1*6 1.149
YIELD (%WT) 46.3 43.1 41J
S(%WT) 9.96 M 1.002
HV<e#js.) 676 93 712
906

B O S C A N : LONQ RESID DEASPHALTINQ

Variatola: pantana/oli ratio (R)

R V' 3 4 I FEED

DAO
*.*. osts Q492 otn 133
YIEU) KWT sz tu m 100 Table 5
CO C A M KWT M
ASC. KWT Ml UM 029 2M
AS Cr KWT HOZ 042S 1031
S KWT V 5.15 5.1 US
V M * 2S0 31S 2(7 1303
M rfM 26 u 25 120
II w- 10(00 7400 5200 9200
H/C ATOMS 1.41 IM 1.46 IJS
v1WC est 107 13S 140 4130

B O S C A N : LONG RESID DEASPHALTINQ

Variabla: pantana/oli ratio (R)

R rVn* 3 4 ( FEED

ASPHALT
YIEU %WT 3S 33.7 32J (
CON CARS KWT 3M 41J 42,7
ASC, KWT (Z3 71.1 724
AS Cr KWT 42,7 U (1.1
S KWT M 1S4 M
V Mm 3040 3400 3470
M M * 2S0 320 310
R M* 1S500 1(100 11*00
RaB C 14S 1(0 1(7
H/C ATOMS y u* 1.24

Table 6

PRETRAITEMENT DES HUILES LOURDES

DERESININO
0A0 ASPHALT RESIN
RUN
Yb WIK AtC7.WlK YkMWiK t 1.rato Y B M W K 1 * ^

372 71 OJ 26 1S1 4 146

373 64.7 106 26 203 10J 74
374 64 aos 26 191 11 111
376 60.1 006 26 193 9 49

rea* Safari
 907

Fig. 1

MORICHAL
C5 long resid deasphalting

70 OAO YIELD (Wt S) 80

ASC7 Residual asphalts

in Morichal DAO

R & = Softening point

"ioo*c= : DAO viscosity
75
DAO YIELD

lb

75
DAO YIE LD
908

Fig.

ASPHALT YIELD

10 20 30

Logvt
v.andv, al 100C
Log,

I I
10 20 100 90 80 70
ASPHALT YIELD WlS SYNTHETIC CRUDE YIELD (Wl S)
2a v, = Heavy oil nscosHf
v, = Deasphahed ni

2b

1
\ . ds = Sp.gr.SYNCRUDE
ds/do N. do = Sp.gr. HEAVY OIL

0.975 N.

0.950

100 90 80 70
SV SYNTHETIC CRUDE

2c
 909

TERVAHl PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

Mura

S,
\J

Fig. 3
TERVAHL H PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

M" ss
'lh""' t

K? ITU
IW)t

HT LP. HCIM tTTfTK,

COI LP.
IIPAUTM WPUATM At*

viscfsm lAtit lire)

FIEDITOCI/SIICIHI

S'
Fig. 4

C0PAAIS0 OF VISCOSITY OF SYKCKU0 PMODUCED I T

1 HO TEVAHL H PROCESSINO FRON FOSCA CA UCE
11

/s^
I / FEEIIT1CI M M

IKIIITT I I I
1 'ti

SEVIIITT l 0 I I = tTKHODI't .'! M T

910

Table 7a

TERVAHL AND TERVAHL H PERFORMANCES

OBTAINED ON COLD LAKE CRUDE

TOTAL EFFLUENT CS* CHARACTERISTICS

CRUDE TERVAHL TERVAHL

SP.GR 0.998 0.965 0.968

AM 10J 12 14.7
VISCOSITY In cSI
at 20 ' C 55000 795 340
H SO ' C 2020 106 55
100 ' c 95 15 9.4
SULFUR, wt% 4.19 3.80 3.60
CCR, wt% 1X5 13.50 12.5
C5 INSOLUBLES 1S.5 14.0 9.9
C7 INSOLUBLES 7. 9.0 7.8
POURPOINT. C 3 9 15

YIELDS, wt%
375"'C ( g Included) 26.2 34 413
375 500 'C 19.1 21.5 23.1
500 ' C * 54.7 44J 35.4
375 'C* CHARACTERISTICS
YMda, wt% 73.8 66 58.5
SP.GH 1.024 1.045 1.029
Viscosity ki cSI 1095 420 230
1 100 'C

Table 7b

TERVAHL ANO PERFORMANCE

OBSERVED ON THE SAME CRUDE:
COLD LAKE
Cold lake Tervahl Tervahl
original
Crude
TOTAL EFFLUENT
CHARACTERISTICS
Syncrude API 10.3 12.2 14.7
Syncrude
Viscosity in cSt
at 5 0 C 2 020 106 55
at100C 95 15 9.4
Viscosity in cSt
on the 3 7 5 + residue
at1O0C 1 095 420 230
 911

Table 8

CHARACTERISTICS O F PRIME ROSE L A K E C R U D E

SP.GR. 0.993
oAPI 11.0
Vjfcoijty (cSt) at 20 C 25800
50C 1305
100 C 72.5
Sulfur (wt%) 4.48
Nitrogen (ppm) 4400
Conradion carbon (wt%) 12.4
CS insolubles (wt%) 14.8
C7 insolubles (wt%) 8.9
Nickel (pom) 67
Vanadium (ppm) 188
ASTM D1160 ( C ) IBP
5% 261
10% 300
30% 418
50% 526

PERFORMANCE OF CATALYTIC HYOROVISBREAKING

ON PRIMEROSE LAKE CRUDE (MERIT 6)

CATALYTIC
THERVALH H
HYOROVISBREAKING
YIELDS (wr%)
H2S 0.93 1.37
C1-C4 1.22 1.50
Gasoline (CS-150C) 2.61 3.40
Dntilleta (1S0-37S C) 31.07 33.M
VGO (375-520 C) 2L29 29.50
Vacuum Residue (520+ C) 3S.M 31.05

PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS
Caoln
SP.0R. 0.374 0.734
Sulfur (wt%l 1.42 0.92
Datfllete (150-375 CI
SP.OR. 0.887 0.885
Sulfur <wf%) 2.40 2J0
Bromine Index 21 17
VGO (375-520 C)
SP.GR. 0.967 0.960
Sulfur (wt%) 3.42 3.0
Residue (520+ C)
SP.GR. 1.067 1.062
Vise at 100 C (cSt) 7650 3123
Sumir (wt%) 6.16 4.76
gis

Flg. 5

COMPARISON TERVAHL H CATALYTIC HVR

Primero* L i k Crud 1001

7.85 10S.S6
TERVAHL
H
SP.QR. 0.983 SP.OR. 0.967
API 11 Marii 6 "API 14.83 AP111

VlicMlry 40 C (cStl 3060 Vbeoirty i t 40 C (cSI) 9S.7

CCR (IK) 12.4 CCR (wt%) 12.45

1001^ 97.13 >

L 100.13
CATALYTIC
HVR
SP.QR. 0.993 SP.QR. 0.954
API 11.0 Mril6 API 18.82 API 18.0

VilcMity i t 40 C IcSt) 3060 Vbcotity i t 40 C IcSt) 39.0

CCR Iwt) 12.4 CCR lwt%) 9.1

C7 Inulubln IwtX) 8.9 C7 IrrjoluWtl lwt%) 5.8

Fig. 6

HYVAHL TYPE
MBETAl
UZATIM
AND NYDR0
cormnuoi TREATMENT AMINE
SECTION SECTION SC8UBSER
y
RECYCLE
COMPRESSOR
HAKE UP
COMPRESSOR . , UP
5" ..FEED

HOT H.P.

COLD HP.
, IP.
I NAPHTHA
DIESEL
SEPARATOR SEPARATOR

VACCUM tV.8.0
DIST.
. RESIDUE
SECTION

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

 913

Fig. 7

FRESH CATALYST

FLARE . O.O.U
HI

ASVAHL PLAMT CATALYST CIRCULATION

Tabi e 9

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TOPPED CRUDES

FROM HEAVY CRUDES

COLO LAKE LLYODMINSTER ROSPO MARE

FEED TC TC TC

YIELD, on Crud. wtK 73.8 72 75.3

SP.GR 1.024 1.002 1.063

SULFUR. wt% G.05 430 7.75
NITROGEN, ppm 5100 3100 4200
CONRADSON CARBON. wfX 18.30 15.0 26.4
ASPHALTENES C7. wt% 10.5 11.2 23.9
NICKEL, ppm 108 G5 65
VANADIUM, ppm 217 158 263
VISCOSITY in cSt it 100 C 1095 280 3375
914

T a b l e 9 (continued)
HYVAHL TYPE F (HYDROCONVERSION)
TOPPED CRUDES FROM HEAVY CRUDES
INFLUENCE OF THE FEED ON THE PERFORMANCES
AT THE SAME CONDITIONS (MORI

1. MATERIAL BALANCE. wt (MOR)

COLD LAKE LLOYDMINSTER ROSPO MARE

TC TC TC
H2S + NH3 5.08 4.26 8.20
CI - C 4 3.20 3.30 4.40
C5 - 150 C 5.20 5.40 4.80
160 - 375 C 27 JO 30.00 34.10
375 - 550 C 37.00 43.84 36.50
650 C + 24.02 15.00 14.50
102.00 101.80 102.50

2. OVERALL PERFORMANCES

FEED COLD LAKE LLOYDMINSTER ROSPO MARE

TC TC TC

HDS. wt% 90 M 6
HDM, wt 95 97 98
HDCC, wt 70 70 77
HD ASPH C7. wt 85 86 92

3. RESIDUE 375 C*
COLO LAKE LLOYDMINSTER ROSPO MARE
FEED TC TC TC

YIELD, wt 61.02 58.84 51.0

SP.GR 0.9S6 0.151 0.972
SULFUR, wt 0.8 0.7 0.56
NITROGEN, ppm 4120 2930 2860
VISCO in cSt at 100 C 35 28 35.5
CCR, wt* 8.9 7.7 11.9
ASPH. wt% 2.5 2.7 3.4
Ni + V. ppm 24 16 8

4. RESIDUE 550 C+
COLD LAKE LLOYDMINSTER ROSPO MARE
FEED TC TC TC
YIELD. wt 24.02 15.0 14.5
SP.GR 1.005 1.025 1.089
SULFUR, wt 1.4 1.75 1.03
NITROGEN, pom 8000 7400 4800
VISCO in cSt It 100 C 775 8700 37000
CCR, wt 21.6 28.0 39.1
ASPH CR, wt 6.5 10.5 13.7
Ni + V. ppm 60 60 29
 915

Table 10

HWAHL M
DEMETALLATION

CHARACTERISTICS ROSCAN PILON

AND PERFORMA NCES Topped crude Short read

Wc cSt 1100 2609

Ni + V ppm 1370 450
S Wt% 5.6 3.3
LHSV (m 3 /m 3 Ji) 0.5 0.5

HDS (%) 61 66
HDM (%) 85 83
CONVERSION (%) 40 31 Fig. 8
(50(TC)

Swt%

60 80
Convintali wt %
Fig. 9
OASOLIME O A S o n .

SYNTHETIC
CDUOC
ATMOSPHERIC
CMSTILLATON 50
f ACT < O.OS|

Co SOLVENT
DEASFHALTIMO
UNIT

OSCANCNUOC ASPHALT (SOFT 1*r*Q

OAS OASOUNE + OAS OIL

BVNTHETIC
cnuoe

62

MTH.LATION
50
ACT 0 . * |
CS SOLVENT
OCASHALTlNO

( S O " * > 200XJ

1
gie

Table 11
COMPARISON BETWEEN HYVAHL TYPE F
AND HYVAHL TYPE
FEED : KIRKUK VR

1. MATERIAL BALANCE

HYVAHL F HYVAHL
wt vol% wt% VOfS

H2S * NH3 SM SM
CI C4 1ST 3.14
CS 150C *m 6.70 SM 7.59
150 175C 2L20 26.35 28J0 } y
375 S50C 39 JO 4123 38X0 41.41
SO C + 25,51 . 21 .M 22.
nam 105.22 101.99 104J1

2. OVERALL PERFORMANCES
HYVAHL F HYVAHL

HDS, wt% 93 93
HDM, wt% 99 99
HON, wt% 45 46
HDCC, wt% 77.S 79
HOASPHC7, wt% 93 *7
NET CONVERSION
In 550 'C, wt% se 74

Fig. 10
COLO LAKE UPGRADING

hard asphalt (8 )

50
A

100 Gai
51
LTT}1 41
3
100 m v = 2cst

91T94m3
50 V = 12 est
V 1 ooc=100 est
A = Topping+Hydro visbr eaking
B= 0eisphalting
C = H 2 synthesis
 917

Fig. 11

g u m i l

Table 12a

PSI
| imani [
UI ECONOMICS
TERVAHLT
INVESTMENT: 15 OOP BPSO
Battery tolti, early 19M, Quit C o u l
baaie, with engineering:

IMPACT OF ASVAHL INDIRECT ROUTE ON ATHABASCA CRUOE

(in brackets: yields corresponding to the HYVAHLTcasel
Fue fired, tm 1J
Electricity, kWhfh 175
S l u m credit, t/h 1J
P r a o m water, m M l 3

ECONOMICS
TERVAHLH
Table 12b VESTMENT: 15 000 BPSO
Battery am it, early 1966. OuH Coa
baan, U i engineering:
SOLVAHL ECONOMICS
M US$20
Arabian light Vacuum Red
20 000 BPSO
Fiiekel tirad, t/h 1.5
Solvant recovery mod (CS sonant) Electricity, kWh/h 1000
Staam eonaumed, 1.0
oonvantional opticritical Hydfogan conaumptlon, NmS/h 1000
eondtmation
INVESTMENTS
Erected cost.

Francii Bam tarty 1986 (US $1 20.10* 20.10* > 20.10*

UTILITIES
Electricity (kW/m3) 12.2 10J 12.6
Fual oil find (kg/m3) ( ) 21. 14J 16.2
MP Staam (k/n>3) 2.4 2.4 20.6

Table 12c

ECONOMICS FOR A 30 000 BPSO UMT

ON VACUUM RESCUE

INVESTMENTS : B.L ERECTED COST. GULF COAST BASIS

JANUAHT 1 W , t N W t t H l H MO

90 10 US S
UTTUTTES:
ELECITUCITT kWMl MOt
FUELOf. kg/M (70
COOUNO WATER m l 240
MP STEAM IMP. Mi U
MP STEAM EXP. Ut U

CATALYST OPERATING COST :

0.7 U 3 V B B L
tor 200 pom ol natala In toad
918

THE VEBA COMBI CRACKING PROCESS

- STATE OF THE ART AND PERSPECTIVES IN

A LOW ENERGY-PRICE ENVIRONMENT

Klaus Kretschmar, Ludwig Merz,

Klaus Niemann, Martin Rupp
Veba Oel AG
Summary

VEBA OEL's VCC-Process is a well advanced technology for up-

grading heavy residues. Residue conversion rates of up to 97 I are
achievable resulting in total liquid yields of appr. 85 wt.-%. The
technology is based both on operation of commercial upgraders bet-
ween 1950 and 1964 and on extensive experimental work on the bench
and pilot plant scale performed since 1978.
In the bench scale units more than 25 feedstocks were tested
and on the basis of the test-results a computer model was developed
which allows the prediction of yields and properties for a desired
conversion level.
The pilot plant meanwhile has been operated close to 20 000 h
processing different types of heavy oils. The main results from
this operation concern the additive requirement, the coke formation
rate, the reaction temperature of the liquid phase and the evalua-
tion of scale-up and key design data for engineering.
Due to the fact that the VCC technology has practically no
feedstock restrictions the technology offers the potential to con-
vert hazardous organic wastes into valuable products.
Particulary organic wastes containing chlorine or other halo-
gen components, whose combustion is rather difficult and expensive,
can be effectively decomposed into hydrocarbons and halogenic
acids. By neutralization the halogens are being transformed into
salts which are concentrated in the hydrognation residue. The
distillates generated are practically free from halogens.
Based on the above mentioned VCC technology VEBA OEL has deve-
loped the so-called TWH process (Treatment of Waste by Hydrogen)
to simultaneously process heavy residual oils and organic wastes.
Up to 50 % of the residual oils can be substituted by organic
wastes. Until now used lubricants, used solvents, plastics and
sludge from biological water treatment have been successfully
tested.
 919

1. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS

A simplified flow scheme of the VLC/VCC-Process is shown in Figure
1. The usual feedstock for the process is vacuum residue, which is mi-
xed with a disposable additive in small concentration. A highpressure
pump transports the oil-additive mixture to the high pressure part of
the plant. Recycle gas and fresh hydrogen are added to the residual oil
after pressurization. The reaction mixture flows through regenerators
and the peak heater and then enters the liquid phase reactors. The
reactor system consists of three serially connected, vertical, empty
tube reactors which operate in an up flow mode. There the conversion
takes place at temperatures of 440 - 490 C and a pressure of ISO - 250
bar. Due to cold gas quenching, an almost isothermal operation is
achieved.
In the hot separators, which are operated at an almost equal tem-
perature level as the reactors, the non-converted part of the feed ma-
terial and the solids are separated from the gaseous reaction products.
The bottom product of the hot separator is depressurized in a multista-
ge flash unit. In the case of the VCC-Process, the top product of the
hot separator is mixed with the flash-distillate as well as optionally
with the straight run distillate fraction and then fed to the so called
gas phase reactor. A hydrotreating or a mild hydrocracking is applied
there at the same total pressure as in the liquid phase under trickle-
flow conditions on a catalytic pakking. In the VLC-Process mode the gas
phase reactor is by-passed thus producing a primary synthetic crude
which needs further treatment in conventional refinery processes.
In both process modes gas and liquid are separated in a high pres-
sure cold separator, then depressurized and, if necessary, further re-
fined as usual or immediately sold.

2. SCOPE OF EXPERIMENTAL WORK

The VCC technology is derived from the Bergius-Pier-Process for
liquefaction of coal. VEBA OEL has operated from 1936 until 1945 seve-
ral commercial plants for the hydrognation of hard coal. The same
plants after minor modifications were used from 1950 to 1964 for the
conversion of residual oils.
In 1978 VEBA OEL started to reactivate the VCC technology. Exten-
sive experimental work was done in bench scale units. Residues and hea-
vy oils from Venezuela, Canada, USA, Mexico and Middle East and also
pretreated residues and tars from cokeries, catcrackers and visbreakers
were investigated. From these experiments a reactivity ranking for the
different residues was established. Additionally these differences
could be corretaled with analytical properties of the residues as shown
in Fig. 2. for the sulfur content. Intensive work was done on the in-
fluence of an additive, especially in sight of its catalytic action.
But in fact no evidence for such a catalytic action was found.
An essential part of the VCC-Process is the integrated catalytic
gas phase reactor. This process step not only provides high quality
products, it also allows to shift the yield pattern in a wide range up
to total conversion of the VGO-fraction (Fig. 3 ) .
Based on the information from bench scale units a computer model
was developed which allows the prediction of the yield pattern and the
product qualities for a desired conversion level.
Most of these results were published earlier ([1], [2], [3], [4],
[5]).
920

In 1983 a 1 t/h pilot plant was erected and brought in operation

together with LURGI GmbH / Frankfurt. Since that time INTEVEP S.A. the
research and development branch of Petroleoes de Venezuela has joint
the development efforts, too. The main goal of the pilot plant opera-
tion was to generate design and guaranty data. Therefore the following
key information was developed:

reaction temperature of the liquid phase

operating pressure of the process
coke formation rate
additive requirement
key design data for engineering
long terra behaviour of the liquid phase reactors
3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS OF THE 1 t/h PILOT PLANT
The flow scheme of the pilot plant corresponds to the general flow
scheme of the VCC-Process except for the crude and product distillation
units and the gas cleaning devices. Meanwhile the pilot plant has been
operated close to 20.000 h, processing Bachaquero, Arabian Heavy, Mori-
chal, Tia Juana and Cold Lake heavy oils and also Visbreaker residues.
The test runs performed showed that there is a systematic devia-
tion in reaction temperature between the small scale units and the pi-
lot plant. This is caused by the changing backmixing characteristics
with increasing reactor dimensions. By using scale up factors which are
independ of the oil processed this deviation can be overcome. Due to
restrictions caused by the conflicting hydrodynamic and geometrical
similiarity, all the significant reaction parameters cannot be kept
constant simultaneously in the scale up procedure. Keeping constant
e. g. the superficial gas velocity, the gas/ oil ratio is changed. This
leads to a shift in the yield pattern caused by different evaporating
rates. The experimental verification of these effects in plants of dif-
ferent sizes allows the evaluation of correlations, so that the whole
data base, generated in the small scale plants, can be applied to large
scale reactors.
The operating pressure of the process depends on the feedstock
processed. For some residues e.g. Morichal a pressure reduction below
150 bar is possible. But from the viewpoint of flexibility, which is an
important fact with respect to oil market fluctuations it seems not ve-
ry meaningfull to design a plant to such a low pressure.
The fluid dynamic conditions in the bubble column reactors are ve-
ry close to the conditions in a large scale upgrader and far from the
conditions in an electrically heated, small scale unit. Therefore ex-
tensive studies were made on the influence of a solid additive. As al-
ready known from the small scale experiments there is no evidence for a
catalytic action of the additive. The additive primarily adsorbs the
asphaltenes of the residue or the solids which are produced throughout
the liquid phase hydrognation. Consequently, they homogenize the con-
tent of the liquid phase reactors. This influence on the fluid dynamics
of the bubble column reactor should not be underestimated. A homoge-
neous reaction phase is an important requirement for a stable, hydro-
cracking operation at highest conversion rates.
To demonstrate the technical feasibility of the VCC-Process two
long term test runs were performed. One with Bachaquero VR for a german
application ond one for a canadian client (AOSTRA) with Cold Lake VR.
 921

These runs, lasting 1000 and 700 hours respectively, confirmed the de-
sign data estimated beforehand from small-scale plant results. Additio-
nally they show that the liquid phase hydrognation has an excellent
long term behaviour. This is shown in Fig. 4 for the Bachaquero test
run. The yields and the qualities of the product fractions produced du-
ring this test run are given in Tables 1, 2 and 3.

4. ECONOMIC SITUATION
The results of the intensive experimental work for the development
of the VLC/VCC-Processes in a scale covering all aspects relevant for a
scale-up, demonstrate the technical maturity of the process developed
by VEBA 0EL to convert refinery residues and natural heavy crude oils.
An engineering study of a commercial scale plant with an annual capa-
city of 1.5 million tonnes, as well as independent studies carried out
abroad indicate that the concept including a hydrognation step is su-
perior to non-hydrogenating process concepts with regards to economy.
From these studies also results that on a 1985 price basis a commercial
VCC-upgrader can be operated economically.
But the oil price drop in 1986 has changed the economic situation
dramatically. Newer engineering and economical studies, based on a pri-
ce of 22 US$/bbl for Brent blend, show that an upgrader complex for
processing 1 Mio t/a can be erected and operated economically, if the
price for a heavy crude oil is equal or below 17 US$/bbl. This dif-
ferential of 5 US$/bbl between Brent blend and a heavy crude is not
sufficient to justify such an upgrading project economicwise [6].

5. POSSIBILITIES TO IMPROVE THE ECONOMIC INCENTIVES

Due to significant improvements of the technology during the past
years and by specific engineering efforts the toal investment for a
VCC-upgrader could be reduced by roughly 20 % compared to estimates
performed three years ago. But, as discussed above, these progresses
were shattered by drastic changes of the oil market. Actually, it is
not possible to get any reliable information about trends in the oil
market, besides of the statement that there is a long term tendency of
decreasing light crudes and increasing heavy crudes. But this long term
tendency is no justification for the investment necessary to erect a
large scale upgrader now. On the other hand environmental restrictions
especially in Germany force the industry to bring new processes into
the market to avoich as far as possible the production of waste mate-
rial or to make use of these materials instead of disposing or burning
thera.
Due to the fact that the VCC technology has practically no feed-
stock restrictions the technology offers the potential to convert ha-
zardous organic wastes into valuable refinery products.
Particulary organic wastes containing chlorine components or other
halogens, whose combustion is difficult, can be effectively decomposed
into hydrocarbons and halogenic acids by hydrognation. Considering the
main chemical reactions taking place during hydrognation (Fig. 5) it
becomes obvious that the halogenes have the weakest bond strength. This
means that until cracking of the hydrocarbons takes place complete de-
halogenation has been accomplished.
According to VEBA OEL's concept vacuum residue from crudes and ha-
zardous organic wastes are jointly processed exploiting the advantage
that fluiddynamic and thermodynamic of the liquid phase reaction are
92g

mostly governed by the vacuum residue as long as the total feed con-
tains less than 50 % of waste material. Another significant advantage
of this mode of operation is that the quality of the final products
gained from waste material meets refinery specification.
Considering the specific features of this mode of operation and
the potential application possibility in all industrialized countries
VEBA OEL has named the technology TWH (Treatment of Waste by Hydrogen).
The general flow diagram of the TWH-process is given in Figure 6. For
waste oils with low boiling points a separate high pressure feeding
system has to be introduced. For the feeding of plastic wastes a new
system had to be developed. An appropriate extruder is being used for
feeding this type of material, directly in a separate line into the
bottom of the liquid phase reactor.
In order to prove this concept, extended test runs in PDU plants
have been performed. The main results are summarized in Table 4. All
groups of wastes were contaminated with different chlorine contents,
part of them even with PCB's. Additionally the wastes contained diffe-
rent metal components. After processing applying the TWH technology the
distillates generated were practically free of any impurities like
chlorine and metals. The chlorine as well as the metals have been con-
centrated in the hydrognation residue. Due to proper neutralisation
during hydrognation no corrosive attack, could be observed at the expo-
sed equipment.
To modify a VCC-plant according to the requirements of the TWH
technology there is only a minor additional investment needed for sto-
ring and feeding these materials. Also the operational costs of such a
plant are only slightly higher than those of a plant operating on a re-
sidual oil alone.
For the example discussed above, an upgrader with an annual capa-
city of 1 Mio tonnes integrated within a refinery, the substitution of
30 % of the vacuum bottoms by waste oil improves the economic situation
in such a way that the heavy crude can be purchased at a price of 22
US$/bbl instead of 17 US$/bbl in the pure residue mode. These economic
considerations are summarized in Fig. 7 [6].
This calculation assumes that the waste oil is available at zero
value which is a pessimistic assumption at least for the European si-
tuation. Any credit for processing the waste oil in the TWH process im-
proves the economic situation considerably. That means, a commercial
upgrader which is "co-processing" residual oils together with hazardous
wastes is economically attractive even under the present unfavourable
overall Szenario.

6. CONCLUSIONS
The results of the intensive experimental work for the development
of the VLC/VCC-processes in a scale covering all aspects relevant for a
scale-up, demonstrate the technical maturity of the processes developed
by VEBA OEL to convert refinery residues and natural heavy crude oils.
An engineering study of a commercial scale plant with an annual capa-
city of 1,5 million tonnes, as well as independent studies carried out
abroad indicate that the concept including a hydrognation step is
clearly superior to non-hydrogenating process concepts with regards to
economy. Among these, the VLC/VCC-Process stands out due to extremly
high conversion levels with high liquid yields. The VCC-product quali-
ties together with the high thermal efficiency of a direct combination
of the primary residue conversion and the secondary product treatment
 923

to iraprove the qualities offer additional advantages which improve the

overall economics.
But at the actual oil market situation, even an upgrading process
with optimum technical and economical configurations, can't be inple
mented without a considerable economical risk.
The TWH technology as developed by VEBA OEL allows the "coproces
sing" of wastes with residual oils. This can make upgrading attractive
even under todays unfavourable conditions, enabling a refiner to mate
rialize upgrading at a rather early time.
In addition, the TWH technology offers the solution for severe en
vironmental problems from hazardous wastes which are no longer allowed
to be deposited and are very difficult to be disposed of by any type of
combustion in an environmentally acceptable manner. Different to com
bustion, hydrognation .onverts the wastes directly into marketable
products. A recycle of this kind helps in conserving natural resources
at the bottom line.

Literature cited

[1] Lischer, H., Kretschmar, ., Niemann, ., Cotte, E., Guitian, J.,

Marruffo, F., Third International Conference on Heavy Crude and Tar
Sands, Long Beach, CA, July 1985.
[2] Graeser, U., Kretschmar, K., Niemann, K., Erdl und Kohle ^6 (8),
362 (1983).
[3] Graeser, U., Niemann, ., Oil and Gas J., 80 (12), 121 (1982)
[4] Graeser, U., Niemann, K., PREPRINTS, Div. of Petrol. Chem., ACS, 26
(3), 675 (1983).
[5] Dhler, W., Kretschmar, K., Merz, L., Niemann, K., PREPRINTS, Div.
of Petrol. Chem., ACS, 3222/484 (1987)
[6] Holighaus, R., AOSTRAConference, Session 2: Environmental Develop
ments, June 23, Edmonton (1987)

PRODUCT YIELD DISTRIBUTION

Feed : Bachaquero Vacuum Residue

Conversion (500C)' wt% 94

Total Liquid Yield Ck' vol% 111

- Naphtha vol% 34

Middle Distillate vol% 42

Vacuum Gasl vol% 35

Hydrocarbon Gases Cy - C3 wt% 7.1

Hydrogen Consumption m3N/t 414

Tab. 1
924

PRODUCT QUALITES

Feed : Bachaquero Vacuum Residue

Light Naphtha Heavy Naphtha

BP - 80'C 80 - 180"C

Density 15C g/ml 0.670 0.766

Sulfur ppm <1 <1

Nitrogen ppm <1 <1

RVP bar 0.88 0.03

Paraffines wt% 82 47

Naphthenes wt% 18 39

Aromatics wt% - 14

Tab. 2

PRODUCT QUALITIES

Feed : Bachaquero Vacuum Residue

Kerosn Middle Distiate

180 - 240'C 240 - 300'C 300 - 3 W C

Density 15C g/ml 0.823 0.847 0.871

Sulfur ppm 21 28 38

Cloud Point C <-50 -28 7

Pour Point C <-50 -29 4

Smoke Point C 20 - -
Cetan Number 45.5 53.0 63.5

Viscosity 20C mmVs 2.1 4.6 19.0

Arom. Carbon wt% 14 10 7

Tab. 3
Table 4: Wasted Processed up to now in continuous PDU Plants ( 5 - 2 0 kg/h)

Used Lube Oils Varnish Sludges Degreasing Residues Plastic Wastes

Feedstocks

CI ppm 150 - 1000 700 10 000 150 000

PCB ppm 6 - 1000 <1 5
Inorganic Solids wt.-4 1 8 <1
Main Metals Ca, , Mg, Zn Ti, Fe, Si,Ca Ca, Cu, Ti,Al

Products

- Syncrude
. CI ppm <1 <1 <1 <1
. PCB ppm < 0,1 < 0,1 < 0,1
. Metals ppm <1 <1 <1 <1
- Offgas
. CI ppm <1 <1 <1 <1
- Hydrognation
Residue
. PCB ppm < 0,1 < 0,1 < 0,1
CO

UI
926

Straight Run
Distillates

Feed GPH HP
Reactor Separator Off Gases
Sulfur, eta

Additive Gas
(optional) Cleaning

U r * C
* Naphtha
_^ Middle
Distillate
Vacuum
-* Gas Oil
-* Hydr. Residue

General flow scheme

VEBA COMBI CRA CKING Fig. 1

m MOVR

VbbreakerVR

Sulfur In feed %wt

Dependence of residue conversn

on the sulfur content in the feed Fig. 2
 927

Mddte distlate

Average catalyst temperature

GPH Flexibility, Yield Pattern in Dependence on Reaction Temperature

Fig. 3

Operating Characteristics of the 1t/h Pilot Plant at 90% Conversion

Feed : Bachaquero Vacuum Residue Rg. 4
928

Main Chemical Reactions during Hydrognation

H,
R CS RH + C Hydrocracking

R RH + N c Denitrification

Bond Strength
R S RH + S Desulfurization

R CI RH + HCl Dechlorination
I + Base
Salt

Fig. 5

General Flow Scheme

TWH Process

FreshH, p Recycle Gas

Additive I LPH Hot GPH Cold

Reactor Separator Reactor Separator OII Gases.
Vacuum Residue
A A A A~ Sullur,ele.

Gas
Heal X Cleaning
Exchanger
changer l > .

Additive II
Prehoater C
Waste Oils Naphtha ^ R e l o r m e r
.Middle Pool
Distillale

HS .Vacuum FCC/HC
Plastic Wastes Extruder
Stripper Gas Oil
Bottom Hydr.Resldue

Rg. 6
 929

Upgrader integrated within a Refinery

K e y Economic Results

$/bbl
Crude

Operation
Gasoline

Operation Capital
Gasoline VCC
Capila! Price heavy luel oil
VCC (3.5% sullur)
Available
Available for
Diesel
lor Heavy
Heavy Crude
Crude

Others

Feed: Rel. 1.9 Mot/y Morichal 1.3 Mot/y Morichal

VCC 1.0 MIot/y Vac. Residue 510"C 0.3 Miot/y Waste Oil
0.7 Mio t/y Vac. Resldue'510 C
Depreciation: 15 years
Interest rate: 7.4 %

Rg. 7
930

THE BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF DISTILLATION TO SWEEP EFFICIENCY

ENHANCEMENT OF STEAM DRIVE RECOVERY

by

C.T.S. Palmgren, J. Bruining and C.J. van Duyn1

Delft University of Technology

Faculty of Mining and Petroleum Engineering
1
Faculty of Mathematics and Informatics
Address: Mijnbouwstraat 120
2628 RX Delft
The Netherlands

Summary

Steam drive is a proven oil recovery method. Under

favourable conditions steamdrive combines a good sweep
efficiency with a high recovery from the steam swept
zone. Nevertheless, the displacement process is complex
and still not fully understood. This paper deals with the
effect of the distillable oil bank.
A distillable oil bank, formed at the steam condensation
front, displaces oil ahead of the expanding steam zone
and is together with film flow effects [1] responsible
for the low residual oil saturation in the steam zone.
Two models were developed to discern the reasons for the
less than 1002 efficiency of the distillable oil bank. In
the first model, a viscous fingering (segregated flow)
model, the distillable oil is considered as a separate
phase i.e. non-miscible with the non-distillable oil. In
the second model the distillable oil is allowed to mix
with the heavy oil due to dispersion.
Moreover a distillable oil bank lowers the pseudo
mobility ratio and hence improves the sweep. A (third)
model is derived, which quantifies the sweep in terms of
the pseudo mobility ratio. The model for the steam con-
densation front is also applicable under conditions of
unfavourable pseudo mobility ratio's. The theories discu-
ssed must be further elaborated to form the basis of an
economic evaluation of steamdrive as compared to
waterdrive for oils of relatively low viscosity.

1. Introduction

The residual oil saturation in the steam zone is low

owing to two mechanisms. One of these mechanisms is film flow
[1]. Owing to this mechanism oil is displaced from the expand-
ing steam zone. The other mechanism is distillation, resulting
in a distillable oil bank, which prevents non-distillable oil
 931

from entering the expanding steam zone [2], The distillatile

oil bank also improves the sweep efficiency. These two aspects
will be both reported here.
We have considered two different fluid flow models down
stream in order to account for the less than 100J! efficiency
of the distillable oil bank to recover all oil from the steam
swept zone in our vertical displacement experiments.
The distillable oil bank is also considered favourable to
improve the sweep efficiency owing to a more favourable
mobility ratio near the steam condensation front. A general
model is derived, which makes it possible to obtain an
analytical expression of the shape of the steam interface,
analogous to the wateroil displacement model, developed by
Dietz [5]. The model extends applicability of the Van Lookeren
model [6] to unfavourable pseudo mobility ratio's. It allows a
first step in the quantification of the sweep enhancement.
The model is discussed regarding its applicability to the
interpretation of laboratory data and evaluation of steam
drive processes in the Schoonebeek field.

2. Experimental

Numerous tube experiments have been carried out to study

the behaviour of the distillable oil bank. In our case the
distillable oil components were injected together with the
steam into a sandpack filled with nondistillable oil. It
appears that interesting conclusions can be drawn even though
the distillable components do not originate from the oil
originally present. One experiment has been conducted to
observe steam interface behaviour in an inclined tube.
The experiments were carried out in a high pressure rig.
Steam and distillable oil (heptane) were injected at a con
stant rate above. The original sandpack was filled with non
volatile oil and connate water. At 100 'C (180) oil density is
824 kg/m (5232) and viscosity is 4.16 cP (O.I6). Standard
procedures were used to prepare the sand pack [7]. Porosity
and permeability of the sandpack were 35-5% and 300 Darcy
respectively. The apparatus is described elsewhere [4].
The distillation mechanism was studied by varying the
amount of distillable oil to the injected steam. Only one
typical experiment related to the distillable oil bank will be
reported here in detail. Fractional production rates of this
experiment are shown in fig. 2. In addition one experiment
with the tube inclined is discussed. Derived steam interface
shapes are shown in fig. 5 Experimental conditions are sum
marized in table I.

Table I. Experimental conditions.

Exp # pressure injrates t ,./ht. angle with

water alkane horizontal

(bar) (mi/min) (min)

1 10 88 22 32 90
932

2 10 375 0 86(#) 20'

Only approximately 55 ml/min was converted to steam.

# A noninsulated tube was used.

3.1. Outline of theory for dispersion and Koval's model.

Consider a vertical reservoir in which steam and distill

atile oil are injected from the top while water and oil are
produced at the bottom. It is assumed that the steam condensa
tion front is perpendicular to the direction of flow and moves
at a constant speed determined by the energy balance equation.
We assume that there are two regions of constant temperature
separated by the steam condensation front. In the hot region
steam is visualized as a noncondensing fluid.
First, we have extended Koval's model [3] by considering
three phase flow phenomena in the cold zone viz.: water, oil
and distillatile oil (solvent) . Transverse and longitudinal
mixing processes are lumped into an effective viscosity for
the solvent. Second, we have included a dispersional process
in the two phase fluid flow downstream. Dispersion allows the
distillable oil to mix with the nondistillable oil. At the
steam condensation front the oil is a mixture due to the
diffusional mixing process downstream. The solution methods
for these models are discussed extensively elsewhere [].

3.2. Derivation of steam sharp interface equation.

Only an outline of the developed theory is given here. A

comprehensive publication is in preparation. The important
aspects are that (by a modified definition of of the
streamfunction) salt/fresh water interface models can be used
for steam oil displacement (eq.3) and that thus for example
Dietz's theory can be generalised for steam oil interfaces
even at unfavourable mobility ratio's (eq. 9)

figure 1. Steamdrive model with a sharp interface.

Consider a reservoir of height h, inclined at an angle

with the horizontal. Presently we shall assume that the reser
voir is of constant porosity and homogeneous and isotropic
permeabilty. We assume a sharp interface between the hot steam
zone and the cold oil water zone. The interface also separates
 933

a region of low liquid saturation (the steam zone) and a

region of unit liquid saturation (S +S =1), the cold zone.
o w
The saturation jump i s denoted by AS. In the cold zone, o i l
and water are considered nonsegregated owing to capillary
effects.
In figure 1 steam is injected at the left and condenses
at the steam condensation front. As a result the formation
downstream is heated up. The volumetric heating rate of the
formation by the injected steam is constant as we assume no
heat losses. If not, heat losses have to be considered to
account for a decreasing heating rate [8].
Consider the insert of figure 1. When steam impinges on
the interface (from above) the hatched interface is heated and
part of the fluid contained in the hatched region is
displaced. Hence the steamvelocity normal to the interface is
proportional to the fluid velocity normal to this interface.
The fluid velocity is proportional to the heating rate, to the
porosity, and the saturation jump at the front. The heating
rate is proportional to the steam injection flux, the enthalpy
difference between steam and the condensed water and inversely
proportional to the enthalpy required to heat up a unit volume
of formation. Hence the liquid production rate/steam injection
rate ratio m can be expressed as:

m = V i / V g = i A S V l / v g = AS PgiH/(pmCm(TT0)) (1)

We define the normalised specific discharge vector q. as

follows :

q. = v./X. with i=g,o/w and X = 1," X . = m v(2)

i i' i ' ' g o/w '

One easily verifies that the normal component of the

normalised specific discharge vector is continuous at the
interface. Hence we can define a generalised streamfunction
with q =3i)>/ay and q = 3/3, which is continuous at the
y
interface. Moreover we can use (the curl of) Darcy's law to
derive an equation of the flow field,

3 r / 3 3 r /, 3* ?3 3 . ,_ >
{Xu/k}
ix ix+ iy {Xu/k} ay ixCOSa +
iyS l n a (3a)

Hence the approach developed by Chan Hong et al. [9] can

be extended to describe steamfront behaviour. The derivation
of equation (3) is beyond the scope of this article. The
advantage of the approach is that the stream function apart
from being continous can be used to straightforwardlycalcu

3y/3t = bS/rn /dx (3b)

where values at the interface are used. In the same way more
complex theories developed for salt/fresh water interfaces,
934

see [10] and [11], can also be applied for steam interface
modeling.
The simplest model for the oil/water interface was
developed by Dietz [3]. This model can easily be extended to
describe the interface motion during steam drives not only for
subcriticai rates [6], but also for unfavourable mobility
ratio's
In order to satisfy equilibrium the fluid pressures on
each side of the interface are equal. Since this is true for
all points along the interface the derivative of the pressure
along the interface must be equal on each side.: l=g, 2= o/w

{ 3p/as } = { 3p/3s} 2 (4)

Substitution of Darcy's equation and the definition of the

normalised specific discharge vector leads to:

VM1 q s l sin ()= { u m / k } ^ T2sin () (5a)

We assume that flow occurs only in the direction of the layer,

q = q cos >, and denote 3y/3x = tg :

sin
^2~V " 8y / 3x cos Q
] = ^ ^ l S c l " i'MI/k^2qx2 (5b*

For subcriticai rates q_

^xl = ^x2
q .,= g.inj
. . and the formula derived
by Van Lookeren is obtained. For unfavourable pseudo mobility
ratio's, following Dietz, equation (5b) is differentiated with
respect to and the term containing 32y/3xz is neglected.

3q
xl^3x ~ M 3q
x2^3x =
at the interface
(*>)

#
M is the pseudo mobility ratio: M = m{p/k}_/{y/k}1. The total
normalised discharge Q [m 2 /s] can, with the DietzDupuit
approximation, be simplified to:

Q Q
= xl + Q x 2 f 7 < W h y > d y +
' **?** " *xl<hy> + Sc2* (7)
0 y
When the interface moves upwards with a velocity 3y/3t
the volume of fluid added to the discharge of oil/water over a
unit horizontal area and per unit time equals AS 3y/3t. For
the normalised discharge vector the amount added to the nor
malised discharge Q over a unit horizontal area per unit
time is tliS/m 3y/3t. i.e.:
3Qx2/3x = 4>iS/m 3y/3t (8)
 935

Substitution of equations (7) and (8) into (6) and use of the
rule (ax/at) = (ay/at)x/(3y/ax) leads after a straightfor
ward but somewhat tedious calculation to:

(3x/at) = /(3) h/(M*[y/M*+(hy)2]2) (9)

This equation allows the calculation of the position (x)

of each point of the interface (y) at time t . Hence we have
shown that the equation derived by Dietz for the oil/water
interface i s applicable to the steamfront, when the the pseudo
ln
mobility ratio M {p/k}p/{p/k} 1 instead of the conventional
mobility ratio M (m=l) i s used. This g e n e r a l i s a t i o n i s not
trivial.

4 . 1 . Results. Dispersion versus fingering model.

The framework of our d i s c u s s i o n w i l l be given by the

experimental production data ( f i g . 2 ) . The water cut increases
s t e a d i l y a f t e r an i n i t i a l decrease when l a r g e amounts of
v o l a t i l e s are added. Breakthrough of d i s t i l l a t i l e o i l occurs
somewhat later than breakthrough of water.
From the c a l c u l a t i o n s for
t h e f i n g e r i n g model i t
becomes c l e a r t h a t a
reasonable water
I breakthrough time i s
predicted when a saturation
dependence of the r e l a t i v e
permeability charateristic
for nonsegregated flow i s
used. This nonsegregated
f l o w b e h a v i o u r can be
a t t r i b u t e d to c a p i l l a r y
effects.
Figure 2. Production profiles
for experiment 1.

. WATER

-
,
-
" \ ^HEPTANE
OIL f\

/ ^~~~
Figure 3 C alculated fractional
production profiles
with the fingering
model.
Figure 4. C alculated frac
tional production
profiles with the
dispersion model
936

However this agreement, see fig. 3 can only be achieved

when we assume an unrealistically high effective viscosity.
The other discrepancy is that calculations predict a constant
water/oil production ratio.
In figure 't we present the calculations for the disper
sion model. There is good agreement between the calculated and
measured production data. The water/oil production ratio
increases in agreement with the experimental data.
The dispersion coefficients have reasonable values but
are somewhat larger than the coefficients found with the
standard correlations. This, however, may be attributed to
longitudinal dispersion enhancement due to viscous fingering
effects stabilized by transverse dispersion.

4.2. Interface motion

We shall calculate the steam interface for subcriticai

rates (equation 5b) to interpret the laboratory experiment
(figure 5) and for unfavourable mobility ratio's (equation 9)
to indicate how the theory can be used. The laboratory and
some representative field (Schoonebeek) parameters have been
summarized in table II.

Table II, Parameters for interface calculations.

pressure hxl [m2] k Ap m

o g
1
[bar] [m ] [deg] [D ] [cP] [kg/m] []

Lab 10 0.12x1 20 300 0.24 0.016 765 0.006

Sch 5 18x1500 55 0.75 5.27 0.015 815 0.006
oone 30 18x1500 5.5 0.75 1.77 0.018 751 0.020
beek 90 18x1500 55 0.75 1.00 0.020 674 0.044

EXPERIMENTAL

CALCULATED

Figure 5 The s t a b l e case i n the l a b o r a t o r y .

C a l c u l a t i o n s f o r t h e laboratory experiment i . e . a t sub

c r i t i c a l r a t e s lead t o an approximately horizontal i n t e r f a c e .
The e x p e r i m e n t , however i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e i n t e r f a c e i s
 937

slightly tilted more perpendicular to the flow direction. More

experiments are needed to quantify this discrepancy. As part
of this project, apart from more experiments at various vis-
cosities and permeabilities of the type already discussed,
scaled model experiments ill be performed.
Calculations for typical Schoonebeek reservoir parameters
were carried out at different pressures. The model predicts a
considerable override with respect to the horizontal inter-
face, shown as curve 4 in figure 6. In the figure height and
length of the reservoir are not drawn to scale.

1 5 bar
2 90 bar
3 30 tar
4 Horizontal Plane

Figure 6. The unstable case in the field.

A small improvement of the fluid viscosity downstream of

the front, for example owing to a distillable oil bank, would
according to the model lead to a considerable enhancement of
the sweep efficiency. However we have used equation (9) at
slightly unfavourable pseudo mobility ratio's where it is not
completely justified to disregard the stabilizing gravity
forces. A FEM solution of equation (3) would lead to more
reliable results. Solution of equation (3) would also allow a
varying viscosity field due to temperature and compositional
differences, which may reduce the sweep enhancement effect.
Even if the steam drive process starts at an unfavourable
pseudo mobility ratio, heat losses may lead to a lower sub-
critical steam velocity at the interface and hence to a stable ,
process. Heat losses can be incorporated in an ad hoc manner,
[6] and [8]. However equation (3) do not incorporate stabi-
lizing mechanisms, such as heat conduction and capillary
effects. These effects have to be considered separately.
Still the newly derived equation (9) extends the ap-
plicability of the "evaluation tool" developed by Van Lookeren
to steam drive processes with an unfavourable pseudo mobility

ratio (M >1).

5. Conclusion
938

During s teamdrive recovery a distillatile oil bank may be

formed downstream of the steam condensation front. This dis
tillatile oil bank displaces the oil ahead of the expanding
steam zone and is considered responsible for the high recovery
from this zone. Two models were developed to describe the
reduced efficiency of this bank, i.e. a dispersion model and a
fingering model. The dispersion model accounts for the be
haviour of the distillable oil bank in tube experiments. The
fingering model however may be more relevant for evaluation of
field data. Low residual oil saturations in the steam zone can
be partly attributed to film flow effects, which can occur in
the absence of distillation effects. The distillable oil bank
also lowers the pseudo mobility ratio and hence improves the
sweep.
A contribution to the theory of steam interface motion is
made by demonstrating the analogy to salt/fresh water sharp
interface motion. A model is derived, which quantifies the
sweep in terms of the pseudo mobility ratio with a simple
analytical expression. The model is also applicable under
conditions of unfavourable mobility ratio's. The theories must
be further elaborated to form the basis of an economic evalua
tion between steamdrive and waterdrive of relatively low
viscosity oils.

6. Acknowledgements

The work described is part of an energy project in the section

hydrocarbons and is made possible by financial support of the
EEC (projects TH 05.64/85, TH 0538/82). We thank Mr. H. van
Asten for building up the high pressure rig.

List of symbols

= dip of layer [deg]

= angle of interface [deg]
c = heat capacity of phase [J/kgK]

c = fractional concentration in figures 24 [ ]
T = specific gravity (p g) [kg/ms]

= enthalpy difference between steam and water [J/kg]
AS = saturation difference at interface [m3/mJ]

k = permeability of phase [m2]

m = ratio produced fluids/injected fluids [ ]
M = pseudo mobility ratio [ ]
q = normalised specific discharge of phase [m*/s]

Q = total discharge [m2/s]
t = time [s ]
t ,_,.._ = time to steam breakthrough [min ]
St/Dt
v = velocity of phase [m1 /m2.s]
o
= average velocity of steam condensation front [m, /s]
 939

streamfunction [m'/s]
.y distance coordinates [ m ]
= viscosity of phase [Pa s ]
= density of phase [kg/m' ]
= porosity [V/mJ,]
X = normalisation factor [-]
subscripts

= phase denominator 1 = fluid

b = bed = pore
g = steam w = water

References

1. J.BRUINING, D.N. DIETZ, G. METSELAAR, J.W.SCHOLTEN, .

EMKE, and F. HUBNER, "Improved r e c o v e r y o f h e a v y o i l by
s t e a m w i t h added d i s t i l l a b l e s " , 3rd European meeting on
improved o i l r e c o v e r y , Proc. I , Rome, 371-378 ( 1 9 8 5 ) .
2 . B.T. WILLMAN, V.V. VALLEROY, G.W. RUNBERG, A.J. CORNELIUS,
and L.W.POWERS, " L a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s on o i l r e c o v e r y by
steam i n j e c t i o n " , J . P . T . (July 196I) 68I-69O.
3 . E . J . K OVAL, "A method f o r p r e d i c t i n g t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f
u n s t a b l e m i s c i b l e d i s p l a c e m e n t s i n heterogeneous media",
SPE Reprint s e r i e s No 8 , 173-182.
4 . J.BRUINING, D.W. VAN BATENBURG, H.J. DE HAAN, R. QUAK and
C . T . S . PALMGREN, "The e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e d i s t i l l a t i o n
mechanism t o enhance steamdrive recovery", Proceedings o f
t h e 4 t h European m e e t i n g o n E n h a n c e d O i l R e c o v e r y ,
Hamburg, 887-898 ( I 9 8 7 ) .
5 . D.N. DIETZ, "A t h e o r e t i c a l a p p r o a c h t o t h e p r o b l e m o f
e n c r o a c h i n g and b y p a s s i n g edge-water",
Koninkl.Ned.Akad.Wetens., Proceedings (1953) s e r i e s B, 5 6 ,
No.l.
6. J . VAN LOOK EREN, " C a l c u l a t i o n methods f o r l i n e a r and
r a d i a l s t e a m f l o w i n o i l r e s e r v o i r s " , J . P e t . T e c h n . (june
1983) 4 2 7 - 4 3 9 .
7. R . J . WYGAL, "On t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f models t h a t s i m u l a t e
o i l r e s e r v o i r s " , SPEJ (December I963) 2 8 1 - 2 8 6 .
8 . J . V . VOGEL , " S i m p l i f i e d h e a t c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r
s t e a m f l o o d s " , J . P e t . T e c h n . (July 1984) I I 2 7 - I I 3 6 .
9 . J . R . CHAN HONG, C . J . VAN DUYN, D. HILHORST and J . VAN
RESTER, "The i n t e r f a c e between f r e s h and s a l t groundwater.
A n u m e r i c a l s t u d y " . Report o f t h e f a c u l t y o f Mathematics
and i n f o r m a t i c s No: 8 7 - 2 0 , D e l f t ( I 9 8 7 ) .
1 0 . G. DE JOSSELIN DE JONG, "The simultaneous flow o f f r e s h
and s a l t water i n a q u i f e r s o f l a r g e h o r i z o n t a l e x t e n s i o n
d e t e r m i n e d by s h e a r flow and v o r t e x theory". Proceedings
o f Euromech 143, D e l f t , 75-82 ( I 9 8 I ) .
1 1 . A.H. DE VILLENEUVE, " A p p l i c a t i o n o f v o r t e x t h e o r y t o t h e
a n a l y s e s o f w a t e r c o n i n g " , TNO R e p o r t 0 5 8 7 / 4 4 , D e l f t
(1987).
40

GLUCANS FOR EOR: FERMENTATION AND WORKUP

F . D . MARTISC HIUS
BASF AG

By the end of 1987 about 220 m i l l i o n metric tons of the o i l reserves

of the FRG, estimated at about 750 m i l l i o n metric tons 001P, had been
recovered. A further 65 m i l l i o n metric tons are considered to be recover
able using current methods of recovery. I t is hoped that an additional 70
to 120 m i l l i o n tons of o i l can be recovered by t e r t i a r y methods of
recovery, thus s t a b i l i z i n g the decreasing crude o i l recovery of the FRG at
about 4.5 mi I l i o n metric tons/a. These figures i l l u s t r a t e what enormous
economic importance t e r t i a r y methods of recovery may have.
In the long run the worldwide o i l demand can only be met by applying
new techniques of recovery with a view to increasing the degree of o i l
depletion of known f i e l d s or making f i e l d s which could not be expanded
u n t i l now available for recovery.
Polymer flooding with polymers synthesized by chemical methods,
for example copolymers of acrylamide and sodium acrylate or natural
polymers (homo and heteropolysaccharides) are important EOR measures.
The Theological and f loodingspeci f ic properties which these products must
f u l f i l l include:
high viscosity enhancement
s t a b i l i t y to salts
thermal s t a b i l i t y
longterm s t a b i l i t y
good i n j e c t a b i l i t y
Compared with the synthetic polymers, microbial polysaccharides (xan
thans, glucans) in highly saline aqueous deposits show a s i g n i f i c a n t l y
higher degree of viscosity.
The high s a l i n i t y of German deposits proved to be a d i f f i c u l t prob
lem in polymer flooding because only polymers which are stable to salts
lead to a balanced ratio between the achievable increase in o i l deple
tion and the t o t a l cost of a flooding project.
This is true not only for the German but also for most of the foreign
deposits. Synthetic polymers which are stable to salts and have a suff
icient degree of viscosity have not been available commercially u n t i l now.
This paper deals s p e c i f i c a l l y with providing a glucan with salt
independent solution viscosity.

Structure and synthesis of glucans

Glucans are exopolysaccharides which are synthesized as storage com
pounds by various types of f u n g i , such as Sclerotium glucanicium,
Sclerotium r o l f s i i and Botrytis cinerea. The fungus Botrytis cinerea
forms an e x t r a c e l l u l a r (1 -* 3 , 1 + 6 ) Dglucan (D. Dubourdieu, P.
Ri bereauGayon, Carbohydrate Research, 9 3 , 294 (1981)) of the following
structure:

--Glcp
1
I
6
t.3)/JDGlc;?(l 3 H D G l c p ( 1 3)/?DGIC />(1 9 .
 941

Polysaccharides which are secreted by d i f f e r e n t Sclerotium species

d i f f e r in the number and length of the side chains (P.A. Sandford, Adv.
Carbohydr. Chem. Biochem., 3 6 , 265-313 (1979)).
I n a fungus glucan screening with more than 50 Botrytis cinerea
s t r a i n s , a microbial polysaccharide with very good Theological and
flooding-speciflc properties was developed at BASF. This product has
been developed with a view to a f i e l d application in a north German
deposit. Up to now very l i t t l e has been known about the mechanism of
microbial e x t r a c e l l u l a r polysaccharide formation. They are only
hypothetical ideas even about the synthesis of the biopolymer xanthane,
which is produced nowadays on an industrial scale in a volume of about
20,000 metric tons/year.

Investigation of d i f f e r e n t parameters of c u l t i v a t i o n and fermentation

Like myc el i urn-fonii ing bacteria ( f o r example streptomyces) , fungi
tend to form p e l l e t s in submersion cultures as a result of the i n t e r -
twining of fungus hyphae. Very soon a negative correlation between
p e l l e t size and glucan formation was observed: with increasing p e l l e t
growth, decreasing glucan concentrations were obtained.
By Ultraturrax comminution of the mycelia pieces during the i n d i -
vidual preculture periods a filamentary growth of submersion cultures
was obtained. This form of growth had a positive effect on the glucan
production.
Maintaining a C:N r a t i o of > 15:1 in the culture medium, which con-
sisted of an N-sou re e ( f o r example peptone), malt extract and a further
C-source ( f o r example various sugars), was of essential importance for
good production.
With many producers of secondary metabolites, subdivision into a t r o -
pho- and an idiophase can be observed. With the producer of glucan, the
fonnation of product occurred p a r a l l e l to the c e l l growth. At the moment
of the maximum of obtained biomass, the highest glucan concentration was
also present in the fermenter. Several days a f t e r reaching the maximum of
production and growth, the fungus polymer was again degraded. In shaking
c u l t u r e s , degradation was stopped by subsequent addition of C- and N-
sources.
In a 10 I Laboratory fermenter the effect of the s t i r r e r geometry on
the glucan y i e l d ( c o r r e l a t i o n between p e l l e t size and product formation)
was investigated. The attempt to reduce the size of the pellets further
elements, or to keep them at a desired size by using blade s t i r r e r , with
a larger diameter and by increasing the motor speed, f a i l e d owing to the
shear s e n s i t i v i t y of the fungus. Maintaining a c r i t i c a l shear stress
throughout the e n t i r e time of incubation led to greater reduced c e l l
growth and polysaccharide formation.
The best results so far were obtained with Interring s t i r r e r s
(12 cm in diameter, 3 elements arranged crosswise one above the o t h e r ) .
(See Figure 1.)
942

3 INTERMIG s t i r r e r s d=120 mm
0 3 Blade s t i r r e r s d=75 mm

Figure 1
Experiments with d i f f e r e n t stirrers

Time in hours

A homogeneous intimate mixture of a Botrytis culture was no longer

guaranteed a f t e r the t h i r d or fourth day, due to an increase in v i s c o s i t y ,
caused by increased formation of biomass and biopolymers. However i t was
shown that the oxygen uptake of cultures is not essential for good fungus
g Luc an production.

I s o l a t i o n of glucan from the fermentation broth

Glucan fermentation leads to fermentation broths which, in addition
to the valuable product polysaccharide and dissolved low molecular weight
a d d i t i v e s , contain in particular significant amounts of fungus mycel i a . The
main object of working up the fermentation solutions is to separate o f f
t h i s biomass in order to obtain a clear polysaccharide solution.
The d i f f i c u l t i e s consist in separating a filamentary component with
a r e l a t i v e l y small size (about 3 to 20 micron) from a dissolved sub
stance of high molecular weight having molecular dimensions which almost
extend into the micron range. The separation methods known from the
l i t e r a t u r e generally lead to unsatisfactory results. Direct (pressure)
f i l t r a t i o n , for example through membrane f i l t e r s , leads to an extremely
rapid clogging of the pores, with the result that the f i l t r a t e flow stops
within a very short period of time.
At the same time i t is observed that the glucan concentration in the
f i l t r a t e corresponds to the glucan concentration in the crude solution
only at the beginning of the f i l t r a t i o n . With increasing length of f i l
t r a t i o n , the glucan concentration in the f i L t r a t e decreases rapidly.
This is explained by the fact that the retained fungus mycelium forms a
growing Layer of slime on the f i l t e r , which becomes increasingly inpas
sable for the dissolved g Luc an; t h i s is not really surprising given the
substantial molecular dimensions of the glucan. I f samples of a fermen
t a t i o n solution are f i l t e r e d at the same time through f i l t e r material of
d i f f e r e n t pore s i z e , i t is found that at a pore size of less than about
10 m the viscosity of the f i l t r a t e again decreases d r a s t i c a l l y , because
the glucan is increasingly retained due to i t s molecular dimensions (see
Figure 2 ) . An analogous effect in similar systems was recently also
described in the l i t e r a t u r e (D. Lecacheux et a l . , Carbohydrate Polym. 6 ,
477 (1986)).
 943

Viscosity of the f i l t r a t e

[mPas)
10*HQ

10*

10'
600 400 ZOO Pore size
Figure 2 F i l t r a t i o n of glucan fermentation solution through f i l t e r s
of different pore size.
The f i l t r a t i o n can be improved, especially in respect of the speed of
f i l t r a t i o n , by adding f i l t e r auxiliaries. But again there is the danger
that glucan w i l l be retained by building up of f i l t e r cake. Since exces
sively large amounts of auxiliaries are necessary for a satisfactory
f i l t r a t i o n performance, direct f i l t r a t i o n of the fermentation broth only
represents a method for the laboratory scale. Similar restrictions apply
to direct centrifugation. Here a clean separation of the fungus mycelium
is only obtained i f the fermentation solution is f i r s t diluted to a glucan
content of about 1 g / l .
A d i l u t i o n can be avoided in most cases i f , before centri fug ing, a
halogenated hydrocarbon such as 1,1,1trichloroethane or Frigen 113 is
added in small amounts, for example 1% by volume. The viscosity of the
product is not affected by such a measure, as can be seen from Figure 3.

Stress diagrams of the supernatant

[mPas]

^ s. Starting sample
10' A. 3 minutes of centrifugation
,. 3 0 minutes of centrifugation
\
10'
V
10J
V '\

10 10' 10 10' 10a

Figure 3 D [s']

Centrifugation of glucan fermentation solution

(1X by volume of Frigen as auxiliary)
944

By a short shear treatment before the c e n t r i f u g a t i o n the removal of

the glucan from the c e l l surface can be maximized without an adverse
e f f e c t on the s p e c i f i c v i s c o s i t y of the glucan. The shear treatment
e f f e c t s at the same time a d i s t i n c t improvement in the f i l t r a t i o n
behavior.
To increase the f i l t r a t i o n speed f u r t h e r , the supernatants of the
c e n t r i f u g a t ions were subsequently treated enzymatically. The use o f
glucan h y d r o l y s i s i n p a r t i c u l a r leads t o d i s t i n c t e f f e c t s , obviously as
a r e s u l t of the degradation of microgels. However, i t i s important to
avoid an enzymatic degradation of the high molecular weight g l u c a n , by a
s u i t a b l e s e l e c t i o n of dosage and d u r a t i o n of the treatment.
As an a l t e r n a t i v e to t h i s workup procedure ( f e a s i b l e f o r glucan con-
c e n t r a t i o n s up to about 3 g / l ) , the separation of fungus mycelia from
u n d i l u t e d fermentation b r o t h , and subsequent concentration o f the glucan
s o l u t i o n can be c a r r i e d out s u c c e s s f u l l y by a two-stage crossflow f i l -
t r a t i o n through t u b u l a r membranes. The p r i n c i p l e of t h i s novel f i l t r a -
t i o n technique i s based on a flow over a membrane during the f i l t r a t i o n
i n order to reduce the formation of surface l a y e r s .
The micropores of the commercial membranes (polypropylene, s t a i n l e s s
s t e e l , ceramic) are f i n e enough to r e t a i n s o l i d p a r t i c l e s , and also bac-
t e r i a , f u n g i , e t c . They are large enough to l e t the p u r i f i e d l i q u i d s and
substances dissolved t h e r e i n , pass through with the least amount o f r e s i s -
tance.
The pore f i n e n e s s , the narrow pore d i s t r i b u t i o n , and the high poros-
i t y of the membranes allow e x t r a o r d i n a r y performances in f i l t r a t i o n and
an impeccable q u a l i t y of separation even under d i f f i c u l t c o n d i t i o n s .
Figure 4 gives a schematic view of an i n d u s t r i a l microfiltration unit.

Figure 4
CROSSFLOW M i c r o f i l t r a t i o n Process diagram

0*3=

1 Storage tank 6 Crossflow c i r c u l a t i o n

2 Feed pump 7 Enka M i c r o d y n f i l t e r module
3 Heat exchanger 8 Back wash device
4 Heat exchanger with heat c i r c u l a t i o n 9 Compressed a i r terminal
5 Crossflow pump 10 Retentate discharge
11 F i I t r a t e tank
 945

Modules with a pore size of 0.2 2 micron were used in the glucan
workup. While the g Luc an cannot pass membranes with a pore size of 0.2
microns, so that the permeate is in this case free of g Luc an, a pore size
of 5 micron i s not s u f f i c i e n t to retain the entire amount of mycelium.
For optimum results membranes with a pore size of 1 to 2 microns are used.
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , , the glucan passes through these membranes without any loss,
while during the normal pressure f i l t r a t i o n significant losses of glucan
are observed even at pore sizes of smaller than 10 micron. The permeate
flows of > 20 l/nr h which are obtained in the cnossflow f i l t r a t i o n
seem to make this process also suitable for industry.

da I Ulli I i m U l L lie alleai [aid xii u uin s u i il vu a i n u i i i b k / a i > i / L

amide and commercial xanthans, glucan showed better properties in the
range of high s a l i n i t y and in long term tests which were performed under
deposit conditions (at temperatures of 5060C), see Figures 5 and 6.
Flooding experiments with rock grains suggest good i n j e c t a b i l i t y and a
s u f ff i cf i e
if ann tt adsorption
a H c A m t n n behavior
hahainnr

Figure 5 Flow diagrams of anionic Polyacrylamide and fungus glucan

Viscosity
CmPas3

10 -,

10*

Anionic Polyacrylamide
10* (1500 ppm in water)

'"^S. Glu can

^ S S (700 ppm in salt water)
(70I
Glucan
10'
(700 ppm in salt water)

Anionic Polyacrylamide
(1500 ppm in salt water)

10
io 2 io 10 10' 10*

Shear rate Is
46

Figure 6 Storage of polysaccharides in aqueous deposits (about 13% of

NaCO a t 60C, 1000 ppm, D= 1 s~1

(without addition of s t a b i l i z e r s )
2
Viscosity
CmPasD

10' oo

fungus glucan
o xancnans

10
0 SO 100
time Cdays
 947

DG XII R&D PROGRAMME ON HYDROCARBONS

The fourth RSD programme on non nuclear energy

The current RSD programme on hydrocarbons 1985-88

Advances in new technologies for the

exploration of oil and gas resources :
a review of developments in the period 1985-87

Improved recovery and completion techniques

for oil and gas reservoirs

Treatment of natural gas and new

utilizations enhancing its value

Research and development programme

for the utilization of heavy oil fractions

The modification of hydrocarbons

for improving the combustion in engines

Improvement of fuel/engine adaptation

 949

THE FOURTH R&D PROGRAMME ON NON NUCLEAR ENERGY

Ph. BOURDEAU
Directorate-General Science, Research and Development
Commission of the European Communities

Summary

A brief review recall of the aim, content and size of preceding

research programmes on Non Nuclear Energy (NNE) of the Commission
of the European Communities is presented. Although still in pre-
paration and in tentative form - therefore not yet finalized -, the
motivation, aim and posible scope of the fourth four-year Non
Nuclear Energy Programme proposal is sketched. Details are given on
the possible content and scope of the R&D on hydrocarbons, as a
part of it, which covers exploration, production, transformation
and use of hydrocarbons, including natural gas.

1. INTRODUCTION

The European Community has long been concerned in pursuing a diver-

sified energy policy in which all technologically exploitable sources of
energy have a place: it has taken care to organize and, at the same
time, stimulate research in several directions. Since 1975, for
example, the Commission has been carrying out not only programmes of
research into nuclear fission and thermonuclear fusion which have been
running since the EURATOM Treaty entered into force, but also R & D in
the field of non-nuclear energy relating to the development of renewable
energy sources and the rational use of energy.

The following tables summarize the characteristics of the past and

present programmes on non nuclear energy.

TABLE 1

R&D IN THE FIELD OF NON-NUCLEAR ENERGY

PROGRAMME DURATION APPROPRIATION NUMBER

(MECU) OF CONTRACTS

1st 1/7/75-30/06/79 59 683

2nd 1/7/79-30/06/83 105 977
3rd 1/1/85-30/12/88 175 725
950

TABLE 2

3rd NON-NUCLEAR ENERGY PROGRAMME (1985-1988)

CONTENTS AND FUNDING

SUB-PROGRAMMES APPROPRIATION (MECU)

Development of renewable sources of energy

1. Solar energy 35.5
2. Energy from biomass 20.0
3. Wind energy 18.0
4. Geothermal energy 21.0

Rational use of energy

5. Energy conservation 26.5
6. Utilization of solid fuels 20.0
7. New energy vectors 10.0
8. Hydrocarbons 15.0
9. Energy systems analysis and modelling 9.0

175.0

All sectors of the programme have produced results of unquestio-

nable quality and value.

If the Community now consumes less energy than in 1973 even though
economic activity has increased by 25 X, if the Community's energy effi-
ciency (1) has improved by 20 X since 1973 and if imported oil now
accounts for only 30 X of its gross energy consumption compared with 60
X in 1973, this is without doubt due in large part to the management of
energy resources and improvements in energy efficiency, even after
allowing for the effects of the economic recession and the slow-down in
industrial activity. These improvements are the results of the response
to the energy crisis provided by European cooperation on energy policy,
one of the fundamental aspects of which is energy research, development
and demonstration. The results achieved with conventional fuels (coal,
oil and gas) and with nuclear energy, alternative sources and energy
conservation have made major practical contributions towards improving
the energy situation. The long-term strategies adopted are indicative
of the Community's determination to become more self-sufficient where
energy is concerned, to guarantee security of supply and to improve the
competitiveness of the economy and of industry. A side effect of the
current low price of crude oil, however, may be that the efforts made in
the Community since the first crisis to reduce its dependence on oil,
not only in energy terms but also in economic terms, are relaxed or even
abandoned altogether despite the long-term need for such measures.

Caution is therefore essential: the current fall in oil prices,

transitory as it may be, must not lead the Community to reduce its
efforts to encourage and coordinate research, development and demon-
stration concerning more rational use of energy (in particular, energy
derived from fossil fuels), energy conservation and alternative energy
sources (especially new and renewable resources). This is all the more
 951

Important since the research and demonstration activities in question

concern technologies which will make it possible to maintain and
stimulate the competitiveness of industry in the Community. Community
industry must be capable of responding to the needs and opportunities
created by new energy technologies if the Community is to avoid becoming
dependent on imported technologies as well as on imported sources of
energy. Another rise in oil prices would once again make the management
of energy a priority and, if Community industry were caught unprepared,
could lead to a massive influx of foreign processes and products.

This is why the Community has established new energy objectives for
1995 (2) and has defined the means by which they may be achieved, inclu-
ding a policy on energy efficiency (1), options for the rational use of
energy in transport (3) and increased exploitation of renewable energy
sources (4) (5).

The adoption of these objectives represents the Community's commit-

ment to continue the energy restructuring process.

Although less attractive at a time when energy is cheap, R & D

efforts in the energy technologies should not fluctuate with the same
frequency as the energy market, nor be in phase with energy/economy
crises. On the contrary, they should guarantee continuity in the
actions taken since 1975, as there is still considerable scope for
energy saving and improvements in the non-polluting use of fossil fuels
(and exploration and production of hydrocarbons), while new and
renewable energy sources have scarcely yet begun to make a useful
contribution to the Community's energy needs. It is therefore of great
importance to ensure that the R&D, Technological and Demonstration
programmes are not adversely affected by the change in the market
situation. It is vital that the earlier programmes be continued if the
maximum benefit is to be gained from the use of energy technologies
which have been developed and improved up to the present.

Moreover, it is important to take the environment into account in

Community policies and in particular in energy policy. Environmental
constraints, in particular the reduction of air pollution, affect energy
costs and the competitive position of the various energy sources. The
balanced pursuit of environmental and energy objectives is therefore of
particular importance.

2. THE NEW PROGRAMME

The foregoing considerations have led the Commission to prepare the

following R & D (NNE) programme as part of the "continuation and up-
dating of action on energy" section of the 1987-1991 Framework Pro-
gramme. Development of the innovative energy technologies to which it
relates will help to achieve the overall objective of Community energy
strategy which is to increase security of supply and to reduce energy
imports while keeping costs at an acceptable level and protecting the
environment.
952

It is important to note, however, that since the procedure for

preparation of a new programme proposal is not completed (i.a. it must
await the recommendations of an evaluation panel now at work), the
following indications are only qualitative and do not even imply that
such a programme will be presented since it is not yet officially
approved by the Commission.

The purposes of the proposed activities are, by developing suitable

technologies :
- to improve energy efficiency
- to make optimum and clean use of fossil fuels, to improve
exploration and production of hydrocarbons and to develop
substitutes for conventional energy sources;
- to give renewable energy sources a more important role to play
in the medium and long term;

This programme, focusing on optimum non-nuclear energy management,

also makes a contribution to other Community actions. The expected
results should stimulate Community industry to develop advanced energy
technology products for which there will be markets worth several
billion ECU per year. The research in progress or to be undertaken
should prepare Community industry to capture a large share of these
markets, not only within the Community but also in other industrialized
and developing countries.

The innovative energy technologies to which the programme relates

should, moreover, take into account not only their immediate cost but
also their impact on the environment in the sense that they protect it
by significantly reducing nuisance and pollution, in particular from
fossil fuels.

The proposed programme ensures the continuity of the previous pro-

grammes. Continuity does not rule out necessary changes, however. For
this reason, the programme adopts a different approach from that of its
predecessors, updating not only the title but the contents, the struc-
ture and the details of the fields of activity.

3. CRITERIA FOR COMMUNITY ACTION

The proposed programme has been planned with full regard to the
general selection criteria for actions in the Framework Programme
1987-91 and for the usual criteria which the Commission sets itself in
the formulation of specific research and development proposals. The
main considerations are:

that there should be a clear Community role and purpose in the

proposed action, taking account of the Community's needs and in the
context of related actions pursued in the Member States, notably as
regard energy policy;

- that the scale of Community action which is proposed should be such

as to have significant impact in relation to the policy
considerations which justify the work;
 963

that the Community action is likely to provide a significant "added

value", in addition to Member States' actions, e.g. by encouraging
the more efficient combination of various national skills, by
undertaking actions which can only be addressed sensibly on a
Community basis, by setting new trends or by filling gaps in the
pattern of activities within the Community;

that the programme must be appropriately harmonized with Community

actions in related fields (agriculture, transport, environment,
norms and standards, etc) and well Integrated with downstream
demonstration actions.

4. SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL CONTENT

After formal and informal consultations with advisory bodies and

various experts, the Commission staff have identified the fields, areas
and topics for research as set out in the proposed new programme.

The research items identified from these discussions have been

arranged into the following sub-programmes:

(i) Technologies for the rational use of final energy

- sectors of final utilisation of energy;
- supply and storage of energy;
(ii) Technologies for the clean and efficient use and improved
exploration of fossil fuels
- oil and natural gas
- solid fuels;
(iii) Technologies for the use of substitute energy sources
- renewable energies;
- geothermal energy and deep geology;
(iv) Models for energy and environment.

The chief role of this programme is therefore to extend a synergy

of precompetitive research at Community level and thus to give R & D an
Integral part to play in bringing about the single internal market and
European Union.

5. CONSISTENCY, COMPLEMENTARITY AND COOPERATION

As we have seen, the programme has been drawn up in such a way as

to ensure that it ties in with other Community actions which are direct-
ly complementary to it and that it is Implemented in a consistent and
coordinated manner.

In particular the R&D on hydrocarbons has been made complementary

to the actions carried out in the framework of the Hydrocarbons Techno-
logical Development Programme and cross-links are permanently maintained
for the purpose of avoiding gaps as well as useless duplication.
954

6. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE NON NUCLEAR ENERGY R&D PROGRAMME

The programme will be executed in accordance with the procedures

available to the Commission: shared-cost actions with the necessary
flexibility in terms both of the eligible costs and of the level of
Community participation, concerted actions, COST actions, etc. Trans-
border collaboration will be the order of the day. All parties engaged
in research will be involved: universities, public and private research
centres and industries - with particular attention to small and medium-
sized enterprises. Intersectoral co-operation will be encouraged to
bring together industry and universities and to assist smaller firms.
Efforts will be made to include the use of JRC facilities wherever this
is possible and desirable. Co-ordination will be encouraged by the
organisation of contact groups bringing together specialists in a parti-
cular field.

7. ENERGY FROM FOSSIL SOURCES

Within the Non Nuclear Energy R&D Programme, the subprogramme of

interest to this session of the symposium is that on Fossil Fuels and in
particular its part on hydrocarbons.

Fossil fuels still represent the most versatile and widely used
form of energy. It is therefore advisable to improve the technical and
economic conditions of their exploration, extraction and usage and to
extend in time, as far as possible, their contribution to the world
energy supply until a real alternative has been developed. This is parti-
cularly important for extending native resources of Europe. According
to the forecasts presented in "Energy 2000" (7), by the year 2000 80JI of
the total energy used in the ten Member States considered (8) will come
from fossil fuels, and half of this will be from hydrocarbons alone.

Fossil energy sources as a whole, therefore, will continue to play

a dominant role in our energy supply for long time and, because of our
unavoidable dependence on them, the results of well chosen and coordi-
nated R & D in this area can have a significant impact.

8. HYDROCARBONS (oil and natural gas)

The importance to the Community of making optimum use of the oil

available, imported or indigenous, has been emphasised already above.
The strategy for achieving this aim includes the identification and
exploitation of new resources and the introduction, where feasible and
economically justified, of alternative fuels derived from the very large
known reserves of natural gas. This means that a vigorous R & D pro-
gramme is necessary, with the aim of:

- extending the reserves through reduction of operating costs by

the development of improved exploration and production
techniques
 958

- utilizing to a better extent all hydrocarbons, including natural

gas.

The hydrocarbon industry already has substantial research pro-

grammes but, particularly in view of the current low price of oil, these
are focused on short term objectives and often involve commercial confi-
dentiality. The role of the Commission's programme is to encourage work
on rather longer-term aspects, in what in other fields might be termed
the "precompetitive" phase, and to coordinate and catalyze the multi-
partner research actions which are indispensable for solving the more
complicated problems.

Extensive consultation with the major laboratories and companies in

Europe and with experts in the field has permitted the identification of
a list of priority research themes, which build on and extend somewhat
the content of the first R & D programme on Hydrocarbons. The R & D work
identified here has been planned to precede and complement technological
work Implemented by regulation 3639/85, since the work sketched here is
limited to research, the subsequent technological developments being
left to that regulation. Furthermore close coordination between the two
programmes is maintained.

The tasks for which R&D will be implemented are:

A. Techniques for exploration and reconnaissance

- Sedimentology of source rocks.
- Basin modelling by integrated geophysical-geochemical methods,
with special emphasis on structural history.
- Three component recording and data analysis, wide angle
reflection analysis, modelling and inversion methods, expert
systems, Imaging and pattern recognition. Integration of
seismic and non-seismic methods for basins and geological
structure evaluation.

B. Research on drilling problems (not including drilling operations)

- Data acquisition, transmission, correlation and modelling.
- Interaction between rock and bit, stress distribution,
chemical interactions.
- Mechanics and hydraulics of the drilling process.

C. Production techniques
- Knowledge of reservoirs by integrated use of sedimentology,
studies on rock diagenesis, stratigraphy based on 3D and down-
hole seismic surveys and statistical treatment of data.
- Study of rock mechanics and of fracturing techniques for
improvement of productivity.
- Study of fluid mechanics in reservoirs, fluid thermodynamics;
interface science.
- Study of methods of improved oil recovery; stability of
chemicals, basic knowledge on mechanisms and models.
- Evaluation of the economics of advanced production processes
for their optimisation.
956

D. Supporting studies for offshore technology

- Mathematical and probabilistic modelling of the dynamic beha-
viourof non-conventional structures.
- Improved knowledge of fluid flow mechanics in pipes, applied
to oil.
- Improvement of sensor reliability and data transmission.
- Use of artificial intelligence for application to robotics and
automation
- Study of systems for failure monitoring, safety analysis and
environment protection.

E. Natural gas development and conversion

- Improved processes for gas treatment and purification for
light weight offshore application.
- New advanced processes for conversion of natural gases to
liquid hydrocarbons and to additives for the improvement of
petrols and to other useful liquid products.

F. Hydrocarbon conversion
- Treatment of heavy oils, residues and non-conventional oils
(tar sands, etc.) including the aspects of conversion to light
products and the improvement of quality of fuel oils.
- Improvement of transport fuels (petrol and diesel oil) for
better engine operation within environmental constraints.

G. Synthetic fuels
As a continuation of the preceding R & D programme in the same
field and complementing the corresponding actions within the coal
research and demonstration programme a small-size activity may
be pursued as a long term work on the following themes of R & D:
- Processes for the direct liquefaction of coal using impure
hydrogen and/or more efficient catalysts in milder conditions.
- Study of the mechanism of conversion of different coal
macerals, with a view to more effective management of coal
feeds.
- Development of more effective catalysts for the direct and
indirect liquefaction of coal.
- Modelling and conceptual optimisation of potentially promising
processes,evaluation of the use of low-rank coal and lignite.

CONCLUSIONS

From the foregoing description it is clear that Energy research has

a great importance and in particular that R&D on hydrocarbons will be a
significant part of it.

The list of themes given above for this field is very comprehensive
and questions may be raised on the validity of such a long series of
tasks when the existing limitations on funding are considered. In reali-
ty the above themes of research represent the actual needs for research.
Constraints could be taken into account at the moment of programme
implementation by limiting the scope of the calls for proposals. In
principle the highest priority would be attributed to tasks A, C and E
 957

with equivalent importance, followed by tasks F, and D in that order.

Only a smallsize activity will be considered for task G. However, there
is a possibility that, at the moment of the revision of the current
Framework Programme and in consideration of the large needs for research
illustrated here, more funds may be allocated to this work.

It is also recalled that the above given description of the Non

Nuclear Energy R&D Programme (and of hydrocarbons research in particu
lar) should be considered as a draft work document only, whose content
might be completely modified before its approval by the Commission and
eventually the Council after consultation of the European Parliament.

REFERENCES

(1) Council Resolution OJ No. C 241, 25.9.1986

(2) Commission Communication C0M(87)223 final, 13.5.1987.
(3) Commission Communication COM(86)393 final, 22.7.1986.
(4) Council Resolution OJ No. C316, 1.12.1986.
(5) Council Recommendation OJ No
(6) "Comit de gestion et de coordination"
(7) "Energy 2000": a study of the energy outlook for the EC, provides
detailed and consistent energy projections harmonized over the EC.
(8) The analysis predated the accession of Spain and Portugal.
958

THE CURRENT R&D PROGRAMME ON HYDROCARBONS 1985-88

G. IMARISIO
Directorate-General Science, Research and Development
Commission of the European Communities

Summary

The content and motivation of the subprogramme of R&D on the

"Optimization of the production and utilization of hydrocarbons" is
shortly described. The range of themes for which research contracts
have been concluded, which will be presented in synthesis in this
session, is illustrated. The possible timing of the publication of
the results is given.

Nearly 601 of the world's primary energy is produced from oil. Oil
resources still represent the more important factor in maintaining and
developing our civilisation and our economic wealth. It is therefore
essential that all of the steps in the chain of oil prospecting, produc-
tion, refining and utilisation are improved and optimised as each will
directly influence the performance of our economic system. There are
several routes to achieving such improvements.

If these improvements are to be achieved, a complex programme of

work Is required involving areas in which scientific expertise can often
be improved. Therefore the Community has included a sub-programme on
"Production and utilization of Hydrocarbons" in its 3rd Non Nuclear
Energy R&D Programme to which 15 MECU were allocated. If the programme
is successful and the results are translated into practical reality, the
advantages to the Community through increased oil availability and
improved product ranges would be very large.

The main areas of research covered by this programme are:

A. Improvement of basic knowledge on the assessment of oil fields and

basic development of optimized production methodologies.

B. Extension of gas use and its potential conversion to other fuels.

C. Development of better methods of conversion of heavy oil fractions.

D. Improvement of fuels for transportation and of the adaption between

fuel and engine.
 959

In some more detailed way these are as follows.

A. Advanced prospection and renewed interpretation of geophysical data

are one of the more important themes of research, since its success
will result directly in an increase of oil availability though an
increase of the hit ratio of exploration and by cost reduction of
all involved operations.

Further to this, as optimum use and exploitation of available

resources requires an accurate knowledge of well behaviour and
dynamics, it is of great importance to develop better models and
simulation methods capable of orienting the production strategy.

Similarly, basic knowledge of the phenomena involved in the stimu-

lation of wells and of evolution of fields is insufficient.
Improvement of enhanced recovery methods is also necessary in view
of reducing their cost.

B. Natural gas is an important energy resource and it is likely that

consumption will increase over the coming years. While there are
standard technologies already in use for its production, handling
and transport, techniques for the development of small and marginal
fields and for the better utilisation of fields sited at some dis-
tance from the users have still to be developed. These improvements
require the development of new processes for the in situ conversion
of gas to added value products, furthermore the conversion of
natural gas to desirable liquid fuels requires the development of
competitive processes, to ensure that all available gas is put to
good use, and that a better understanding of the thermodynamics of
natural gas mixtures is obtained so that gas processing conversion
and transport facilities can be improved to such an extent that it
will be economical to utilize marginal or distant fields.

C. On the conversion side, since a more complete utilisation of the

barrel of oil is necessary (for evident reasons) and since heavier
types of oils are being gradually introduced - often for reasons of
diversification of the supplies or because of availability -, the
need arises for converting the heavier products and the heavy
bottoms into light products. This necessity is further aggravated
by the shift of the demanded products towards lighter ones, mainly
because lower quantities of heavy fuels are being used while there
is a steady growth of demand for light fuels. While standard con-
version processes are quite well known, conversion of heavier
products, of vacuum bottoms and eventually of shale products
requires the development of specific processes and of the necessary
catalysts, insensitive to sulphur and to metal impurities contained
in these feedstocks.

A]so special attention must be paid to maintenance of the quality

of specific fuels (petrol and gas oil) despite the extended range
of feed to the refinery which will of itself tend to lower this
quality and despite the above mentioned worsening of feedstocks. In
addition to this is the movement to reduce (or to eliminate
altogether) the lead content of petrol for environmental reasons,
with a consequent lowering of petrol quality.
960

D. As far as internal combustion engines are concerned, efforts should

be made to match them to lower quality fuels while at the same time
maintaining performance.

It is clear that this programme has great importance, not only for
the obvious energy related aspects of hydrocarbon fuel supplies, but
also for transport, for the chemical industry (because of the importance
of petroleum products as feedstock), and for the environment. As the
work proposed is at long term duration its pay back will be slow and it
may not be immediately attractive for the oil companies to become
involved. In general terms, it will help to solve problems which would
otherwise influence the European economy in a negative way over the long
term, and it will help to increase the practical availability of oil
over the coming period of transition to alternative fuels.

The details of the research themes retained for the implementation

of this R&D programme are given in appendix. To date fortyfour shared-
cost contracts have been concluded, covering a part of the research
themes given in appendix.

Due to selection procedure and contract negotiation delays, the

overall average activity period of contracts is somewhat displaced
towards the end of the present programme. In fact the highest number of
contracts will end beyond the end of the programme and some will even
last longer. This is illustrated by the bar-graph given in fig. 1.

Taking into account therefore a further small delay due to final

reporting procedures it can be expected that most of the results will be
available between end 1988 and spring 1990.

If a further R&D programme in the same field is approved in time,

this small overlap will provide a reasonable transition between
successive programmes, even if the initial delays for selection and
negotiation of the following programme are taken into account.

Availability of the scientific information will be, however,

improved by the early dissemination of the progresses obtained by means
of a seminar and by a final conference.

In fact, an overall seminar gathering all contractors in this field

of this programme is already being organized for September 21-23, 1988.
A final conference will be organized the following year to diffuse the
final results obtained by all contractors since at that time the majori-
ty of the contracts will be concluded or will be very near to their end
and the necessary scientific information will be therefore available for
communication.

The subdivision of contracts amongst the above described R&D task

is illustrated in figure 2, in term of value of funds allocated (EEC
contribution, ECU) to each task.

More details are obtained from figure 3 in which the main tasks are
further subdivided into their major topics and the amounts allocated to
each.
 961

Figure 4 gives the same details, but as function of the number of

contracts. This is also an useful criterion, since often the high cost
of more costly actions could overshadow the importance of less costly
but still significative research. This very simple analysis shows that
in the present programmes the highest emphasis is given to research in
the fields of prospection and production, followed by research on
conversion methods, then by research on gas utilisation and conversion.
Research on fuel-engine adaptation has received the least attention
during implementation of this programme.

In spite of the usefulness of the above given subdivision and ana-

lysis, no firm conclusions could be drawn, since the very limited funds
available from the beginning to this subprogramme have discouraged
potential proposers of sizeable projects.

The synthetic presentations by task of the content and progress of

the existing R&D contracts which will be given during this session will
permit to appreciate the interest and importance of the researches being
performed within this subprogramme and will give a sufficient idea on
their future potential for further industrial development when they will
be completely achieved.

This subprogramme has been newly included at the beginning of the

present third Non Nuclear R&D programme. It is therefore comparatively
new and it can be expected that it could evolve further on, given the
well known needs for research in its field of application.

SYMPLUX/GI
962

Number of contracts ending

Number of contr.

H 1 h
12/87 3/BB 6/88
12/88 3/89 6/89 9/89 12/89 3/90 6/90 9/90 12/90 3/91
End date of contracts

Figure 1

Subdivision of contracts in tasks

Ai Rocks
Ai nv. Beth.
Ai Modell.
H Ai Other
^ A2 FloH
^ A2 Polymers
[3 A2 Injection
B Catalysts
B Other
Q C Thermal
g C Catalysts
H C Other
H D Mechanism
Tasks f\l D Quality

Figure 2
 Subdivision of contracts in tasks
Al Rocks
Al nv. meth,
g Al Modell.
Al Other
A2 Flow

Ji
A2 Polymers
Number of contr. 3 S A2 Injection

II ^
Catalysts
O Other
Q C Thermal
C Catalysts
C Other
VS D Mechanism
Tasks J\l D Quality

Figure 3
964

APPENDIX

CONTENT OF THE SUBPROCRAMME ON

OPTIMIZATION OF THE PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION

OF HYDROCARBONS

This sub-programme covers the following areas:

IMPROVEMENT OF THE KNOWLEDGE OF HYDROCARBON FIELDS

A-1 Development of advanced geophysical analysis methods and of Interactive modelling by

utilisation of already existing seismic and geophysical data in order to find rela-
tionships of the seismic responses with the geometry of structures and traps but also
with the lithological, mechanical and hydrodynamic properties of hydrocarbon bearing
strata and cap rocks. The processing of the existing data should aim to a quantita-
tive analysis and to develop an advanced tool for improving the knowledge of hydro-
carbon fields.

A-2 Research on the mechanics of fluids in oil wells aimed at developing an accurate
knowledge of well behaviour and dynamics with a view to develop Improved models of
well behaviour.

A-2.1 Improved knowledge of the behaviour of multiphase mixtures and of their

flow In porous media through laboratory studies in sample materials from
wells or in simulated media and by the limited application of modelling.

A-2.2 Improved knowledge of the rheology of fluids used for fracturatlon through
laboratory studies and modelling.

A-2.3 Improved knowledge of recovery processes through laboratory study of

reservoir and system models and laboratory study of enhanced recovery
methods through modelling. Development of methods and models for simulating
the processes of well stimulation.

UTILISATION OF NATURAL CAS

B-1 Research on natural gas properties, aimed at refinement of existing data on the
thermodymanic properties of natural gas mixtures at appropriate conditions of tempe-
rature and pressure, with a view to improving the design of plant for natural gas
liquefaction, handling and transport, in particular for small "in situ" plants.

B-2 Pesearch on methane conversion methods, aimed at development of new processes,

catalysts and cataiysers to improve the efficiency and economics of converting
methane into easily transportable products or Into products of high added value e.g.
 965

alcohols, higher alcohols, ethylene, acetylene, etc. and on specific additives for
Improving petrol quality.

UTILISATION OF HEAVY OIL FRACTIONS

C-1 Research on heavy oil conversion, aimed at development of neu catalysts and/or
process modifications to Improve the efficiency and economics of converting heavy
oils or oil residues (e.g. atmospheric and vacuum residua) Into lighter products
(e.g. gasoline and distillate fuels).

C-2 Research on optimisation of final products and of refinery processes, aimed at,

C-2.1 Development of new routes to produce octane boosters like HTBE, TAME and
mixtures of methanol and higher alcohols or newer octane boosters where
production need not be constrained by the availability of raw materials.

C-2.2 Definition of new indicators of auto-motive gas oil quality (which would
give a more comprehensive quality specification than catane number).

C-2.3 Development of new flexible refinery processes and new additives which will
ensure that automotive gas oil quality Is maintained despite falling demand
for heating gas oil.

C-2.4 Determination of the optimum combination of conventional refinery processes

and the optimum addition of octane boosters for refineries employing con-
version processes so that the specified octane number can be reached.

RESEARCH ON MATCH I NC OF ENGINES AND FUELS

D-1 Improved knowledge of New Fuels, aimed at development from theory to laboratory
experiment of a sound theoretical base for the combustion In engines of gasoline and
diesel containing various types of chemical additives, In particular new octane or
cetano boosters.

D-2 Optimum application of New Fuels, aimed at study of problems to be solved In order to
make optimum use of lower quality fuels and of new fuel mixtures for spark-Ignition
engines e.g. optimisation of compression ratio, air/fuel ratio, exhaust emissions
etc. and interaction with the development of the fuel production processes.

Akkkkkkkkkkkkk

SYMPLUXANNEXE/HYC1
966

ADVANCES IN NEW TECHNOLOGIES FOR THE EXPLORATION

OF OIL AND GAS RESOURCES:
A REVIEW OF DEVELOPMENTS IN THE PERIOD 1985-87

J. MAKRIS
Institute of Geophysics, University of Hamburg

Summary

With its hydrocarbon R&D programme in the period 1985-87 the

Commission of the European Communities (DG XII) sponsored eleven
projects concerned with geophysical problems of relevance to oil
exploration. Five of them consider the questions of forward and
inverse modelling, seismic wave propagation anomalies and the
application of artificial Intelligence to the processing and
interpretation of reflection seismic data. Four projects tackle
interactive computer modelling techniques and potential methods for
oil-bearing structures, also dealing with the physical properties
of rocks and diagenetic processes in Zechstein carbonate reser-
voirs. Finally, two research contracts were awarded to scientists
involved in borehole logging, and the modelling and interpretation
of borehole data. The results which have already emerged spell
significant advances in some of the fields mentioned above,
although the final reports for the majority of the proejcts will
not be submitted until the end of 1988.

1. INTRODUCTION
The rapid development in computer technology and the application of
microprocessors to the physical sciences have revolutionised the collec-
tion and evaluation of geophysical data. Complex algorithms are now
readily available for the treatment of field observations whose resolu-
tion was, until only a few years ago, beyond our reach. No wonder there-
fore that geophysical research, and its application to the location and
exploitation of oil and gas-bearing structures, is at present expanding
on a dramatic worldwide scale. The Commission of the European Communi-
ties' (DG XII) hydrocarbons R&D programme is designed to meet this
challenge. Its aim is to activate geophysical research in Europe and to
support European industry and research organisations in their effort to
improve compatibility and increase efficiency. The following brief
review of the geophysical projects sponsored by the Community offers a
summary of the various activities and results in the period 1985-87.
Detailed results and justificatory argumentation are reserved for
presentation by participants of a special symposium to be held from 21st
to 23rd September 1988 in Lyon, France.
The larger part of the following discussion will be devoted to
seismic methods, which predominate in this R&D programme. Of the 11
projects sponsored 5 are concerned with seismic topics, while 6 cover
other geophysical methods associated with oil exploration.
 967

2. PROB LEMS OF SEISMIC MODELLING AND PROCESSING

Two of the five research contracts concerned with seismic topics

treat the problem of forward modelling. Their aim is to develop and test
direct methods for the numerical simulation of seismic wave propagation
in threedimensional models. The advances in seismic data quality empha
size the importance of including anisotropy and anelasticlty in these
computations in order to provide adequate modelling results for quality
control and interpretation of field data.
A. B ehle's group in Hamburg uses mainly the Fourier method to
obtain numerical structured models which are dlscretized by a cubic
grid. They consider successively acoustic, elastic, viscoelastlc and
anisotropic material properties in the course of their research on the
programmes for 2D and 3D acoustic and elastic cases. The technique of
time integration was significantly improved by the development of the
Rapid Expansion Method (REM) (Edwards et al., 1987).
Computer programmes for the modelling of 2D viscoacoustic and
viscoelastlc properties have also been developed (Carcione et al., 1987)
and first results on a homogeneous transversely isotropic 2Delastic
model presented.
Progress has also been made in Finite Difference modelling through
the development of a fast coarse grid technique (Kummer and Behle, 1987),
results of which have been presented for 2D acoustic media, and by
optimizing the absorbing boundary conditions.
At the same time J. Odegaard and 0. Skovgaard from Copenhagen are
working on highspeed forward modelling for a layered structure using
the fullwave equation for laterally homogeneous, i.e. horizontal struc
tures. They have simulated up to 100 isotropic layers with source and
receiver arrays and can identify the Pwave as well as the Swave
spectrum. The solution in the frequency domain yields results similar to
those of the reflectivity method, but demonstrates its clear superiority
in significantly shorter computation times.
The group headed by A. Tarantola from the Institut de Physique du
Globe, Paris, approaches the inverse problem of seismic wave propaga
tion. B y assuming a starting model defined by the density and the
elastic P and Swave parameters of the model they attempt to minimise
the difference between the observed and the calculated and S wave
fields. This group's work has advanced beyond the stage of formulating,
solving and programming mathematical formalisms, and they now seem to be
in a position to apply their techniques to real data. The method Is of
course timeconsuming, the examples presented requiring up to 30 hours
of CONVEX CPU for 1.5 s of a section. With an optimisation of the algo
rithms and the use of more powerful machines the method can be readily
used.
A further field of research in seismic interpretation is the
application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques, by means of a
seismic working station, to the improvement, of data quality and inter
pretation. The aim of this effort is to detect errors and improbabili
ties in an interpreted section; suggest improvements in data quality by
means of better and more suitable application of appropriate algorithms;
to offer advice on the performance of (parts of) the interpreatation;
and also to advise on and perform automatic interpretation of routine
cases. The continual improvement in computer hardware as a result of
decreasing investment costs makes the computerisation, storing and
optimisation of data banks more attractive for Industry and research
968

organisation. Granting better acccess to information and enabling the

interpreter to speed up evaluation and get the best out of available
data. This project is now well underway, and offers extremely promising
results.
Finally, a group of Italian exploration seismologists researching
seismic wave propagation anomalies due to shallow and deep causes is
working on a number of problems of great importance for oil exploration.
Mathematical modelling of an elastic substratum using semispectral
methods was developed and implemented in numerical experiments. The
method was also applied to cover the case of non-normal incidence for
both P- and S-waves (Sguazzeri et al., 1986). A new algorithm for velo-
city analysis with phase gain was developed by A. Vesnaver and tested
extensively on an IBM-3090 computer. The method was also extended to
identify refracted signals and obtained encouraging results (Sguazzer
and Vesnaver, 1986).
This group is also engaged with the topic of deconvolution. Both
complex deconvolution algorithms of the MED type (Bellini and Rocca,
1987) and Q deconvolution by A. Vesnar were considered and tested. F.
Rocca extended his analysis of the variance estimation of wavelet
samples based on non-linear techniques to 2-D cases in order to measure
and compensate the defocussing of migrated seismic data. In addition,
migration and noise effects on deep seismic signals were studied by A.
Crise. The work is progressing well, and some of the topics treated have
definitely been improved. The main idea behind all of these activities
is to improve classical techniques.

3. THE NON-SEISMIC METHODS

It has long been realised that non-seismic methods can provide an
important supplement to seismic methods if used properly and applied as
relatively inexpensive reconnaissance methods or in integrated interpre-
tation. The topics treated in the DG XII non-nuclear energy R&D pro-
gramme cover both possibilities.
The Regional Geophysics Research Group of the British Geological
Survey developed interactive modelling methods for multi-component three
dimensional interpretation of geophysical data (see Lee et. al., 1987).
Their work concentrates mainly on the analysis of gravity and magnetic
data and its interpretation in connection with seismic data and borehole
control. Their principal objective is to develop interactive modelling
techniques, produce a core of programmes capable of constructing and
visualising 3-D geological models and subsequently, with the use of
appropriate software, to handle forward and inverse modelling. This work
is progressing extremely well. Their system is implemented on a VAX 860
computer and colour Tektronix 4111 terminals, thus ensuring powerful
computer processing with high resolution colour graphics.
Another application for good quality high resolution magnetic data
is being researched by Ogilvy et al. (1987) form the British Geological
Survey. The group is pursuing the direct identification of oil-bearing
structures from these magnetic anomalies. It investigates the familiar
phenomenon of epigenetic magnetic minerals which can occur over hydro-
carbon deposits as a result of long-term microscopage and dlagenesis
under particular environmental conditions. Test sites over well-known
oilfields were selected - e.g. Formby oilfield - and extensive minera-
logicei core studies undertaken. The aeromagnetic databank showed that
the existing data did not satisfy the requirements of such an investi-
gation, and additional land magnetic surveys were conducted. Further
 969

software development was also necessary In order to treat the data.

There Is no doubt that the method proposed and Implemented by Ogilvy can
obtain positive results, provided the magnetic data are of appropriate
quality and the environmental conditions suitable.
The physical properties of rocks must be perfectly understood
before the interpretation of seismic and non-seismic methods can be
implemented optimally for the prospection of oil-bearing geological
structures. The work carried out by B. Zinszner from the Institut
Franais du Ptrole, Paris, is an important contribution to this field.
It also has a certain educational component for those of us who, some-
times lost in the elegant world of algorithms and computers, forget that
what we are doing is to treat the physical phenomena of real observa-
tions. Using a highly sophisticated laboratory he conducted experiments
on the propagation of acoustic waves in porous media, and compared his
laboratory results with borehole data. From his wide range of activi-
ties, I would like to single out his work on acoustic anistropy and
crack detection, and the comparison between acoustic and electromagnetic
properties of rocks. At the moment our knowledge of the latter area is
extremely unsatisfactory, posing problems for the comparison of seismic
interfaces with conductivity models of the substratum. Questions related
to the permeability of rocks and the behaviour of surface waves is
another topic to which he has turned his attention, and we all look
forward to B. Zinszner's final presentation at the Lyon meeting.
In the Geological Survey of Denmark the problems of diagenesis and
the porous system in Danish Zechstein Carbonate reservoirs are under
study. The investigation was initiated with the collection and study of
the appropriate literature, the collection of samples required for the
laboratory investigations and also a survey of materials which could be
exploited for the project. The velocity study, with log analysis, quanti-
fication of logs, laboratory analyses and test of the seismic model are
well underway or already completed. The production study is also showing
good progress, and the final interpretation and report can be expected
by the end of this year.
Finally, effort has been invested in the study of borehole logging,
an area vital for geologist and geophysicist alike in the refinement and
finalisation of interpretation. One group, headed by P.L. lgaard from
the Dept. of Electrophysics at the Technical University of Denmark, is
mainly occupied with the development of algorithms and models for
nuclear borehole logging tools, and has made considerable progress. They
were able to prove that their gamma density instrumentation gives a more
realistic treatment of variations in the composition of the formation
than that obtained by logging compasses. The second group, led by
J. Butler from Winfrith Petroleum Technology, U.K., is engaged in the
solution of problems related to calibration standards used for preparing
borehole logging tools. In this respect these two projects complement
each other and, as already stated, make important contributions to the
development of this important field of geophysics.
We all expect to have the final results of the projects outlined
above at the Lyon meeting from 21st to 23rd September 1988.
970

REFERENCES

BELLINI, S. and ROCCCA, F., 1987: Near optimal blind deconvolution.

IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, in press.
CARCIONE, J.M., KOSLOFF, D. and KOSLOFF, R., 1987: Wave propagation
simulation in a linear viscoaccoustic medium, submitted to Geophys.
J.Roy.Astr.Soc.
CARCIONE, J.M., KOSLOFF, D. and KOSSLOFF, R., 1987: Viscoacoustic Wave
Propagation Simulation in the Earth. Submitted to Geophys.
EDWARDS, M., KOSLOFF, D., RESHEF, M. and TESSMER? E., 1987:
Three-dimensional solution of the equation of dynamic elastic by a
new Rapid Expansion Method (REM), SEG-Tagung, New Orleans, Extended
Abstracts.
KUMMER, . and BEHLE ., 1987: Fast numerical calculation of acoustic
wave propagation in heterogeneous media, submitted to Geophys.
KUMMER, . and SCHMIDT, C , 1987: Hybrid modelling of transparent
boundaries in numerical forward modelling, submitted to Geophys.
LEE, M.K., DABEK, Z.K., GREEN , C.A., WILLIAMSON, J.P., ROWLEY, W.J. and
WARKER, A.S.D., 1987: Development of advanced interactive modelling
techniques for multicomponent three-dimensional interpretation of
geophysical data. Personal communication. Report of the Regional
Geophysical Research Group, British Geological Survey, N o. RG
87/16.
OGILVY, R.D., GREEN, CA., DABEK, Z.K., ROWLEY, W.J. and WILLIAMSON,
J.P., 1987: Direct indication of hydrocarbons by airborne and
ground magnetic survey. Report of the Regional Geophysics Research
Group, British Geological Survey, No. RG 87/13.
RESHEF, M., EDWARDS, M., HSIUNG, C. and KOSLOFF, D., 1987a: 3-D Forward
Modeling by the Fourier Method. Part I, Acoustic Case. Geophysics
in press.
RESHEF, M., EDWARDS, M., HSIUNG, C. and KOSLOFF, D., 1987b: 3-D Forward
Modeling by the Fourier Method. Part II, Elastic Case. Geophysics
in press.
SGUAZZER, P., KINDELAN, M. and SERIANI, G., 1986: Modellazione elastica
con metodi semispettrali. Proceedings of 5th Convegno N azionale
GNGTS, Roma, Nov. 1986.
SGUAZZER, P. and VESNAVER, ., 1986: Analisi di velocita' mediante
tracce complesse. Proceedings of 5th Convegno N azionale GN GTS,
Roma, Nov. 1986.
TARANTOLA, ., (ed.), 1987: Development of nonlinear inverse methods for
interpretation of seismic reflection data. Personal communication.
Collection of papers.
 971

IMPROVED RECOVERY AND COMPLETION TECHNIQUES FOR OIL AND GAS RESERVOIRS

by H.J. de Haan, Delft University of Technology

SUMMARY

The p r o g r e s s of 8 p r o j e c t s i n area A-2 of the Hydrocarbons R & D Programme

i s reviewed. The t o t a l CEC contribution committed t o t h e s e p r o j e c t s s o f a r
i s ECU 2 868 000. Three a d d i t i o n a l p r o j e c t s have been approved but have not
s t a r t e d y e t . The c o u n t r i e s involved are France, Germany, I t a l y and the UK.

Two of t h e 8 p r o j e c t s a r e p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e o i l / w a t e r
d i s p l a c e m e n t mechanism, 3 w i t h s u r f a c t a n t f l o o d i n g , 1 w i t h i n - d e p t h
p l u g g i n g by polymer i n j e c t i o n and 2 with prevention of formation damage.
Although most p r o j e c t s were s t i l l i n progress a t the end of t h e r e p o r t i n g
period, i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s have already been obtained.

1. INTRODUCTION

The subject area "A-2" of the Hydrocarbons Research and Development

Programme, officially entitled "Research on the mechanics of fluids in oil
wells and reservoirs", in fact covers all research related to petroleum
engineering. For the purpose of this paper the projects are divided in four
categories which are successively discussed in the following sections.
Naturally, some overlap between these categories is inevitable.

2. THE OIL/WATER DISPLACEMENT MECHANISM

Under this heading we shall review two projects by GERTH (Groupement

Europen de Recherches Technologiques sur les Hydrocarbures). Both projects
are concerned with a study of the oil/water-displacement mechanism, viz. in
one case at normal interfacial tension (IFT) and in the other case at
reduced IFT. Both projects are subdivided in two parts, representing non-
fractured and fractured reservoirs respectively.

The objective of the first project is to evaluate the effects of

heterogeneity, boundary conditions and initial conditions.

The experiments are carried out, using actual core samples, 45-60 cm
long, 6 cm wide and 2 cm thick, with permeabilities in the range of 60 to
100 mD. Oil and water pressures are measured separately by means of semi-
permeable membranes. In this way the oil-water capillary pressure can be
measured during displacement, simultaneously with the change in average
water saturation. The latter is measured either by means of ultrasonic or
by means of X-rays. The following results have been obtained so far.
972

Non-fractured reservoir
This case is represented by forced injection in a horizontal core so
as to minimise gravity forces. Calibration on a short core shows a linear
relationship between ultrasonic velocity and water saturation.
Displacement of water by oil (drainage) results in relatively low
immobile water saturations at the inlet end, regardless of the direction of
flow. During subsequent displacement of oil by water imbibition this
difference in water saturation between the inlet end and the remainder of
the core is maintained.
Capillary pressure curves recorded at various points along the core
both during drainage and imbibition show widely different shapes,
indicating a wide variation in pore size distribution.
During drainage and imbibition the transition zone remains constant at
about 10 cm.

Fractured reservoir
In this case the sample is immersed in water and oil is displaced by
(spontaneous) imbibition and gravity.
The first effect studied is that of the initial saturation
distribution. This is established in four different ways, with the sample
in a horizontal position, viz. by:
- forced injection in one direction
- forced injection with inversions of the direction
- injection of a viscous oil followed by a less viscous oil
- capillary desorption (using semi-permeable membranes)

The resulting initial oil saturation ranges from 56 to 62%, with the
exception of the capillary desorption method, which leads to a maximum of
nearly 77%.
Subsequent imbibition results in residual oil saturations around 40%,
independent of the drainage method used and of the resulting initial oil
saturation. In all cases there is, however, a marked difference between the
amounts of oil produced from the two end faces.

Another phenomenon studied is countercurrent imbibition. After

detailed characterisation (porosity-, permeability- and initial saturation
distribution) the upper face of the sample is kept in contact with water,
with the bottom immersed in oil.
It appears that the sample is desaturated in a non-uniform way. The
water saturation in the top zone exceeds that of the lower zone by some
10%. The transition is abrupt and corresponds with a low-permeability zone.
Finally, it is shown that countercurrent imbibition can be simulated
numerically by making reasonable assumptions for capillary pressure and
relative permeability relationships.

The objectives of the second project are to study the mobilisation of

residual oil (non-factured reservoir) and spontaneous imbibition (fractured
reservoir) at low IFT.

Non-fractured reservoir
It was found that the oil recovery by (tertiary) water injection at
low IFT, following secondary water injection, depends not only on the ratio
of capillary to viscous forces, but also on the time required for
 973

coalescence. As this time becomes shorter, larger droplets are formed more
easily and displacement becomes more effective.
A theoretical model describing the displacement of a discontinuous oil
phase has been tested successfully against experimental results.
Experiments with a simple capillary showed that surface viscosity (due
to the presence of e.g. asphaltenes) may cause a significant increase in
pressure gradient during two-phase flow. This will be further investigated
for an actual porous medium.

Fractured reservoir
Preliminary experiments indicated that oil recovery by spontaneous
imbibition can be increased by some 20?! by introducing a surface active
agent. It is felt that this effect may be related to a pronounced initial
capillary pressure gradient. These results will be used to verify a
numerical simulation model which is currently being prepared. This model
will then allow these results to be extrapolated to field conditions.

3. SURFACTANT FLOODING

The principle of this process is to mobilise oil trapped by capillary

forces, by reducing the oil/water interfacial tension (IFT). Four projects
are concerned with certain aspects of this complex process. One of these -
on oil/water displacement at low IFT - has already been discussed above.

An important feature of surfactant flooding is the formation of a

micro emulsion, which acts as an intermediate phase between oil and water.
It is a small scale (100 Angstrom) dispersion of oil and water, stabilized
by the surfactant. The IFT's between oil and water on the one hand and the
micro emulsion on the other hand are extremely low.

The Laboratoire Spectroscopie Hertzienne (ENS, Paris) approaches the

problem from a microscopic viewpoint. Their objectives are (a) to correlate
IFT with the micro emulsion structure, both experimentally and
theoretically and (b) to study the behaviour of multiphase systems in
porous media.
Experimental techniques used are surface light scattering to measure
IFT and ellipsometry to measure the elastic curvature constant. The
measurements were made for different liquid systems, both with and without
alcohol.
The results show a discrepancy between measured and calculated droplet
sizes. This is tentatively attributed to the omission of a term in the
surface energy equation. It will be attempted to resolve.this problem by a
more quantitative application of the X-ray experiments and by using coarser
emulsions.
Visual flow experiments, using glass bead packs, are being set up.
Porosities of 50% have been achieved. Currently suitable tracer and optical
techniques are being selected.

The objective of a second project, underway at the Laboratoire de

Chimie Physique, Universit de Bordeaux, is to improve the characterisation
of the phase equilibrium for micro emulsions. For this purpose the micro-
emulsion is described in terms of a "water"-, an "oil"- and a "middle"
phase.
974

The ternary system: sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) / heavy water (D20) /
hexanol has been studied, using a variety of techniques, including optical
microscopy, X-ray diffraction and deuterium NMR (nuclear magnetic
resonance) . In this way four single-phase domains (two isotropic ones, a
lamellar one and an hexagonal one) could be delineated in the ternary
diagram.
The next step will be to study quarternary systems, together with a
more detailed interpretation of the results already obtained.

The third project in this group (by GERTH) deals with the retention of
surfactants during flooding, one of the main problems obstructing
application of this process. The problem is approached in various ways.

Firstly, retention of surface-active agents by argillaceous rocks is

known to decrease strongly with increasing pH. The aim therefore is to
study the possibility of increasing the pH to values of 11-12, by injecting
an alkaline slug preceding surfactant injection.
Adsorption of the hydroxyl ions will slow down the pH front. Knowledge
of the adsorption equilibrium will permit to evaluate this retardation and
to choose injection conditions such that the pH front will move at about
the same velocity as the fluid. For sodium carbonate this result is
obtained at a lower pH than for sodium hydroxide, which, in turn, has the
advantage of minimizing dissolution of minerals.
Dissolution of minerals results in alkaline consumption. This has to
be taken into account in designing the slugsize. A mathematical model
describing the adsorption of hydroxyl ions on the clay and the dissolution
of minerals has been developed.
Rather surprisingly, it was found that the presence of clay reduces
the amount of minerals dissolved in alkaline. Furthermore, it appears that
dissolution of quartz in an alkaline solution is slowed down considerably
by the presence of small quantities of aluminium.

Another approach being investigated is to redissolve and in this way

remobilise and reactivate the adsorbed surfactants by injecting a slug of a
desorbing agent. For this purpose potential desorbing agents have been
tested, using the high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) technique. The
equilibrium between various types of surfactants is being studied.

A third objective of the project is to study the relation between

retention and structure of surfactants. It was found that the degradation
of aqueous solutions of commercial ethoxylated sulphonates is due to the
presence of non-ionic, non-sulfonated surfactants in the product.
For the same product it was found that, in a saline solution, the raw
product shows less adsorption on kaolin at 50 degrees Celcius than does the
purified product.

i. PREVENTING THE EFFECT OF HETEROGENEITY IN WATER FLOODING

Oil recovery by water injection is often hampered by the presence of

high-permeability zones or fractures. This then results in bypassing, to a
greater or lesser extent, of the oil present in the low-permeability parts
of the reservoir. This problem can, in principle, be overcome by plugging
off the high permeability channels. For this approach to be effective these
 975

"thief zones" must be blocked entirely and not only near the injection
wells. This calls for "retarded" plugging. Other requirements are that the
plugging material is stable (at reservoir temperatures) and that the
plugging is reversible (should its effect be overdone).
The aim of this project (undertaken jointly by AGIP and ELF/Aquitaine)
is to select a suitable diversion agent from commercially available
products. These products are to be tested first outside and, subsequently,
in a porous medium. Finally, laboratory results are to be extrapolated to
reservoir conditions by means of a numerical model.

Some work was done on foams but, despite promising results, this was
suspended in view of the lack of basic data. Attention was focussed,
therefore, on polymers, i.e. Polyacrylamides and bio-polymers respectively.

Of the Polyacrylamides tested the anionic polymer J 333 produced the

most stable gels at high temperatures (100 - 120C) and salinities (50 -
100 g/1). However, in the presence of Ca and Mg ions only the DP 9"25^3 co-
polymer proved satisfactory. A good correlation was found between gelling
times and metal concentrations (potassium Chromate).
A crosslinking experiment in a porous medium using a solution
consisting of a combination of the Polyacrylamide J 279 + chromium +
thiourea was unsuccessful, probably due to strong adsorption of the polymer
on the sand.

The stability of biopolymers (xanthan gels) proved to be sensitive to

the pH (in the range of 37 - 7-5) This effect is correlated with the
chromium concentration.
The use of sodium Chromate and thiourea for slowing down xanthan
crosslinking was investigated. The first results obtained were positive,
but the process appears to be extremely sensitive to temperature.
The adsorption of chromium ions on clay present in porous media was
measured and found to retard chromium breakthrough by as much as 40J of
pore volume.
Permeability reductions by factors of 100 to 1000 were obtained with
certain biopolymer gels. However, soon after injection these gels begin to
shrink and solidify due to loss of water. However this does not seem to
affect their plugging capability.
An investigation was started on the applicability of sclero glucane
(non-ionic biopolymer).

5. PREVENTING THE EFFECTS OF FORMATION DAMAGE

In contrast with the case discussed above, there are also situations
where permeability reduction is undesirable. This is true in particular for
the vicinity of the wells. In this case we talk about "formation damage".

Of the two projects reviewed in this section, one (by the Department
of Geology of the University of Sheffield) deals with formation damage due
to chemical reactions between clays present in the formation and fluids
used in drilling and production operations. Depending on the type of
reaction this formation damage may be the result of clay swelling, fines
migration leading to pore throat blocking, or gel precipitation.
976

The aim of the project is to develop a series of guidelines for use in

designing drilling and production operations for specific reservoir
conditions (i.e. reservoirs known or predicted to contain particular clay
assemblages).

The programme comprises various stages:

- collection, preparation and characterisation (by a variety of techniques)
of clay minerals
- study of reactions between a range of solutions and clays by flow cell
and leaching experiments
- study of reaction kinetics
- gel precipitation experiments
- core flow experiments
- clay mineral distribution survey.

A number of tests, using distilled water ans solutions of NaOH and HCl
of various concentrations have been done. In some cases massive dissolution
was observed even at low temperatures (80 C) and pressures. There are.
however, marked differences depending on the type of mineral or solution
involved. Results so far indicate an obvious potential for precipitation,
fines migration and, consequently, formation damage. Plans are to run a
large number of these "quick look" experiments before proceeding with core
experiments and experiments at higher temperatures.

The other project (by AGIP) is concerned with the interaction between
injected water and formation water during water flooding. If the two types
of water are chemically incompatible, solid precipitates will be formed
that may lead to (partial) plugging of the formation, e.g. near production
wells.
First a series of equilibrium tests are being done, followed by flow
experiments in waterwet and oilwet porous media. The data obtained will be
input for a numerical model for predicting the pressure and temperature
distribution during (incompatible) water injection.
A detailed literature review revealed a complete set of experimental
data for the chemical equilibria of calcium and barium sulphates dissolved
in pure water + sodium chloride.
For more complex systems such as oil field brines, the existing
solubility data are scarce and not systematic. Hence more experimental work
in this area is required.

A first test, carried out on a Berea sandstone plug, showed that even
a small quantity of solids precipitated can cause a large reduction in
permeability. These experiments are being continued, using other core
material, including larger cores.
Two (existing) numerical models have been tested. Both proved
unsatisfactory, but one can hopefully be modified to meet the requirements.
 977

TREATMENT OF NATURAL GAS AND NEW UTILIZATIONS ENHANCING ITS VALUE

G. DONAT
Assistant to Vice-President
Research and Development Division, GAZ DE FRANCE

SUMMARY

After presenting the objectives of the sub-programme "Utilization of

natural gas", the first results obtained by the contracting
laboratories are given. The nature and extent of the difficulties to
be overcome are described. The contracts concern the treatment of
natural gas, and in particular the direct conversion of methane into
products with higher added value, such as ethylene, methanol, vinyl
chloride. Even though ultimate success is not ensured, half way
through the programme the challenge appears attractive, for the
abundance of natural gas resources will lead to an increasingly
important role for this energy source.

The two fields of activity of the current EEC programme concerning the
utilization of natural gas have been defined as follows :

- research into the properties of natural gas in order to upgrade

existing data on the thermodynamic properties of gas mixtures at
appropriate temperatures and pressure with a view to improving the design
of natural gas liquefaction, handling and transfer installations, and small
on-site installations in particular,

- research into methane conversion methods in order to develop new

processes, catalysts and catalysis techniques for improved efficacity and
economic viability of methane conversion into products which are easy to
transport or with high added value and into additives to improve the
quality of petrol.

One contract has been established concerning the first field. Seven
contracts have been established for the second, several of which involve
organized concertation between various laboratories.

1. RESEARCH INTO THE PROPERTIES AND TREATMENT OF NATURAL GAS

The only contract established is marginal in this field as it concerns

the use of physical solvents at low temperature for the treatment of
natural gas. The French contractor is the GERTH (Groupement Europen de
Recherche Technologiques sur les Hydrocarbures) and the research is being
carried out by the Institut Franais du Ptrole in close collaboration with
the University of Berlin.

The project concerns research and acquisition of data on physical

978

solvents which could be used at low temperature for the treatment of

natural gas. The aim is to obtain simultaneous dehydration, deacidification
and extraction of natural gas liquids in a single integrated process by
cooling of the gas in contact with the solvent. This single process,
replacing three separate and successive conventional operations, should
lead to a reduction in installation size and costs (reduction of production
costs). It would cover a wide range of applications, offshore in
particular, and should thus promote the development of numerous gas fields
and the use of the gas produced.

The solvents required must :

- be hydrate inhibitors

- have a high capacity for absorption of acidic compounds (C02,

H2S)

- be non-miscible with liquid hydrocarbons.

The search for physical solvents corresponding to the specifications

has been carried out methodically : an initial examination was made of
"heavy" solvents, ie. whose normal boiling point is greater than 100C, so
as to facilitate regeneration with respect to water by simple flashing.
Three solvents were selected : dimethylformamide, N-methylpyrrolidone and
N-formylmorpholine. The bibliographic study of these solvents has confirmed
the lack of data on low temperature equilibrium with natural gas
constituents. An experimental programme to gather data on these solvents
has therefore been established, including initial measurements of
solubility (Henry coefficent), followed, depending on results, by
measurements at high pressure in two or three phase systems.

Studies carried out in parallel at the Institut Franais du Ptrole on

natural gas refrigerated treatment processes have led to the design of a
new type of process in which a "light" solvent, ie. with a normal boiling
point below 100C, is used. A patent has been applied for under the title
:"Integrated water removal process for treatment of wet gas containing
methane". Solvent selection has thus been extended to "light" solvents.
Among potential candidates, methanol possesses the required
characteristics. After completion of the first half of the project, the
results obtained are as follows :

- the solvents have been selected and the associated experimental

programme has been prepared,

- important results have been obtained on the hydrate inhibition

effect of solvents.

These results already constitute a solid base to launch, with great

chances of success, the second half of the project in liaison with the
University of Berlin. This programme currently includes :

- measurements of solubility in "heavy" solvents mixed with water,

- measurements of the liquid-vapour and liquid-liquid-vapour

equilibrium with methanol,
 979

- study and development of an equilibrium cell for the study of

multicomponent systems.

This work will be complemented at a later date by viscosity

measurements and computer models.

2. DIRECT METHANE CONVERSION

The abundance of world natural gas reserves, estimated at 100 000

billion m3, their regular growth in comparison to petroleum resources which
are in stagnation, and the development of new markets for methane
derivatives (petrol additives, synthesis fuels...) are all factors
favouring the future growth in demand for natural gas as a raw material
for the chemical and petrochemical industries, to the detriment of
petroleum derivatives.

Most synthesis processes using natural gas, exploited industrially or

under development, are based on the use of synthesis gas (C0/H2), obtained
by vapour reforming of methane. This intermediate endothermic reforming
stage limits to a large extent the energy efficiency of such indirect
processes.

The development of new processes for direct methane transformation,

omitting the synthesis gas stage, should lead to increased use of natural
gas in the chemical industry. Op to now, the chemical inertia of the
methane molecule and unfavourable thermomechanical conditions, in
particular, the extreme reactivity of the intermediate products compared to
methane, have always hindered the implementation of such technologies.

However, numerous recent research projects have demonstrated the

feasibility of direct transformation of methane into products of high added
value (olefins, aromatics or oxygenous derivatives) by controlled oxidation
in the presence of appropriate catalysts.

In fact, given the thermodynamic characteristics of the various

compounds, the dehydrogenating coupling corresponding to direct methane
transformation requires temperatures above 1100C to obtain C6H6, above
1200C for C2H2 and above 1300C for C2H4. In practise, three promising
processes exist for CH4 transformation : oxidative coupling, selective
oxidation to CH30H and chlorination.

The 7 contracts established deal with these three processes.

2.1 Oxidative coupling

Depending on the type of catalyst used, two modes of operation are

possible for oxidative coupling of methane :

2 CH4 + )502 > C2H6 + H20

and 2 CH4 + 02 > C2H4 + 2H20 (1)

- the sequential mode which comprises two separate phases :

980

. a production phase during which methane is oxidized by a metallic

oxide (catalyst) which is transformed into a reduced inactive form,

. a phase of catalyst regeneration by reoxidation with air.

the simultaneous mode : the reaction takes place in a single stage

by continuous flushing of the catalyst with the reaction mixture CH4/02.

Despite very promising results obtained on a laboratory scale for this

second method, the performances of available catalysts are still
inadequate. B efore industrial development can be envisaged, progress must
be made notably in the following areas :

catalyst activity : it must be increased to limit the amount of

catalyst required and to optimize reactor size,

the selectivity with respect to coupling products (c ) and the

proportion of ethylene with respect to ethane, which are low, and the
quantity of C02 formed, which is too high. Recent technicoeconomic
assessments have underlined the paramount importance of this parameter in
the economy of this type of process.

Let us recall in this context the three following definitions :

Conversion = ICH4] transformed

(H4J introduced

Selectivity for product =[P]

tH4] transformed

Yield = conversion selectivity = Vj

H4) introduced.

In general, conversion and selectivity tend to vary inversely.

catalyst stability over time under reaction conditions, which is not

well understood. Little work has been done to study ageing and the causes
of deactivation of promising catalysts.

The programmes of the contracting parties presented hereafter

concerning oxidative coupling are based mainly on the study of continuous
processes, which have more industrial promise and greater potential for
improvement and development.

2.1.1 Contracts carried out in concertation by :

Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands

Twente University of Technology, Enschede, The Netherlands.

An economic evaluation of the prospects offered by the reactions (1)

carried out in 1985 revealed that they are competitive with standard
 981

ethylene production processes when the three following conditions are met :

- high selectivities are achieved, ie. > 80% c products, of which 60%
consists of ethylene,

- these selectivities are achieved at > 20% methane conversion, unless

selective and cheap separation methods for ethylene are developed,

- by-products which can be sold or used captively for reasonable

prices are high pressure steam, fuel gas and a C2/C3 fraction to be used as
a cracker feedstock.

The objective of studies conducted at the University of Eindhoven is

to gain an in-depth understanding of the reaction kinetics and the mode of
action of the catalyst. Work has concentrated in particular on a magnesium
oxide doped with lithium (Li2 C03-Mg0) ; the influence of pore size,
optimum temperature, reactor design and materials are being studied in
order to obtain the data required for a simulation.

The work of the University of Twente has focused on Li-MgO, Na-CaO

type catalysts and rare earth oxides. A yield greater than 15% has been
achieved with Li-MgO.

Exchanges of catalysts and personnel have been made between the two
Universities and the National Institute for Higher Education (Ireland)
whose research work is presented below.

2.1.2 Contracts carried out in concertation with :

- Universitt Oldenburg (Federal Republic of Germany)

- Universit Catholique de Louvain (Belgium)

These two universities are studying the selection, optimization,

mechanics and kinetics of high performance catalysts chosen among :

- the zeolites
- certain non reducible oxides such as Na2C03-CaO and LiC03-MgO or
LiC03-Sm203.

Zeolites are silicoaluminates with particular cristalline structures

containing empty spaces in their atomic mesh which allow foreign molecules
to penetrate. These silicoaluminates are extremely hydrous and contain acid
centers at which ion exchange takes place with metallic salts.

Yields greater than 15% have been obtained for certain little studied
non-reducible oxides which have the advantage of being thermostable.
However, the problem of fixing them onto a support while preserving their
activity remains. As regards zeolites, a promising possibility would be to
combine alkaline metal oxides and alkaline earths with zeolitic molecular
sieves. New zeolites have been synthesized and attempts have been made to
introduce alkaline metal cations or to impregnate them with vapours of
ammonia containing dissolved alkaline metals. Finally an apparatus equipped
with 2 fixed beds has been constructed, which operates at high temperature
(900C) and pressure (10 MPa).
983

2.1.3 Research carried out by. RUHR Universitt BOCHUM (FRG)

Two objectives are being pursued :

- to explain the mode of operation and to develop high performance

catalysts with stable activity,

- to optimize the running of the process and to choose appropriate

reactors.

For the example of lithium oxide Li02, the influence of fabrication

conditions of the catalyst and its long term behaviour have been studied.
The influence of diffusion processes through the pores has also been
examined to gain a deeper understanding of the texture of solid matter.

In order to optimize the process in industrial reactors, the behaviour

of the catalytic reactor has been simulated, taking account of the problems
posed by the extraction of heat resulting from a highly exothermic
reaction. Two reactors, respectively fixed bed and fluidized bed, have been
built to test the catalysts. Good selectivity for ethylene was observed for
high performance alkali/alkaline earths catalysts and for lead oxide
catalysts on alumine IS supports.

2.2 Selective oxidation to methanol

The direct conversion of methane into methanol or formaldehyde in high

yield is thermodynamically feasible. Removal of the expensive intermediate
syngas producing step which gives currently most of the world production,
should lead to a simpler and cheaper process, but this requires the
achievement of reasonable conversions and selectivity.

CH4 + (402 > CH30H 402 y CH2 + H20

One research project has been committed to the National Institute for
Higher Education (Ireland). It proposes the development of catalysts.
Unsupported and doped catalysts such as Mo03/Si02, V/S02 and Pb0/Si02 have
been prepared and will be tested. The oxidizing gas was a mixture of N20
(55%) CH4 (14%) He (29%) and H20 (2%). The yields of methanol detected
using a high Mo03 loaded silica catalyst seem at 700C to exceed 10% at
methane conversions of 70%.

2.3 - Methane chlorination

Research is being carried out by the University of Nancy I (France).

The aim is to manufacture vinyl chloride by oxychlorination while

avoiding the formation of hydrochloric acid as in the BENSON reaction.

Instead of being limited to the reaction :

2CH4 + 2C12 > C2H4 + 4HC1

they hope to obtain :

 983

2CH4 + KC12 + 5/4 02 > CH2 = CH Cl + 5/2 H20

by associating a combined gas phase oxychlorination and pyrolysis reaction

at high temperature and with low retention time. This reaction is highly
exothermic and can thus in theory take place under autothermal conditions.
The major problems are yield and selectivity.

The binary reaction CH4/02 was initially studied in diffusion flame

reactors. Results comparable to the BASF process for acetylene production
(partial combustion of methane in a flame followed by quenching) have been
obtained (selectivity 30% for acetylene). The ternaries CH4/02/HC1 and
CH4/02/C12 will be dealt with later in the programme.

CONCLUSION

Half way through the programme, the two topics put forward for the
period 1985-1989 have already been partially examined at least :

- research into the properties of natural gas has been concentrated on

the treatment of raw natural gas using appropriate solvents. It is indeed a
crucial problem which, once solved, should make it possible to develop
numerous small fields and to make more advantageous use of the associated
gas,

- the conversion of methane to obtain compounds with higher added

value has mobilized the majority of resources. Several promising techniques
are being explored. Many difficulties remain : the need to improve
conversion rates and selectivity in useful products, to develop operating
conditions and materials which do not raise excessively the costs of an
industrial process, to take account of environmental considerations. But
the challenge is worth taking up ; the abundance of natural gas resources
will lead to an increasingly important role for this energy form in the
future as access to petroleum resources become more expensive.
984

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

FOR THE UTILIZATION OF HEAVY OIL FRACTIONS

C. Thonon
Institut Franais du Ptrole

The target of the sub programme 8/C "Utilization of heavy oil

fractions" is to improve.

HEAVY OILS CONVERSION

By . development of new catalysts
. process modifications
in view to obtain better efficiency and economy for conversion of heavy
oils or resids into lighter more valuable products such as gasoline or
diesel oil.

TRANSPORTATION FUELS
The gasoline production by :
. modification of the final product and of the refining processes by
new way of "octane boosters" production,
. optimization of refining/additivation schemes.

The diesel oil by development of :

. better diesel fuel quality rating method,
. new flexible refining processes for good quality products.
Most of the proposals received were related to point 1 (heavy oils
conversion) and fewer to points 2 (gasoline) and 3 (diesel oil).
After selection six contracts have been awarded to proposals five
related to point 1 and one to point 3. Some are still under consideration
under point 2.

1. HEAVY OILS AND RESIDS CONVERSION

This field present a double interest :
- to be able to process unconventional heavy oils,
- to convert low value resids into valuable lighter products.
For the EEC countries this will on one hand allow to diversify the
crude oil supply by access to the unconventional heavy oils (Venezuela,
Canada ...) and to valorize indigeneous production (Italian heavy crudes
Vega, Rospomare ...) and on the other hand to better meet the market
demand for light products by conversion of resids from conventional
crudes.
The development of heavy oils and resid conversion is not a new
field, there is already some industrial processes and DG 17 has assisted
demonstration projects.
This situation has been taken into account in the proposals selection
in view to avoid any duplication. The projects selected either cover a
more fundamental or exploratory approach or meet specific problems.
Two of the projects (4 contracts) intend to study the thermal
conversion of heavy fractions and resids :
 985

- The first one is aimed to develop new methods of thermal cracking for
limiting or avoiding asphaltenes and resins polycondensation toward
pitch and coke. This project has started in January 1986 and is
correctly on schedule.
Study at laboratory scale of the action of appropriate additives opens
ways to improve significantly the conversion into lighter products
compared to the performances of present process. It has been
complemented by the development of analytical and caracterization
procedures to evaluate products quality.
Tests on semi-industrial pilot plants will be undertaken in 1988.
- The second one (3 contractors) is oriented toward the development of a
mathematical model for the simulation of the behavior of different
heavy crudes to thermal treatments and forecast of production rate,
stability of residue and products quality. This model will be based on
detailed analytical study of feedstocks composition and investigation
of the kinetic and reaction mechanism in microreactors and in pilot
plants, additivation will also be studied.
The project has started in December 1986. The first six month period
has been mainly devoted to the set-up of the analytical procedures and
the determination of selected crude oils and products characteristics.
The experimental programm is started in the second period.
- A third project aims to the development of a process for conversion of
heavy oils and resids by extraction conversion with supercritical
gases, more specificaly supercritical steam, with possible, association
with heterogenous or homogenous catalysts. This project has started in
1987.
- The fourth project is complementary of already developed process of
resid deasphalting with heavy solvents (C^/C--' A s o n e ^ t n e m a i n
problem faced by those processes is to valorize the hard asphalt
obtained as by product, it is proposed to adapt a process developped
for pyrolysis and coking of bituminous coal to this asphalt. The
advantage would be to convert it to roughly fifty percents to gas and
liquid and fifty percents to coke. This scheme would lexd bad to a
lower coke production than what is achieved by direct coking of the
resid. The project has started in November 1986. The pilot plant has
been modified, the required asphalt has been produced and the actual
testing has been started in 1988. It will be followed by hydrognation
tests of the liquid for product upgrading and completed by a
techno-economic evaluation of this conversion. .
Research on heterogeneous catalysis related to the heavy oil
conversion is the object of two projects.
One of the purpose is to obtain a description and an undestanding of
the coke formation on the particles of catalysts used in hydroprocessing
of heavy oils and to develop a model for coke deactivation. Such an
understanding would form the basis for the development of more stable
catalysts resulting in the improvement of deep desulfurization or high
conversion processes. This project has started in 1987.
The other is to research new denitrogenation catalysts suitable for
the hydrotreatment of heavy oil feeds. Nitrogen removal is one of the
major problem facing the heavy oil fractions refining, conventional
hydrotreatment catalysts are insufficient in that respect. The
successfull development of new efficient hydrodenitification catalyst
would allow to simultaneously convert and completely refine heavy oil
fractions. It is also one the requisites for the development of medium/
low pressure hydrocracking. The project has started in march 1986,
986

interesting results have been achieved in the study of the active phases,
predevelopment of supported catalysts and testing is programmed for 1988.

2. DIESEL FUEL
The objective of this project is to define new indications of
automotive diesel fuel quality in order to develop a new fuel rating
technique. It is operated in consultation with an industrial consortium
in view to meet their requirements.
The original programme have been modified in view to provide a better
integrated approach.
The problem of deficiencies in cetane number method (ASTM D 613) is
generaly recognized and an improved rating technique is required both by
the refining industry and by the car manufacturers.

This short presentation of the projects selected have shown that most
of the proposals and also the most interesting ones have been encountered
in the area of "heavy oil conversion". They are likely to provide
original opening for new development in the field.
Notwithstanding the interest of those projects and of that area, the
field of automotive fuels, specialy with the impact of the anti-pollution
regulations, lacks original proposals for fundamental and exploratory
research.
The contractors of the projects have met in January 1988 to present
shortly the objectives and the advancement of the project and to discuss
possible exchange of information to avoid duplication and improve the
overall efficiency.
Some of the projects involve parties from different countries, it
generaly appears that the coordination is good and that it provides a
basis for further exchange and joint research.
 987

THE MODIFICATION OF HYDROCARBONS FOR IMPROVING

THE COMBUSTION IN ENGINES

C. PINAMONTI
Technical Consultant

SUMMARY

The improvements concerning the internal combustion engines and the

fuels for them have advanced in the same way during the past and we
can forecast it will continue in the future. The hydrocarbons will
continue making up the fuels for motor vehicles.
The research about the fuels has to be distinguished between petrol
for spark-ignition engines and dieseloil for diesel-engines.
The present definitions of octane and cetane quality of the fuels
are not sufficient for a sound research programme and have to be
improved.

1. INTRODUCTION
The development of the internal combustion engines in the present
century has been conditioned by the availability of fuels, which
gradually have been conformed to engine requirements.
Two kinds of engine find favour, because of the simplicity of its
use and of the large availability of suitable fuels, fitting out nearly
the totality of the ground transport and most of the shipping one.
They are:
- the Otto-cycle engine, spark ignited, where' the fuel is mixed with
air before it enter into the cylinder;
- the Diesel-cycle engine, ignited by the air adiabatic compression,
where the fuel is injected and sprayed into the cylinder.
The first one is characterized by its construction simplicity,
lightness and low cost, so it is the best thing for the passenger cars.
The second one is characterized by low fuel consumption (especially at
medium range power), so it is preferred in the field of the heavier
transports.
Each one of this engines has to meet a well defined fuel:
- the petrol (or gasoline) is intended for the Otto-cycle engines
and is mainly characterized by the volatility curve and by the
octane quality;
- the dieseloil is intended for the Diesel-cycle engines and is
mainly characterized by the persistence of the liquid phase upon a
988

large range of temperature and pressure and by its cetane quality.

Both the fuels are liquidi that is they are easy to keep, to carry,
to pour off in safety condition; both are hydrocarbon blends, that is
they have high energy contents by mass and by volume, producing after a
complete reaction with the oxigen of the air, almost exclusively, gaseous
and not poisonous matter: H O and CO .
2 2
These properties make the hydrocarbons practically not replaceable,
as fuels for road transport, even though a some pourcentage of pollutant
matter is given off at the exhaust.
The alternative fuels, experimented and proposed during the years of
intense energy crisis, yield in comparison with the hydrocarbons, even if
some of those have arouse remarkable interest because of their octane
quality.

2. OCTANE QUALITY
As we know, the octane quality is the resistance opposed to the
knock in a spark-ignition engine by a petrol; it is determined by
comparison to the isoctane in a test engine (C.F.R.).
The knock is to-day what prevents us from improving the efficiency
of the spark-ignition engines.
Nevertheless it depends not only on the fuel, but on engine
parameters, as the compression ratio, the combustion chamber shape, the
spark position, the spark advance, the air/fuel rate and so on.
The effects of the engine parameters are well known qualitatively,
not quantitatively and its are influenced by the composition of the
petrols.
All engines have to be tuned experimentally, remembering the large
scattering really existing in the manufacturing and in the practical use.
Moreover at the exhaust some pollutant matter are present, as the
carbon monoxide, the nitrogen oxides and some unburnt substances. They
are to be minimized and this makes the problem more complicated.
If better petrols are available and particularly if their quality is
uniform, the engineer's work is easier in order to improve performance,
efficiency, exhaust pollution and to avoid the risk of knock.
Inversely the more advanced engines become excellent and severe
judges of the petrol quality.
The motor industry interest, in developing engines with improved
performance, is only to have petrols of uniform quality available on the
market, to reduce the scattering and to have a correct competition.
In order to pursue the general interest, if we want to stimulate the
improvement of the fuels and of the engines, the experimental works with
engines and fuels have to form a virtuous circle, so that the progress
achieved in a field could excite the development in the other one.
This is the aim of a sound policy of scientific research, able to
put the condition of a continuous civil and industrial progress.
To day, in the petrol field, the research frontier is in the
identification of the components with higher octane quality and in the
recognition of substances able to improve noticeably the mixture octane
 989

number, reducing the need of lead addition.

Approaching the hundred, the petrol octane number determined on the
CFR engine with the traditional method reduces its own correlation with
the petrol behaviour on the actual engines. This makes more difficult the
research.
To overcome this difficulty, they shall be testing different
criteria to integrate the traditional method, for the laboratory
evaluation of petrol octane quality.

3. CETANE QUALITY
About the dieseloils a similar argument can be developed.
Their improvement in late years was caused by the small Diesel-cycle
engines, overcharged or not, fitted on European and Japanese passenger
cars.
This engines, which to day are a good share of the European
circulating motor fleet, could not work reliably with the dieseloil
available some decade ago.
This confirms the progress obtained in the last time, in spite of
difficulties met in converting the heating oil into dieseloil.
The cetane quality of the dieseloil is the sum of some
characteristics of behavior during the fuel combustion in a Diesel-cycle
engine, specifically:
- the ignition aptitude
- the combustion speed
- the combustion entirety.
The cetane number, according the traditional method, inquire only
into the first characteristic, as the ignition delay is measured in a
standard engine.
This characteristic is strictly correlated to the tipical combustion
noise of the Diesel engines.
However the two others ones are also important, particularly for the
fast engines, because of their influence on the efficiency and on exhaust
smoke.
Ending the spur to improve the dieseloil caused by diesel-car
diffusion, in this field also, we need scientifically define the cetane
quality, in order to fix the research aims.
As for the petrol, for diesel-oil also, the advanced engines will be
the more reliable judges of the fuel improvements.

4. CONCLUSION
Closing the speech, we can affirm the research in the fuel field
cannot leave out of consideration the engine development, but it shall be
excitated by the comparison with the results obtained on the internal
combustion engines.
 990

IMPROVEMENT OF FUEL/ENGINE ADAPTATION

Prof. B. LEDUC
Universit Libre de Bruxelles

Summary

The paper gives a general view and progress of the part of the EEC
Hydrocarbon subprogramme devoted to fuel-engine adequation.

1. EEC PROGRAMME 1QSA-fl7

The current EEC R-D subprogramme on "optimisation of the production
and utilisation of Hydrocarbons" includes a part devoted to the fuel engine
adaptation.
After the starting of the subprogramme in 198A, the Commission has
received on the specific topic fuel/engine 1A proposals for financial sup-
port for a total amount of 3,5 MECUS. These demands have been introduced
by different countries : Italy (5), Germany (5), France (2), United
Kingdom (2). 5 proposals were coming from universities, 5 from specialised
research centers, A from industries.
After the elimination of the proposals out of scope, we have noticed
that :
- there were relatively few proposals for such a large field;
- one major proposal drains the third of the above budget;
- some demands covered researchs already done.
A lot of criteria were used for the final evaluation :
- the conformity with the subprogramme objectives
- the scientific level and potential impact
- the precompetitivity of the work
- avoidance of potential duplication with other R & D programmes
performed by industry or EEC (example : DG XII combustion,
DG XII demonstration, ...)
- promotion of contacts through Europe
- use of european materials, for example the engines.
The deciders were conscious that the EEC budget in this field is very
small in comparison with oil companies and car manufacturers budget. We had
to find how to use EEC funds in the most efficient way.
Looking at the 1A proposals, we pointed out that 12 concerned spark
ignited engines and within these, 10 concerned directly alcohol fuels,
octane boosters and the knock limitation.
The advisatory Committee has selected finally two linked proposals :
one from "Institut National Polytechnique de Lorraine" (INPL) over
tert-amyl methyl ether (TAME) antiknock qualities and one from "Universitt
Kaiserslautern" (UK) over unleaded alcohol blended fuels behaviours regar-
ding thermal efficiency and pollutants emissions.
INPL sudies are very fundamentals, UK researchs are more practicis.
These researchs, have started in 1987, that is the reason why we donot
have yet significant results.
Considering also the importance of a correct octane number determina-
tion in the CFR engine in relation with the alcohol type and the alcohol
 991

fuel content, the Commission has organised joint research with "Institut
Franais du Petrole" (iFP), Stazione sperimentale per I Combustibili
(SSPIC), Center Informazioni studi esperienze (CISE). This research has
started in January 1988.

2. RESEARCH AT INPL
The research will proposed a detailed reaction mechanism consisting
of elementary steps, built according to the principles of chemical kinetics
and designed to interpret the effect of octane boosters upon the reactions
which precede spontaneous auto-ignition.
TAME effects on "cold flame" oxydation are studied in comparison with
MTBE behaviour (octane number : 130).
We can mention that it will be in practice difficult to produce in the
future sufficient quantities of MTBE or TAME because there is a lack of
olefins, basis products for oxygenates (isobutene for MTBE, isoamylene for
TAME). Nevertheless, it is important to understand the elementary steps
of the cold oxydation in presence of these products because a better
knowledge of preignition mechanisms will allow a better adequation of
the fuel/engine system by retarding knock apparition and it might become
possible to propose new octane boosters and synergic effects between
existing additives.
In the near future, behaviour of other products like ETBE will be
investigated.
We could also expect usefull information on procetane additives for
Diesel engines.

3. RESEACH AT UK
Under various conditions with respect to compression ratio and equiva-
lence ratio, the above oxygenated octane boosters are tested in a A cylin-
der otto-engine.
A detailed study of combustion, taking count of cyclic and cylinder
dispersion is made with an up-to-date test equipment. The influence of
the additives on fuel consumption and exhaust emissions of nitric oxides,
carbon monoxide and unburnt hydrocarbons will be investigated in the near
future.

A. RESEARCH AT IFP, SSPIC, CISE

Classical methods for determining octane number does not give entire
satisfaction because the knockmeter wich measures the knock intensity in
the CFR engine is a very old device wich is unable to make a good discrimi-
nation between the knock phenomenon and a quick combustion observed with
aromatics or oxygenated compounds.
IFP will make with 5 different fuel families a lot of tests in severe
knock conditions obtained with an increasing of standard CFR compression
ratio. IFP will compare the results with the actual ASTM method and with
the tests made at SSPIC with a new knockmeter manufactured by CISE. This
knockmeter analyses a portion of the combustion pressure-time diagram and
uses a typical frequency window including an "energy criterion"

5. THE FUTURE
For each engine type, manufacturers must realise for the thermal
converter a good compromise between power, efficiency and pollutant
emissions using fuels delivered by the oil companies. It is requested that
the companies deliver fuels of good quality, in sufficient quantities at an
992

acceptable cost.
The compromise is very difficult to reach and it is why these major
industries finance already a lot of short and mid-term researchs. EEC is
unable to cover all the research topics concerning thermal engines and
fuel improvements but a place in a long term prospective can be founded.
EEC can also play a important role in harmonising discussions between
engine manufacturers and petroleum industries.
 993

CLOSING SESSION

Working parties' conclusions

Closing address
R. DE BADW, Director Oil and Gas
Commission of the European Conmunities
 995

Working Party Conclusions

Production Systems : Structures and Subsea Systems

INTRODUCTION

This technical session covered reports on 16 projects to an audience

ranging from 86 on the first to 43 on the last day and comprising delegates
from oil companies, manufacturing industry and consulting and university
bodies.
This level of attendance is significant of the interest in this sphere
of research and development (RSD) activity and stimulated a high level of
discussion.
The projects reported the progress made since their inception which in
one case was as far back as 1981 and all were initiated in the era of high
oil price. In many cases the projects have either been completed or are
nearing completion and from the reports submitted they have been addressed
in a logical and efficient manner.
However, the impact of the reduced oil price and the advances in
technology in the intervening period since inception has affected the
commercial viability and the outdating of the technology involved. This has
led to the necessity for further study to optimise the concept to meet the
criteria of viability at the present oil price of $15 per barrel.

WORKING PARTY SUMMARY

Considering the R&D programme for the next five to ten year period the
consensus of opinion of the Working Party, which consisted of 46 delegates
including the top table team, was that the programme should reflect the
requirements of the oil company operators whose advice and cooperation
should be sought in framing the projects for future study.
The following major issues were highlighted by the oil company
delegates in response to this approach:

(1) To achieve the benefit of the RSD work already completed there should
be a concerted effort to assimilate this research and bring it to the
state where it is recognised and accepted as "state of the art"
technology.
(2) To initiate truly innovative research on the following basis:
(a) Stand alone projects similar to most of the present projects.
(b) Major key projects covering complete systems comprising a number
of sub-projects which would be carried out by a number of
organisations each expert in a particular discipline and each one
complementary to the other, to concentrate the best technical
expertise to carry out the overall project.

The following project areas were considered as being appropriate for

this key project status.

(1) Multi Phase Transportation

To consider all aspects of this problem including - pump design,

subsea power motor, subsea electrical power connector, slug flow,
multi-phase metering, water and chemical injection metering, diverless
intervention, hydrate formation, multi-phase characterisation for pipeline
design, modularisation of the system components to ease repair, maintenance
996

In the first instance this Key Project is seen as being applicable to

wells satellite to an existing platform where an excess of capacity is
likely to be available due to the declining reserves in the initial
development. From this service experience the technology would be perfected
for stand-alone units for marginal or deep water fields producing directly
to onshore facilities over considerable distances.

(2) Subsea Production Systems

To consider the following:

(a) The complete production system on the sea bed.

(b) Elimination of expensive and vulnerable umbilicais.
(c) Underwater communication - speaking, hearing and seeing.
(d) Riser design, performance analysis, use of composite materials, vortex
shedding analysis.
(e) Diverless intervention.
(f) Development of advanced robotic techniques for installation,
inspection and maintenance.

While the Working Party considered the Multi-phase Transportation

project sub-section of subsea systems as being of major interest they also
considered that the overall study of Subsea Production Systems could be
carried out in a similar collaborative manner.

(3) Prolongation of Existing Platform Life

(a) By reducing possible over conservatism in design through the use of

realistic factors of safety, improved environmental data, optimum
combinations of environmental loads, and increased use of
probabilistic design methods.
(b) By the development of advanced design robotic vehicles, dedicated to
the cleaning, examination, non-destructive testing and the wet welding
repairs of critical node weldments.
(c) Where enhanced recovery methods are to be employed, consideration
should be given to the extensive use of lightweight composite
materials for the necessary modules.

(4) Composite Materials

The development of lightweight, strong, fatigue, fire and corrosion

resistant composite materials for:

(a) Deepwater risers.

(b) Tension members for TLP and other anchor systems.
(c) Topside modules, following on naval vessel developments.
(d) The promulgation of relevant design codes for approval and acceptance
in conjunction with certification authorities.

(5) Automation

Further development of advanced robotics and automated systems to

achieve the ultimate goal of unmanned production platforms.
 997

(6) Deepwater Production

(a) The continued study on production methods particularly in areas of

harsh environment with the emphasis on the development of diverless
installed and maintained subsea equipment.
(b) Consideration of the possible instability of the Continental Slope
areas west of Shetland where there is evidence of slippage but the
date of occurrence and time interval between movements has never been
determined.

(7) LNG Recovery and Transportation

The continued study of LNG and condensate production and

transportation could be of increasing importance and studies of optimised
transportation and offloading techniques should be continued.

(8) Floating Production Vessels

Continuation of optimisation of design for low initial cost vessels as

the availability of second hand vessels for conversion diminishes with the
passage of time in the five to ten year period being considered. Once more
the developments in the use of composite materials in the naval and
aerospace industries should be considered for offshore production vessels.

GENERAL

Repayment of Funding on Commercialisation

The subject of repayment of loan was raised by almost every speaker

and rightly or wrongly this obligation was perceived by all as being a
problem, especially with the collaborative type approach now being
advocated, with a combination of small and large companies of different
nationalities. It was seen by some as a positive deterrent to RSD
development where high risk of achieving success is present.
It was suggested that the accounting problem of treating the loan as a
debt burden might be eased if the repayment was on the basis of a royalty
which would be added to the commercial sale cost over an agreed number of
sales or over an agreed period.

Collaboration

It was generally agreed that more positive Community action was needed
to bring companies from different Community countries together than the
lightly veiled indication that projects would be more favourably considered
for funding if collaboration by participants from more than one Community
country was assured.

Oil Company Involvement

The Offshore Engineering Technology Board in the UK was seen as an

example for a European Board to make the Community aware of the RSD which
was foreseen by the oil companies as being necessary in the next five to ten
year period.
998

Abandonment

This was seen as a highly political problem but one which could lead
to the need for new technology depending on the degree of severity of the
regulations imposed by the governments involved and could apply to
facilities over the whole spectrum of offshore development.
 999

Working Party Conclusions

Production Operations : Equipment

Session Review
Fourteen papers were presented during the session "Production
Operations: Equipment". They addressed a wide range of subjects, aiming
either to improve the efficiency of production equipment or to provide
tools and methodologies for designing reliable systems. Other
equipment-related papers were also presented in parallel technical
sessions, such as in sessions "Structures and Subsea Systems" or "Subsea
Operations".
Among the presented achievements, several projects have been
successfully tested in field. These are:
. downhole pumps and safety valves which will contribute to increase
the well production and the life of old wells by gas lift
operations;
. new three-phase separators and oily water treatment systems to
reduce size and weight of topside processing facilities;
. a subsea wireline system operated from a low-cost
dynamically-positioned service vessel.
Other results of interest were presented, such as a diverless and
guidelineless subsea production system for deep waters, two innovative
mooring systems for tankers, works on long term behaviour of flexible
pipes, etc...
Particular attention was paid to the presentation of a more accurate
and more performant computing model for multiphase flow calculation,
calibrated by an exhaustive testing programme. Multiphase flows were
considered, by a consensus of the working party, as an area of major
importance for new developments in production for the forthcoming years.
This area appeared as the most important strategic research line to be
recommended to the Commission.
Subsea production, including deep sea risers, and automation and
optimization of topsides facilities were also identified as other R & D
priorities during the discussion.
1000

Multiphase Flow Production

It was highlighted that national research programmes on multiphase

flows have been initiated in several european countries. Concerning these
programmes, the working party felt firstly that there was a lack of mutual
information and, secondly, that a coordination would be profitable to all
parties involved.

The working party did not try to determine whether it would be best
to insure a simple coordination of existing programmes or to launch a
special community programme on this subject. But, in order to provide
information and to clarify the way to tackle the problem, it was suggested
that a workshop be organized by the Commission on multiphase flow
production, with invitation extended to non-EEC members involved in this
area.
The working party emphasized that research on multiphase flows
present a more fundamental nature than current development projects.
Consequently, reimbursement of funding should reflect this characteristic
by following practices of other programmes, such as BRITE.

It was also proposed that the Commission have the initiative of

promoting or suggesting some degree of cooperation in case of other
projects of this nature in the future.

Main technical objectives which are recommended for research in the

field of multiphase flow production are:

. Modelling of multiphase flows, especially transient flows.

. Solving of exploitation problems such as hydrate and emulsion

formations.

. Development of reliable equipment, with a particular emphasis on

multiphase subsea metering which is at present a challenging
problem.

. Subsea artificial lift: The working party considered this subject

to be closely related to multiphase flow production and that it
could be included therefore in this theme. In addition to gas
lift, new artificial lift systems will have to be developed for
subsea wells, particularly for production of heavy crudes.

Subsea Production

The second strategic research line, for which further R & D works
were identified, concerns problems related to subsea production. Although
some overlays may be found with the multiphase flow area, subsea
production addresses specific problems whicn justify considering them as a
separate theme. In the past years, this area has covered a wide domain.
Now, it is recommended that actions should be more selective.
 1001

The following topics were discussed by the working party:

. Interventions in deep water subsea wells: Interventions in deep
water wells will require the development of reliable diverless
wireline systems.
. Telecontrol and telemonitoring systems: Although industrial
solutions are now available, this area, which involves complex
systems, was still considered as the weakest link of subsea
production systems. 'Equipment, particularly umbilicais, appeared
particularly expensive and sensitive to damages. Two objectives
were proposed for this area: reduction of costs and reduction of
failure risks..
. Installation, inspection and repair of equipment: The extensive
use of ROVs was noticed, but progress should be made to avoid
permanent manipulation by a pilot, at least for some routine
tasks, such as cleaning. The objective is to implement some
degree of intelligence on ROVs in order to limit the human role to
a general supervision.
. Subsea separators: The interest of subsea two-phase separators
was highlighted to permit distinct compression of gas and pumping
of oil.
. Qualification and selection of components: Works in this area are
necessary to permit the design of reliable subsea systems.
Interest of a component standardization was also called on .
. Deep water production risers: Concerning production risers,
discussion of the working party showed that main emphasis should
be placed on flexible risers rather than rigid risers, with a
special interest for inspection of flexible pipes.
Field developments in deep water will require the reduction of the
weight and number of flexible pipes. These objectives may be
possibly achieved through the use of composite materials and
developments of bundles and large diameter pipes. R & D works,
supported by the EEC, are currently in progress in that direction.
The need for tools enabling in-situ inspection of flexible pipes
was expressed by the working party, as well as actions aiming to
improve knowledge on the long term behaviour of flexible dynamic
risers by testing. On these points it was suggested that failure
criteria should be established and methods should be developed to
enable estimation of the service life by analysis. Considering
that flexible pipes are typical achievements of the european
technology, the lack of european guidances or "code of practice"
on flexible pipes was particularly regretted by designers.
1002

Automation and Optimization of Topside Facilities

Concerning topside facilities, the working party considered that
automation and optimization of equipment should be a third priority
strategic line for R & D .
Automation of topside facilities would initially enable a reduction
of personnel required on platforms. However, the final objective should
be unmanned platforms. It was considered that this concept could reduce
investment and operating costs, as well as increase production safety.
Today, such unmanned platforms are in service when simple processes are
required. Further development works have yet to be achieved in the case
of complex processing facilities. Optimization of equipment will be a
consequence of automation.
It was also noticed that multiphase flow production is a way of
simplifying topside facilities and thus of achieving this objective.

Reimbursements
In the final part of working party session the question of
reimbursement of the EEC funding was discussed. Participants agreed that
reimbursements are a true problem in the case of joint research programme,
and particularly for multinational projects or for projects joining large
and small companies. At present, this requirement appears as a
disincentive for trans-european projects or for projects with non-european
countries.
 1003

Working Party Conclusions

Exploration: Geochemistry, Geology, Geophysics

In the range of four years and between two symposia the non direct
methods for exploration of Oil and Gas have Led to very interesting
results characteristically. It is worth mentioning the following:

1. The advance made in the field of inversion of seismograms taking

into consideration the limitations of the techniques available
especially in cases of 3D due to the limited computer capacity
systems. Even though the inversion provided more realistic results
in areas of complex geology.
- The removal of source waveforms obtained higher resolution of the
oil reservoir.
- Offset VSP (oblige seismic profile) have already proved their
effectiveness in practical exploration cases at low acquisition
cost using new software which provide more confident results.
- Model based fieLd studies computations and resolutions
enchancement gave results that are promising both for deep
reflection enchancement and for detailed stratigraphie resolution.
- The multiwell reservoir geophysics project showed that crosshole
seismic methods achieved very high resolution image of the
reservoir in the order of about one metre. Meanwhile electro-
magnetic methods of information on fluid content and flow
mechanics gave theoretical feasibility and specifications on an
experimental transmition receiver aparatus.
The development of the transient electromagnetic unit and the
appropriate software suitable for high cultural FM noise level
is to be considered as an important achievement in the field of
non conventional exploration methods. Results of test areas are
promising and correlate with other geophysical information.
The high performance seismic streamer project although with some
serious probLems inherent to such a technological effort,
achieved the original aims and has good potential as a commercial
system.

In the geologically complicated integrated geophysical survey

of Western Greece, the project demonstrated the success of the
synergistic approach and its applicability to other similar
geological environments.

The 3D seismic survey project again in Western Greece provided

results that allow a better realistic basis for reserve'
estimation in marginal fields.

Finally, the Georift project gave results richer than was

expected which led to interpretation methods in sedimentology
and structural geology in the domain of passive margin or
intracontinental platform type sedimentary basins.

The following technical priority areas were established after the

presentation of the successful projects and the discussions
of the participants in the working party.
1004

Optimisation of the entire oil exploration process since we will

be dealing with "unconventional oil" in frontier areas and
marginal fields. This implies the integration of exploration
methods and the introduction of expert systems - artificial
intelligence both in exploration and drilling exploiting the
European scientific potential of oil companies - Academic
community and institutions.

Marginal fields can be exploited economically, provided that

information such as exact stratigraphy and water-oil contract,
accurate dimensions of reservoir are obtained from indirect
methods. This, however, implies the use of advanced 3D seismic
techniques and borehole geophysics (seismic, electrical etc.).
A gap which is widening with time is observed between seismic
acquisition and processing in favour of the latter.

However, an effort should be made to improve/advance seismic

acquisition technology both in marine and land environments
(multichannel digital recording systems, recording of source
field, very rough topography).

As an aid directed to the frontier areas (thustet zones,

complicated geology etc.) a certain effort should be directed
towards geological modelling combined with geochemistry and
non conventional geophysical methods can be well coupled in the
interactive interpretation process.

The priorities established are as follows:

1. Surveys of reserves employing 3D surface seismic methods, the

use of well both and S waves and finally borehole geophysics
associated with electrical methods.

2. Surveys of areas exhibiting very complex geology by exploiting

and integrating all conventional and non conventional
geophysical, geological and geochemical methods. Computer
aided evaluation and modelling is further required as the
ultimate deliverable.

3. Survey of very deep sediments and loundery layers.

All papers presented (results of projects) lie within the aforesaid

priority areas and they fit well with the needs of the
advancement of the oil industry.
 1005

Working Party Conclusions

Pipelines

To meet the future demand of hydrocarbons, producers are now looking

to exploit promising marginal fields and fields located in regions with
harsh environmental conditions, mostly located offshore.
The "pipeline system" is an essential element in hydrocarbon
production, gathering and transport. The present design methodologies,
technologies and system management need further development to face this new
challenge, particularly in maintaining the high level of reliability
required.
In this context the "Pipelines Working Party" has singled out the
following main areas which require further research and development.

1. Design Methodologies

For flowlines from marginal fields, where high temperatures are

normal.

2. Technologies, and, in particular

- Further improvement of inspection tools like "intelligent pigs" to

investigate from the inside the conditions of the pipelines (for
example, pipe integrity, external environment close to and around the
pipe, pipeline movements, precise location of leaks during hydrotest
etc.).
- Monitoring techniques and methods, applied when necessary, for the
design stage of the system, to make available historical data for a
continuous evaluation of the "status" of the pipeline.
Further development of pipeline repair systems in order to obtain more
versatile/flexible tools which may utilise welded connections.
Materials: coating, cathodic protection, insulation.
Precise and reliable external tools to accurately locate the pipe in
the sea bed.

3. System Management

Development of computer software systems to create a computerised

database and management system to give the pipeline operator tools to
keep track of all data and support him in taking decisions on
inspection, maintenance and repair activity, thus reducing investment
and maintenance costs.

In addition the Working Party has emphasised its dissatisfaction with

the contractual terms for reimbursement which explicitly require the
repayment of the financial support in the case of commercial success being
achieved. To this purpose, it was suggested to include in the financing
contracts more flexible conditions on this subject in order to avoid
possible frustrating situations.
100

Working Party Conclusions

Natural Gas: Processing, Storage, Transfer

Specific results

In this working group the results of 6 development projects were discussed

in order, among other things, to settle the question as to whether
additional work was required on any of the projects.

For the projects:

- "large-diameter constant-motion cryogenic swivel Joint for offshore

applications"
(EMC Europe SA),
- "Liquefied gas - offshore loading"
(EMH), and
- "Tests on a new type of LPG storage tanks"
(SN Technigaz),

the answer to this question is no. The development goals fixed have heen
reached and the results can be seen as a basis for marketing the technology
developed with every hope of success.

The results of the projects:

- "Development of a scrubbing process for separation of components from

natural gas: preliminary experimental results"
(NV Nederlandse Gasunie), and
- "Feasibility study of underground gas storage using nitrogen as cushion
gas"
(Dansk Olie & Naturgas A/S, Denmark)

may be regarded as positive. They lay the foundations for further

development work, but more in the region of basic research.
 1007

For the project:

- "Storage of liquid and liquefied hydrocarbons in lined hardrock oaverns",

only the theoretioal basis has so far been calculated. The engineering work
is not yet oomplete. As the next step towards marketing this new liquid gas
storage technique, a pilot test has been planned, for which the European
Commission has already approved a financial contribution.

However, the Working Group's discussions showed that the individual

European countries varied widely in terms of the geographio and geological
preconditions for gas and liquefied gas storage. In relation to these
development projects, this means that although certain new storage
techniques are now available, optimum solutions can only be obtained by
using a oomnhl nation of different storage techniques (including ones which
have already been in use for a long time).

Gas storage problems will increase in the future, as certain Member States
have to import ever-increasing quantities of gas from ever greater
distances, and these supplies can only be delivered economically if the
distributors aooept high utilization rates (6000-8000 br/year). However,
natural gas is used by customers for relatively few hours a year (2500-
3500).

This gap In terms of quantities between gas supply and demand can be closed
by a number of methods, one of which is storage. The technical
possibilities for gas storage are well known. Salt and rock cavities and
aquifers are already being used. Liquefied gases can be stored in insulated
tanks. The projects which were discussed in the Working Group and are being
supported financially by the Commission cover the full range of gas storage
technology.
1008

While liquefied gases can be stored in insulated tanks practically anywhere

in any Member State, underground gas storage is possible where certain
geological preconditions are satisfied, in other words, its availability is
geographically limited.

In sane Member States geologioal conditions are good, but in others it is

virtually impossible to use underground Interim storage. Therefore it was
proposed in the Working Group that a European master plan should be drawn
up, in which the geographical requirements regarding gas supplies and the
geologioal conditions for optimal natural gas storage would be quanti fled.

Such a master plan would also be an essential pre-requisi te for the

Commission to be able to provide purposeful, reinforced support for BSD
projects in the natural gas sector in its future support programmes.lt is,
in all the opinion of all experts, Indispensable for the Commission's
support programme to be have this kind of priority, despite the current
glut of natural gas. Past experience has shown that such gluts oan very
quickly turn into shortages, and security of supply oan only be maintained
by a high degree of flexibility (large-scale storage at places where use is
heavy).

Recommendations to the Commission

The Commission should investigate the possibility of initiating an

Independent support programme for natural gas, which would be concerned not
only with optimizing gas storage and rendering it more flexible, but also
with using natural gas economically and in such a way as to protect the
environment. The latter aspect has not yet received special attention,
either in the Commission's support programmes or in national programmes.

It was heavily stressed in the working Group that not only must the master
plan under discussion be European in scale, but that the Commission should
also obtain the cooperation of European firms and institutions in the gas
sector. Such coopration would, on the one hand, enable existing technical
knowhow to be pooled and used, and on the other cause knowhow to be
 1009

transferred between countries with differing technical levels. However,

this should not mean that promising technologies would not be supported
merely because it vas not possible in particular cases to bring about
cooperation between Member States.

TO the European integration which already exists for the supply side of
natural gas there needs to be added coopration on the user side, through
common gas storage and utilization activities. This is especially true in
the light of plans to complete the internal market by 1992, in which not
only the circulation of goods, but also technology transfer should play a
decisive role.
1010

Working Party Conclusions

Drilling - Piling - Platforms

The session on 'Drilling - Piling - Platforms' comprised nine papers

covering a wide range of topics. The projects presented can be conveniently
divided into two groups. The first group (Papers F1-F5) concerned well
drilling, including automation and optimisation of drilling operations both
from the topsides/drilling vessel and from the downhole viewpoints. The
second group concerned platform foundations, including drilled-pile
technologies, foundation performance monitoring and pile-sleeve connections.
Part A of this Session Report provides a summary of the specific
discussions whch took place after the presentation of each paper. Many of
the subjects covered in the session were then discussed in more global terms
during the Working Party - the discussion and conclusions from the 'Drilling
- Piling - Platforms' Working Party are given in Part B.

PART A: DISCUSSIONS ON INDIVIDUAL PAPERS

A.l WELL DRILLING TECHNOLOGY

PAPER Fl - SYSTEM FOR FULL AUTOMATION OF TRIPPING INTEGRATED IN A STANDARD

DRILLING MAST

The automation of tripping developed by Plateformes et Structures

Ocanique has provided a method of handling drill strings which is much
safer than, and of comparable efficiency to, a draw-works which is directly
operated by the driller. Mr. Gazel-Anthoine stated that, as far as possible,
they had tried to follow the general activities of a manual operation in
order to allow a comparative evaluation of the reliability of the new system
in relationship to traditional methods. When questioned on the need for
tagging of individual drill pipes he confirmed that, similarly, there was no
additional requirement in the automated system than when handled by
drillers. Extension of the concept of automation to other areas (such as the
bottom hole assembly) was, Mr. Gazel-Anthoine felt, more difficult and would
probably require some form of manual intervention.

PAPER F2 - NEW LINING TECHNOLOGIES FOR DRILLING AND PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT:

BORON CARBIDE COATINGS

Boron carbide, with its very low elastoplastic coefficient, has been
shown to exhibit excellent wear resistance as a coating for drilling and
production equipment. Dr. Nisio stated that the cost of boron carbide is
similar to that of other wear-resistant coatings but the properties are
better leading to higher productivity. He said it is intended that the
coating deposition technique will be at the exploitation stage in the near
future. On the question of other uses for the demonstrated properties of
boron carbide, he felt that it was suitable for many coating applications
but not suitable as a substitute for fabrication of thick sections because
of the problem of brittleness.

PAPER F3 - OPTIMISATION OF DRILLING OPERATIONS

The availability of Measurement While Drilling (MWD) devices has made

it possible to obtain downhole data not previously measureable and thus set
up a computer model to quantify drill string mechanics. Whilst it was
 1011

recognised by delegates that better understanding and good predictions/

planning of drilling operations lead to cost savings, the question arose of
who would use the model since drilling is often sub-contracted. The authors
recognised that the biggest problem was to persuade people to change habits
but felt that operators could impose the application of the modelling
technique and assess the results against the reality in the field - the
model could thus also be constantly updated. The Community funding had
enabled an optimisation technique to be developed which has potential for
significant reduction in drilling costs and Elf Aquitaine are at present
carrying out work to make the software more comprehensive.

PAPER F4 - COMPLETION OF HORIZONTAL DRAINS

From the results of full-scale bench tests, Elf Aquitaine and the
Institut Franais du Petrole have established techniques for selective
completions and production logging in horizontal drains. Although Elf had
encountered problems in 11 horizontal wells prior to the work being carried
out, Mr. Spreux stated that an opportunity had not arisen since then to
apply the developed grouting/packer technology. However, he felt that the
work had increased confidence in horizontal well completions and other
problem areas (such as sand control) were being investigated by a number of
other companies. The state of the art of horizontal drilling was pursued
further in the Working Party discussions.

PAPER F5 - DESIGN STUDIES OF CENTRE COLUMN SEMI-SUBMERSIBLE VESSELS

Work on the five column semi-submersible drilling vessel commenced in

1983 and, at the time, DESDEC had identified a need for a new safe and
efficient deepwater drilling unit. Since then, DESDEC has put considerable
effort into marketing the innovative concept of a centre column (enabling
vertical storage of long riser joints and an enclosed moonpool). They felt
that the concept has been generally accepted by the industry but the
depression in oil prices of 1986 had introduced a timelag in deepwater
activity. However, they considered the drilling unit to have long-term
exploitation potential. The authors stated that in water depths over
600 metres the unit would be dynamically positioned using eight thrusters,
and the motion response of the vessel is good (and similar) at both
operational and survival drafts.

A.2 PLATFORM FOUNDATION TECHNOLOGY

PAPER F6 - UNDERWATER DRILL FOR LARGE CAPACITY PILES

Solmarine's development of drilling equipment to install large

capacity drilled piles aims to reduce the hazards and subsequent costs
associated with standard techniques. The work is now complete and it is
Solmarine's intention that the next stage will be the construction of a
prototype. This, however, will be delayed until there is an upturn in
interest in deepwater developments - the area of application in which the
system would demonstrate the greatest advantages over alternative pile
installation methods. The equipment, it was stated, was aimed at large piles
and installation of piles with a diameter of less than 2 metres would be
difficult.
1012

PAPER F7 - DEVELOPMENT OF THE HYDRA-LOK SYSTEM FOR APPLICATION TO DEEPWATER

JACKET STRUCTURES

Mr. Lowes said that Community funding for the initial stages of the
development of the Hydra-Lok system had not been sought since these stages
had proceeded very rapidly and it was felt that the procedure for obtaining
the funding would have delayed the introduction of the tool into the
marketplace. However, once a tool for small/medium diameter connections had
been fabricated, and operators/certifying authorities were accepting the new
technique of achieving a pile to sleeve connection, it was appropriate to
seek Community funding for the development of a tool for large diameter and
multiple groove connections since the cost of such a development would have
otherwise been prohibitive. Mr. Lowes stated that the system was pressure
insensitive and was suitable for deepwater connections. The system also has
alternative uses: it had been used to pressure test a flange/valve assembly
and could be used for pipeline connections although this was not seen as a
large market. For the original and main application, although the oil
industry was initially reluctant to apply the technology, 16 subsea
structures have now been installed using the Hydra-Lok method for 24 inch to
42 inch piles.

PAPER F8 - THE GROUTED DRIVEN PILE, AN ECONOMIC ALTERNATIVE FOR PILE

FOUNDATION IN CALCAREOUS SANDS

In calcareous sands, where driven piles have very low capacity, it has
traditionally been necessary to adopt more expensive drilled piles even
though such soils are often soft and easily driveable. The grouted driven
pile being developed by Solmarine using Community funding is showing
considerable promise in overcoming this problem by providing similar pile
capacities to those of drilled and grouted piles but at significantly lower
costs. Improvements in valves and packer systems are now being carried out
and the use of different nozzle configurations to give better grout flow
will be investigated in mid-1988. Operators are showing interest in the
results achieved so far in the EEC funded work and Solmarine believe that
oil company sponsorship to confirm results and optimise hardware/procedures
will soon be available. They are hoping for full exploitation of the
technique in the field within the next couple of years.

PAPER F9 - A FIELD INVESTIGATION INTO THE PERFORMANCE OF A PILED FOUNDATION

AND INTO THE SOIL STRUCTURE INTERACTION OF A FOUNDATION SYSTEM

By instrumenting the lower section of one of the four legs of the

Magnus platform and the piles supporting that leg, BP have been able to
determine the actual loads imposed on the piles and sea bed by the
structural and environmental forces. Mr. Sharp stated that evaluation of the
results of the monitoring suggests that present design standards are, in
places, over-conservative and engineers are designing for far higher loads
than the structures are experiencing. It was felt that the possible
conservatism in design loads could have a significant effect on marginal
field development. Further in-situ monitoring is required to confirm and
extend the data but Mr. Sharp considered that the necessary instrumentation
would certainly be cost effective in the long term. Further work in this
area could provide substantial returns on investment and enhance
exploitation of the Community's hydrocarbon reserves.
 1013

PART : WORKING PARTY DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The discussion and conclusions from the Working Party fall into three
segments :

well drilling technology

platform foundation technology
the Community funding policy and administrative arrangements.

B.l WELL DRILLING TECHNOLOGY

Papers presented in this area demonstrated that the research effort

funded by the Community has had some impact on drilling technology. This
includes new commercial products or techniques for :

safer and more efficient handling of drill strings with derrick and
storage areas
drill string materials with improved mechanical properties leading to
higher productivity
better prediction/planning of directional behaviour of drill strings
increased confidence in horizontal well completions.

In spite of these successes, it was felt in the industry that

technology in well drilling has lagged in comparison with other
technologies. This was considered to be disturbing given the high percentage
(perhaps 50%) of field development costs that arise from drilling. There is
thus considerable potential for European companies to obtain a market edge
on established suppliers and it was felt that continued effort could reap
substantial rewards. Although considerable resources would be necessary to
optimise the drilling operations and the investment contained a fairly high
degree of risk, the potential payback was also estimated to be very large.
The Working Party considered high risk/high payback projects to be the area
where Community funding would be particularly beneficial since, without such
funds, the developments would not take place.
An extensive part of the discussion session revolved around the
subject of horizontal drilling. Work carried out so far has confirmed that
techniques are available for horizontal well diilling and completion. At
present, however, the equipment being used or proposed has tended to be an
extension/adaptation of traditional drilling hardware. The Working Party
agreed that this had arisen in order to gain acceptance within the industry
but, if fully automated techniques were used and equipment was designed from
scratch, the end product would be very different from traditional drilling
configurations. A complete rethink of drilling methods could lead to higher
performance and reduced costs. Even using "conventional" equipment, some
development was still considered to be necessary for horizontal wells - for
example, wire-lines to open/close sleeves. Two specific project areas
identified by the Working Party were:

prediction of horizontal drain/reservoir behaviour

improved logging techniques and advanced logging equipment.

Development in the above two areas was needed for both vertical and
horizontal wells. However, the Working Party considered that any funding of
drilling projects ought to be done in the context of an overall strategy. A
concerted and coordinated effort was felt to be required to identify and
initiate future research in drilling in order to maximise European drilling
capability.
1014

The main thrust of the strategy should be cost reduction. Time is the
important issue in drilling, and time is money. The two ways to save time
are:

improving the rate of productive drilling

reducing lost time through reduction of tripping and better equipment
handling.

The Working Party briefly considered deepwater drilling vessel

concepts and markets. Many conceptual design studies have been carried out
on the subject and it was felt that the technology had now been developed
and was, in fact, in advance of the market need. Any deepwater development
programme must be considered in the context of worldwide demand since the
potential in European waters is limited. Nevertheless, it is still seen as
an important area for Community research since European expertise could be
exported and exploited within the worldwide market. A few wells have already
been drilled in 900 metres plus water depths and the requirement for
advanced deepwater drilling vessels will eventually come. However, the
Working Party concluded that sufficient conceptual design work had now been
performed and, until a clearer market requirement is identified, further
Community sponsored projects in this area cannot be justified.

B.2 PLATFORM FOUNDATION TECHNOLOGY

Community funded projects have contributed to a strong European

capability in the area of foundation piling and pile connections.
Development studies have confirmed the feasibility of pile
installation in deepwater and the feasibility of connecting the piles to sea
bed templates or main support structures in water depths of up to 750 metres
using either swaging or grouting techniques. As with deepwater drilling, a
timelag has been introduced and the major demand for some of the deepwater
technology may be several years away.
A number of new pile foundation developments, such as the method of
overcoming load capacity problems for piles in calcareous sands, have shown
considerable promise. However, the Working Party felt that, in order to
obtain the best return on any future investment in foundation research, the
work should be coordinated in terms of whole field (and in particular,
marginal field) development rather than consideration of foundations in
isolation.
Experiences on foundation monitoring have shown that the technique
yields vital data. Results so far suggest that, from the global viewpoint,
structures are experiencing lower environmental loads for a given wave than
are predicted by present design standards. Further in-situ monitoring is
required to confirm the preliminary figures and it will then be necessary to
convince certifying authorities of their validity before the benefits can be
fully implemented in design. The Working Party considered that such
monitoring, although expensive, would be cost effective.
In conclusion, the Working Party felt that the technology largely
exists to meet the Community requirements for foundation piling for the
foreseeable future and further investment, except in the area of monitoring,
would be of marginal benefit.

B.3 THE COMMUNITY FUNDING POLICY AND ADMINISTRATIVE ARRANGEMENTS

The projects described in this session all show significant commercial

potential, especially where operators have been involved with the project.
It was noted that initiation of some of the programmes had been delayed by
 1015

the procedure for obtaining funds. Under the present Regulations, this would
have led to missed opportunities for early commercial exploitation of the
ideas.
One main conclusion from the Working Party was that further
coordinated effort in well drilling technology is essential if significant
cost savings are to be achieved. Present projects are piecemeal and lack the
overall strategy and coordination necessary to make an impact on drilling
costs. A clear European strategy must be drawn up for this area of
technology and future development projects should be evaluated against this
strategy.
There was some question as to whether the resources and mechanisms
exist within the Community to initiate such a strategy. In particular, the
present Regulations are not structured to provide a forum for this
coordination. It was noted that the UK Offshore Energy Technology Board had,
some years ago, recognised the need for proactive effort (rather than
reactive effort) in several areas including drilling; perhaps similar
policies could be adopted by DG 17. This approach should include targeting
specific development projects and the best organisation to carry them out.
The well drilling area should be recognised as high risk, but with
high potential returns. Progress which can have a real impact on costs is
unlikely to proceed without Community sponsorship.
The importance of combined operator and supplier/service company
involvement in developments was highlighted to enable clear definition and
early exploitation of new technologies.
1016

Horking Party Conclusions

Subsea Operations - Marine Technology
Submarine Vehicles - Energy Supply

PRESENTATION OF RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

A panel of recent development projects was selected for presentation and

discussion to Illustrate the progress made since the last Symposium (December 1984)
In the field of subsea Interventions. The main conclusions drawn from this session
regarding development achievements are the following :

Contrary to what could have been predicted due to the emergence of remote
control technologies, human Intervention has made strong progress particularly
in the field of deep diving technology (hyperbaric) and autonomous submarine
(atmospheric). Thanks to new hydrogen breathing mixture the "Industrial
threshold" of diver's Intervention has moved from 300 to 500 m water depth,
and diver's comfort and productivity have made considerable progress
confirming the feasibility of effective diver's intervention on the deepest offshore
developments currently planned around the world.

If the concept of large autonomous submarine work platform has not yet
reached the industrial stage, at least the SAGA prototype now being tested
clearly demonstrates the technical feasibility of such an ambitious subsea
intervention philosophy. It has been necessary to promote many advanced
technologies to reach this level of development.

One of the key components of the autonomous system remains the power
source where various attempts have analysed the feasibility and the potential
of self contained engines : these developments have proved relatively slow and
difficult but seem to be closer to the industrial stage. Close circuit diesel engine
and external combustion chambers will bring a new dimension in subsea
interventions for both autonomous submarines and tetherless ROVs.

On the subsea robotic front development projects underway may not have
attained all expected objectives : It has been necessary in particular to clarify
the interface between divers/robots and subsea structures. The old conflict
between the two intervention modes Is over and what proved important was to
define in technical and economic terms the subsea tasks adapted to pure
robotic intervention and those best solved by a combination of divers and
assistance ROVs and robots.

Robotic development projects have progressed well in terms of vehicles and

telecontrol system but some suffered from insufficient manipulative performance
and therefore have generally not led to the development of large scale
application for complex subsea operations (construction and maintenance).

The conclusion Is therefore that the progress made in subsea intervention

technologies have gone In the right direction, supporting the European
Community development objectives : the ability to operate at large depth and
the development of more productive technologies will help develop deep and
marginal European offshore projects and will also support the European oil
related Industry on foreign markets.
 1017

NEW OBJECTIVES :

The development efforts sustained so far must be pursued along the same lines but
a true European coordination Is essential to avoid duplication and new subsea
development technologies must not be promoted In isolation but Integrated in their
working environment.

Human intervention : priority should be given to projects enhancing diver's

productivity (ergonomy and integration of individual diving systems, extended
confinement) and to the industrialisation of very deep diving Intervention
(beyond 500 m).

Atmospheric intervention : large autonomous submarines must create their own

market by operational demonstrations and development of specific supporting
technologies (confirmation of autonomy performances linked to the
industrialisation of advanced power sources, 3D dynamic positioning close to
subsea structures, e t c . ) .

Robotics : there is an absolute need for a large European framework

development programme focusing upon advanced manipulator systems
(artificial intelligence and computer controls, teletransmission, environmental
sensors and tracking systems) and end effectors (tools and operations within
the reach of robotized application) Integrated in compiere subsea production
schemes and underwater structure construction and maintenance philosophy.

The preferential fields of application will be the development of marginei

offshore projects in conventional water depths and new fields in deep waters
down to 800 m as well as the IMR (inspection/maintenance/repair) market.

GENERAL PROJECT ORGANIZATION AND FUNDING

The complexity and size of development projects associated with modern subsea
techologies necessitate very large budgets and Involve major technical and
commercial risks. Considering the depressed market conditions, these projects are
no longer within the reach of individual companies : the answer Is therefore In a
true multinational approach based on complementary competences and
avoidance of duplication and wasted energy : Community funds should strongly
support leading cooperation on projects organized around strong industrial focal
points and should not encourage scattered efforts.

In the same way oil operators involvement is an absolute must as their Integration
(possibly not in a leading role) In a project will bring the necessary industrial
environment and commercial potential. In particular the success of new subsea
intervention techniques will largely depend upon rationalisation and standardization
efforts by oil companies. A much closer attention should be paid to marketing
analysis and commercial return before proceeding with a new development.
1018

Working Party Conclusions

Enhanced Oil Recovery -
Reservoir Management

The amount of money a v a i l a b l e to oil

companies for running expensive EOR f i e l d p i l o t s has
been c o n s i d e r a b l y reduced by t h e sharp d e c r e a s e i n
t h e o i l p r i c e . In a d d i t i o n , t h e c u r r e n t a v a i l a b i l i t y
of cheap o i l on t h e market g i v e s t h e impression t h a t
EOR has run out of fashion i n t h e o i l companies.
This is not true, because it is well known
that:
- oil reserves, although larger than it was
expected ten years ago, are not infinite;
the oil production rate sustained by the oil
fields currently producing and the ones
expected to be discovered, will drop below
the market demand a couple of decades from
now;
- the oil rate from EOR is expected to
contribute to fill in the gap for an
additional couple of decades.
Therefore, the efforts of research and
technological development activities on EOR should
continue keeping in mind past experience as well as
the needs to be faced in the future.
Because of the current budget restrictions in
the oil companies and because EOR pilot project
results suggest a more complex reservoir situation
than the predicted one, it is necessary to proceed
according a list of priorities:
1. It is mandatory that coordinated efforts be
made to enhance the capability of better
characterizing the internal structure of
reservoirs. A synergetic approach is
required, by joining geology, geophysics,
fluid dynamics, reservoir engineering and
numerical simulation. A different concept of
"field pilots" is recommended too: choosing
suitable reservoirs with appropriate
 1019

intrawell spacing, to develop and optimize

methodologies of acquiring data on rock
properties and fluid contents near the wells,
from well to well and to the surface,
2. The projects should be "cooperative
projects", to share risks and costs and to
unify the efforts among oil companies,
research entities and universities. The
common availability of data banks on basic
reservoir properties should be encouraged,
3. The cost effectiveness of the various EOR
processes should be improved through
coordinated efforts among the various
parties, including an important contribution
from the chemical industry. Key areas are the
improvement of reservoir coverage through the
use of additives in steam and miscible
flooding and the cost reduction of chemical
processes (i.e. development of low-cost and
more efficient chemicals, which are more
stable and retained less by the reservoir
rock),

4. Laboratory and simulation activities should

be increased to solve the technical problems
still pending. Though it is necessary to keep
the pilot testing of EOR processes at the
current low level, the low cost of the basic
activities doesn't justify their de-
mobilisation and the consequent dispersion of
the experiences built in years of efforts;
5. Consideration to other activities should be
given, such as:
- the promotion of the utilisation by Third
Countries (where a huge amount of oil to
be recovered exists) of the technologies
developed within the EEC countries as
far as reservoir management and EOR
are concerned,
- the integration between downstream field
activities and EOR, to face the easily
predictable problems of an increased
production of heavy oils and stricter
ecological and environmental constraints.
1020

A mandatory duty of the EEC is to steer

all efforts towards priority targets by adopting
the most appropriate necessary measures. Of them:
A. Keep the funding of Regulation 3639/85 at a
level consistent with the amount of
activities envisioned for the near future.
A level of funding similar, in real terms, to
the 1976-1980 program would be suitable,
B. Boost the cooperation among all entities
involved, this being considered the most
efficient way to integrate knowledge and
efforts in order to avoid duplication and to
define, in a common environment, appropriate
priorities and funding.
To this end, the EEC should also encourage
the formation of groups of experts in the
various fields.
 1021

CLOSING ADDRESS

R. DE BAUW
Director Oil & Gas
Commission of the European Communities

May I first extend my thanks to all the Chairmen for the remarkable
effort they have made in synthesizing such a vast amount of work in so
little time.
As I listened to the various talks, I gained the impression that you
expected me to accomplish an immense task.
My colleagues and I are very grateful for the trust which all the
experts present at this meeting has shown in us, in discussing their
problems so frankly and in telling us so clearly how much they rely on
action by the Commission in a field which we all feel to be of capital
importance.
Obviously, our resources are limited. In that respect one of the first
conclusions to be drawn from this symposium is that we have to get back to
Mr Adam. It was he who first floated the idea that our programme required
greater human and material resources. We must tell him that this view has
been confirmed by the experts speaking here.
Now the time has come for us to draw conclusions and to voice our
thanks. I shall begin with the conclusions.
I shall not try to summarise everything that has been said by the
Chairmen. The subject matter is so vast that the process would take far too
long. But as we analyse everything that has been said, we shall probably get
back to some of the speakers who have expressed particularly interesting or
rewarding ideas. And obviously we shall be at your disposal to listen to
anything you may have to say in the future.
Let me now revert to the first working day of our conference, when we
heard several talks and held a Round Table discussion.
To begin with Mr Mosar and Mr Maniatopoulos explained the political
background, showing where, in their view, the problem of hydrocarbons
exploration, production, transport and storage fits into the Community's
broader energy policy, particularly as regards its security of supplies
target.
What I want to recall here is that these objectives for 1995
underscore, among other points, the need to develop safe oil and natural gas
supplies for the Community. Our discussions therefore are wholly in line
with the guidelines which the Energy Ministers have set out for the
Community.
Next we heard the talks by the three Deputy Chairmen, and here I want
to point out that we were given clear indications of two major challenges to
be resolved.
The first is the new oil challenge.
For all operators upstream of the oil industry 1986 was a painful
year. Those operating downstream had a better time, they lived more or less
comfortably but that did not last long and now they are again facing
difficulties. Those upstream, however, suffered badly, indeed at one time
they feared the future held no prospects for them.
Mr Garcia-Sineriz told us first of all about the severe economic
constraints facing oil exploration and production. He stressed how sensitive
these activities are to fluctuations in oil prices, which further enhance
the constraints I have just mentioned. The message he gave us is that these
1022

constraints should be dealt with by technologies which reduce costs, which

enable us to reach the more inaccessible oilfields and which allow for the
development of resources of which the full value has yet to be gauged.
Then Mr Meo gave us a brilliant description of the global nature and
especially of the dimension of the problems to be resolved, as well as the
political dimension of the issues at stake.
Let me quote a few figures : in 15 years, and even in 20 years, oil and
gas will still cover more than half of the world's energy requirements; for
the Community, the figure will still be of the order of 60% by the year
2000; henceforth oil will represent a far more specific factor in energy
supplies than it has been in the past.
On this latter point, Mr Meo pointed out that specific uses of
petroleum (those for which, under existing and foreseeable technologies, it
cannot be economically replaced by other sources of energy) will account for
three quarters of consumption by the end of the century, against barely half
today.
Mr Meo used a striking phrase: "the only substitute for oil, will be
oil". And finally he drew our attention to the fact that the reduction in
production costs is a major factor in maintaining the marginal price per
barrel at a level compatible with the economic development of the industrial
nations on the one hand, and with the hopes of the oil-producing countries
on the other hand.
To quote another figure : Mr Meo told us the aim must be to achieve a
cut of $10 per barrel in the production cost of new "technological" oil,
exploitation of which is a high risk and difficult venture.
The other challenge, which is industrial in character, was explained
by Mr d'Ancona. He reminded us of the achievements and spectacular growth of
para-oil industries in the Community. He underlined the now highly
competitive nature of this market which is likely to remain so in the
future: a narrower market; a market in which new competitors have arrived,
in particular from Asian countries; a market in which American operators
have traditionally had a very important place and which they could easily
regain if demand revived.
Therefore, Mr d'Ancona explained, we must lose no more time in
developing outlets outside the Community for our para-oil industry.
Cooperation at the European level, if I understood Mr d'Ancona rightly, is
an essential condition both for the development of these outlets and indeed
for the very survival of the para-oil industry.
Those then were the messages we heard during the morning of our first
day.
The Round Table held in the afternoon covered a fairly wide range of
problems. I shall confine myself to quoting the main themes of the
discussion and to underlining the fact that on most of the items covered we
heard differing points of view.
At the present stage, it is still too soon to resolve the debate. But
the Round Table discusion yielded invaluable food for thought, which we
shall be able to take into account when, by the end of the year, we have to
submit proposals to the Commission for the future of the programme. At the
present stage, I am unable to answer all the questions that were asked, nor
to give a considered opinion on all the suggestions made.
What I can tell you is that we shall study very carefully all the
comments that have been made, for it is obvious that they touch on some very
important points. At present I shall do no more than recall the main themes
that emerged during the discussion.
 1023

The first point - on which fortunately there was full agreement and
that I believe needs to be stressed - is the key role played so far by the
support programme for hydrocarbon projects as well as the need to pursue it
further.
Obviously, as regards the latter, there are different shades of
opinion as to the areas to be covered, as to the practical conditions, and
as to the sectors to be covered, but I believe all the participants are
unanimous in saying that good work has been done so far and that it should
continue.
For the Commission, that is an encouragement and a very positive
factor.
The second point to be discussed at the Round Table: the need for a
long-term view, which means that priorities have to be determined. The
reports of the working parties gave very clear indications as to the
priorities which have emerged in the different sectors.
One question which arose, and which has remained unanswered, is
whether in the future the programme should - as it does at present - apply
generally to anything promising which emerges, while determining a few
priorities, or whether it should concentrate on a few areas of strategic
interest. That remains an open question, and I should like to offer a few
comments on the subject.
Firstly, as regards the present situation, you will have noticed that
since 1986, i.e. under Regulation 3639/85, we have an obligation to
determine priorities. We have been able to do so firstly in the light of the
results of the previous Luxembourg Symposium and then in the light of our
dialogue with the national authorities meeting in the Consultative
Committee. But in spite of this definition of priorities, coverage of the
concrete area subject to the Regulation, remains very broad.
Coming now to the idea that we should in future concentrate on areas
of major strategic interest, I believe great caution is needed in the way we
define them. This definition should not come from the top, in abstract
fashion, but should on the contrary emerge from the needs identified by the
oil industry itself, from the opportunities or obstacles encountered by the
para-oil industry itself, and in that respect the reports by the working
parties are a highly valuable contribution as far as we are concerned.
I also welcome the suggestion submitted to the Commission by two
working parties at least, to organise meetings, workshops, conferences,
bringing together all those interested in very specific problems which
nevertheless are of fundamental importance for the future. In that way the
experts could set out the state of the art, describe the difficulties
confronting them in the work, so as to determine the direction in which
progress should be sought and also to avoid duplication.
This suggestion was made for multiphase transport and also for
pipeline welding. In both these fields we could take fairly early action and
we shall take immediate steps to see how this could be implemented. One
suggestion was that at these meetings we should not confine ourselves to
Community industries but that we should also associate third countries with
interests very similar to ours: that is an excellent idea, which we shall
try to adopt.
The Round Table also discussed the respective roles of oil companies
and of para-oil enterprises. An added question arising from the reports of
the working parties is that of relations with the universities and other
research centres.
It is a fact that, in our technological field, a variety of
institutions or enterprises with different characteristics are engaged in
very similar activities. But there organisations, each with its own needs
and using different means, are all trying to head in the same direction.
1024

To what extent can a programme such as ours help these different

categories of operators to work in the best possible conditions? Clearly
there is a balance to be found here - a balance which, of course, will be
achieved differently in each case. But in every case the following factors
will have to be remembered.

The need for cooperation; that is the starting point.

The need to determine strategies and avoid duplication.
Specific options of industrial policy: is one body better placed to
perform a specific task than others? Are the resources of one
particular body more suitable than those of others to implement
specific parts of the programme?
And finally the matter of financial resources. In this respect I
should like to stress that for some time past we have been considering
the questions of finance arising from the intervention of non-profit
associations and organisations such as the universities. We fully
realise that for some of them the repayment clause entails
difficulties.

Having just raised the matter of repayment clause, let me expand on

it. It is an issue that has already been raised frequently. Mr Wells used a
very diplomatic phrase when he said that "it is perceived as a problem", for
that does not mean everyone is convinced there is a problem.
It is a point to which we should be particularly attentive and on
which we should like to pursue further dialogue with you.
To some extent it is my impression that Mr Wells' comment was close to
the truth insofar as the wording of the contracts, and especially the
discusion about this repayment problem, is probably in excess of the actual
facts, considering the way in which these matters develop.
As I told the Round Table, each case entailing repayment is examined
on its individual merit. We do not have a hard and fast rule which is
applied in the abstract without regard for the facts.
Nevertheless, I agree that a problem exists and that we must go on
analysing it. Our analysis must take account of certain factors, e.g.:

the management requirements of the enterprises or research centres

concerned;
- the commercial environment, to which you obviously are much closer
than we can hope to be;
the need to maintain fair competition between operators whenever a
successful project turns into a source of profits ;
the usefulness of repayment as a global means of verifying the
effectiveness of the programme;
our obligation to ensure the best possible management of public funds.

Here I must emphasise that, as Mr Adam reminded us, the European

Parliament is highly sensitive to the latter two points.
The problem of transnational cooperation was also raised during the
Round Table discussion. Such cooperation is recognised by everyone as
important and desirable, but at the same time everyone stresses the
difficulties which it entails, especially when it comes to
commercialisation. These difficulties stem from different customs and
commercial mentalities, even from different enterprise cultures, from
differences in the way projects are set up and managed, which vary from
country to country.
 1025

That is a fact of everyday life in Europe, one that not only has to be
accepted but one that requires boldness if it is to be resolved; we must
tell ourselves that it can be done, given goodwill on all sides.
The question was asked whether such cooperation should be compulsory
or optional, whether special measures were needed to encourage it or whether
declarations of principle were enough. That is not an issue we can settle
today, but I must remind you yet again that the European Parliament is
sensitive on this point and that we cannot afford to tackle it hastily or
simplistically.
A last point that was raised briefly during the Round Table debate was
the dissemination of knowledge. This too is an issue we should bear in mind
when preparing the new programme.
Before moving on from the Round Table, I should like to remind you
briefly of what Chairman Adam told us about the European Parliament's
interest in international cooperation, in cooperation between industry and
universities, its interest also in the selection of projects with the best
market potential, the need to bring people together so as to identify the
most promising approach, and lastly its concern for small and medium size
enterprises.
Nor do I want to mention Mr Adam's talk without reminding you of the
message he gave you so clearly. As everyone at this symposium recognised the
interest of the programme and the need to carry it on beyond its 1989
closing date, each and every one of you must regard yourselves as messengers
intent on impressing upon the political authorities of your home country (be
they MEPs of the region, or national administrations) the need to pursue the
programme in the best possible conditions.
Now the time has come to express thanks, which I must do not only on
my own behalf but on behalf of Director General Maniatopoulos, Chairman of
this symposium, and our thanks are due to very many people.
Let me start with the members of the Organizing Committee. They helped
us to conceive the intellectual framework of this symposium. They gave us
the benefit of their invaluable experience, and of their numerous contacts,
and I believe that the success of the past three days is due largely to the
intelligence and dedication they have shown.
I must also thank the members of the Scientific and Technical
Committee, i.e. the Chairmen and Deputy Chairmen of the sessions as well as
the rapporteurs who steered the debates and who so brilliantly summed up the
conclusions of the working parties. For us these conclusions are a crucial
point for it is on them that we shall base the call for tenders we plan to
issue this year and, more important still, work out our proposals for the
next Regulation.
I should like to thank the authors of the reports and all the
panellists who discussed them and thus produced very rewarding exchanges of
view.
In that respect let me quote the comment by Mr Maniatopoulos: "We have
now embarked on the process of evaluation of the programme; it is all of you
who took part in this symposium who have carried out the first stage in this
process, and we are very grateful to you for doing so.".
I come now to all those you saw or did not see in the wings of this
symposium.
First of all our Luxembourg colleagues, from the Directorate General
of Administration and the Directorate General for the dissemination of
knowledge. They gave us irreplaceable help in organising this meeting,
showing exemplary dedication. I shall only be able to mention a few names,
of those I know personally, but I know that many others worked backstage,
1026

the conference room attendants, ushers and others. So I shall only mention
by name Mr Nicolay, Mrs Eisen, Mr Poos and Mr Humbert, asking them to
transmit our thanks to all the others concerned.
We have all seen the interpreters and we can see them still in their
cubicles. Their task has been particularly difficult owing to the highly
technical nature of our discussions. In some cases they performed veritable
feats. They may say that as a result they have learned a lot about the oil
sector but we may tell them that they have helped us enormously by
facilitating our discussions.
Lastly I should like to mention my own associates: Mr Millich,
Mr Joulia, Mr Van Asselt, Mr Pasquier, Mr Bronkhorst. You know them all.
They spared no effort in order to make this meeting a success, and I should
like to state publicly how proud I am to work with a team of such high
quality. I am particularly happy to note how much store our partners and
correspondents set by their competence and their sense of responsibility.
By the same token I want to extend thanks to our colleagues from the
team responsible for the administrative and financial management of the
projects; the team is led by Mr Meijer, who attended the first day of this
symposium.
It remains for me to express our warmest gratitude to our friend
Mr Perry Argiris, who is sitting back there very discreetly. In his capacity
of consultant he gave us invaluable help throughout the preparation and the
actual proceedings of this symposium. His long experience, his
organisational skill, his inexhaustible courtesy, were precious and
irreplaceable.
Before concluding this talk may I ask you to applaud all those I have
just mentioned, with apologies to anyone I may have forgotten.
So we are coming to the end of this symposium. Let me add a few words
on what awaits us in the future.
I hope that we shall be able to hold the next symposium in 1992. 1992
is something of a magical date, for it is the target date for the single
market. I do not believe that this single market should be seen solely as a
slogan designed to please the politicians, but as a reality that we must all
of us construct together. For the symposium ending today shows that, as
regards the technological development of the hydrocarbons sector, this
single market is already being built and indeed may have been entirely
completed by the time of our next meeting.
My second message for the future is as follows. Our process of
evaluation has already begun. As I told you we have to some extent completed
the first stage in the past few days. By the end of the year we should be
able to submit to the Council and to Parliament a report leading to new
proposals for the further pursuit of the programme.
A third message for the future consists in the fact that all of us at
the Directorate General for Energy, want to go on listening to you. In the
past few days you have put forward many ideas, mentioned many problems. Do
not hesitate to tell us whenever you have something useful to say. We are at
your disposal, even if our time is somewhat limited. Any idea from your side
capable of improving the programme and ensuring the success of our
objectives, will always be welcome.
So it only remains for me to declare this third symposium closed, to
thank all of you, and to express the hope that we shall meet again soon.
 1027

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

ACHURRA, . ALRUSHAID, N.
Technical Adviser Director of Exploration & Production
SOCIEDAD DE HIDROCARBUROS DE EUSKADI PO Box 22795
Edificio Albia I, PI. 14 MINISTRY OF OIL
C/San Vicente 8 KUWAITSAFAT
E 48001 BILBAO

ADAM, G. ANDERSON, J.
VicePresident of the Committe for Offshore Engineering
Energy, Research and Technology of Kayron 5 The Craigs
the European Parliament UK NEWARK ST. GREENOCK PA16 7UU
10 Coach Road
Wallsend
UK TYNE AND HEAR NE28 6JA ANDOLFI, G.
Project Engineer
MARITALIA S.p..
AFTALION, R. Via della Scafa, 19
R & D Manager I 00054 FIUMICINO ROME
EMH
196, Bureaux de la Colline
F 92213 ST. CLOUD Cedex ANDRIER, B.
VicePresident R & D
E.T.P.M.
ALBERTSEN, M. 3335, rue d'Alsace
DEUTSCHE WISSENSCHAFTLICHE F 92531 LEVALL0IS Cedex
GESELLSCHAFT FUR ERDL, ERDGAS UND
KOHLE E.V.
SteinstraDe 7
D 2000 HAMBURG 1 ANGELOPOULOS, A.
Vice President
PUBLIC PETROLEUM CORPORATION
ALKEMADE, P.J.C. Exploration & Exploitation of
General Manager Hydrocarbons S.A.
OIL & GAS PROJECT CONSULTANTS 199, Kifissias Avenue
Duindoorn 30 GR 15124 MAROUSSI, ATHENS
Postbus 1220
NL 2262 AR LEIDSCHENDAM

ARGYRIS, P.A.
ALLEAUME, J. Consultant
Consultant Commission of the European
S0FRESID Communities
59, rue de la Rpublique 21, avenue de l'Ore, Bote 10
F 93100 MONTREUIL 1050 BRUXELLES
1028

ASCHEHOUG, H.. BARTHELEMY, H.

Advisor Vice President
ROYAL NORVEGIAN COUNCIL FOR Operations and Marketing
SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH SOLMARINE
PO Box 70 Tasen 6, rue de Watford
0891 OSLO 8 F 92000 NANTERRE

AUSEMS, A.W.M. BASSE, A.

Geologist Ingnieur
MINISTRY OF ECONOMIC AFFAIRS MERIP OIL TOOLS INTERNATIONAL
PO Box 20101 Z.A. de Montardom
NL 2500 EC THE HAGUE F 64121 SERRES CASTET

AUXIETTE, G. BASTEK, H.
TOTAL COMPAGNIE FRANAISE DES Kernforschungsanlage
PTROLES Postfach 1913
Cedex 47 D 5170 JLICH
F 92069 PARIS LA DEFENSE

BACKHAUS, H. BASU, A.K.

Director, New Product Development Engineer
L.G.A. GASTECHNIK GmbH BROWN & ROOT VICKERS
PO Box 604 Tuition House,
Bonner Strae 10 27/37 St. Georges Road
D 5480 REMAGEN 6 UK LONDON SW19 4DS

BARBOUX, C. BATSCHKO, H.D.

GERTH
4, avenue de Bois Prau
F 92502 RUEILMALMAISON
BARNES, S.
Energy Administrateur
IEA
2, rue Andr Pascal
F 75775 PARIS
BARRETT, I.M.
Consultant
THE MARINE TECHNOLOGY DIRECTORATE
2 Little Smith Street
UK LONDON SWIP 3DH
BARROUX, C.
Engineer
TOTAL C.F.P. BEAUPLAN RESEARCH
CENTER
route de Versailles
Domaine de Beauplan
F 78470 ST.REMYLESCHEVREUSE
Ingnieur
BLOHM & VOSS AG
Abteilung SPF
Postfach 10 07 20
D 2000 HAMBURG 1
BAUDEMENT, M . A .
R & D Engineer
EMH
196, Bureaux de la Colline
F 92213 ST. CLOUD Cedex
BAUDRY, A.
Manager R & D
SYMINEX S.A.
2, boulevard de l'Ocan
F 13275 MARSEILLE Cedex 9
BAXTER, C F .
ADVANCED PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY LTD.
Unit 10, Rainbow Industrial Estate
Trout Road, Ylewesley
UK WEST DRAYTON, MIDDLESEX UB7 7XT
 1029

BEHLE, . BILGERI, D.
Geophysicist AGIF SpA
UNIVERSITT HAMBURG Exploration and Production
Geophyslks Institut Geophysical Research and Development
Bundesstrae 55 PO Box 12069
D 2000 HAMBURG 13 I 20097 S. DONATO MILANESE (MI)

BELLAMY, G.
VicePrsident BJERRUM, A.
COMEX SERVICES Petroleum Engineer
36, boulevard des Ocans COWICONSULT
F 13275 MARSEILLE Cedex 9 Teknikerbyen 45
DK 2830 VIRUM
BELLEC, G.
Directeur des Hydrocarbures
MINISTRE DE L'INDUSTRIE DES & BLONDIN, E.
ET DU TOURISME Conseiller scientifique
35, rue Barbet de Jouy GAZ DE FRANCE
F 75341 PARIS Cedex 07 Dept rservoirs / Souterrains DETN
361, avenue du Prsident Wilson
.P. 33
BELLON DE CHASSY, Ch. F 93211 LA PLAINE ST. DENIS
Executive Manager
ORCAL OFFSHORE
28, rue Louis le Grand
F 75002 PARIS BLU, G.
Deputy Chairman
BENZAQUEN, M. GERTH
Vice President 4, avenue de Bois Prau
REPSOL EXPLORACIN S.A. F 92502 RUEIL MALMAISON
Pez Volador, 2
E 28007 MADRID
BODIN, R.
Directeur
BERG, O.M. SOFRESIO
Head of Strategy Branch 59, rue de la Rpublique
NORWEGIAN PETROLEUM DIRECTORATE F 93100 MONTREUIL
Safety & Working Environment Div.
PO Box 600
4001 STAVANGER
BOERSMA, D.
BERTRAND, . Junior Scientist
Ingnieur UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY DELFT
INSTITUT FRANCAIS DU PETROLE 120, Myn Bouw Straat
.P. 311 NL 2628 RX DELFT
F 92506 RUEILMALMAISON Cedex

BEZARD, C.
Oil Industry Dept Manager
NEYRTEC
2, avenue du Gnral de Gaulle
F 38800 LE PONT DE CLAIX
BOIARDI, B.
AGIP SpA
Exploration and Production
Geophysical Research and Development
PO Box 12069
I 20097 S. DONATO MILANESE (MI)
1030

BOMHARD, H. BRANDI, R.
Direktor R & D Technik Engineering Manager
DYCKERHOFF & WIDMANN AG TECNOMARE SpA
Erdingerlandstrae 1 San Marco 2091
D 8000 MNCHEN 81 I 30124 VENEZIA

BOON FALLEUR, C.
Ingnieur Directeur BREWERTON, R.
ACKERMANN & VAN HAAREN .V. Engineering Manager
113, Begijnenvest THE FLOATING TECHNOLOGY CO LTD.
B 2000 ANTWERPEN Greenford House
309 Ruislip Road East
UK GREENFORD, MIDDLESEX UB6 9BQ
BONNET, Ph.
GULF PUBLISHING COMPANY OF HOUSTON
65, rue de la Fdration BRONDEL, G.
F 75015 PARIS Consultant
85, boulevard du Gnral Knig
F 92200 NEUILLY s/SEINE
BORMIOLI, L.
Design & Engineering Manager
M.I.B. ITALIA Spa BRONKHORST, J.W.
6, Via Garibaldi Commission of the European
I 35020 CASALSERUGO (PD) Communities
DirectorateGeneral 'Energy'
200, rue de la Loi
BOY DE LA TOUR, X. B 1049 BRUXELLES
Directeur de la Direction "tudes &
Documentation"
INSTITUT FRANCAIS DU PETROLE
14, avenue de BoisPrau BRUINING, J.
F 92506 RUEILMALMAISON Scientist
FACULTY OF MINING AND PETROLEUM
ENGINEERING
BOZZO, G.M. DELFT UNIVSIISITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Engineer Mijnbouw Straat 120
TECNOMARE SpA NL 2628 RX DELFT
San Marco 2091
I 30124 VENICE

BRUSCHI, R.
BOZZOLATO, G. R & D Project Manager
AGIP SpA SNAMPROGETI SpA
Offs/Fogi PO Box 97
PO Box 12 069 I 61032 FANO (PS)
I 20120 MILANO

BUTT, H.G.
BRAIT, M. Dipl.Ing.
R & D Coordinator BILFINGER & BERGER BAU AG
SNAM SpA Offshore Division
Piazza Vanonl 1 Kanalstrae 44
I 20097 S. DONATO MILANESE (MI) D 2000 HAMBURG 76
 1031

CABRITA, I. CAUSIN, E.
Head of Dept E.O.R. Sr Engineer
NATIONAL LABORATORY FOR RESEARCH AGIP SpA / LACH
Depc de Energias Convencionais PO Box 12069
Azinhaga dos Lameiros ( Estrada do I 20120 MILANO
Fao do Lumiar)
1699 LISBOA Codex
CEES BAL, M.
Managing Director
CADILLAC, H. H. ROSEN ENGINEERING BV
Geologist NL ZOETERMEER
TOTAL CEP
24, Tours Richelet
F 92069 PARIS Cedex
CHAMPLON, D.
INSTITUT FRANCAIS DU PTROLE
CALVARESE, L. Direction, tudes et Documentation
Ingegnere .P. 311
MINISTERO DELL'INDUSTRIA F 92506 RUEILMALMAISON
Ufficio Nazionale Minerario per gli
Idrocarburi e la Geotermia Div. V
via Molise 2 CHAPERON, G.
I 00187 ROMA Technical Service Vice President
C0FLEXIP
CAMPELLI, P. 23, avenue de Neuilly
Engineer F 75116 PARIS
AGIP SpA TEIN
PO Box 12069
I 20120 MILANO CHASSEROT, .
Administration Manager
G00DFELL0W ASSOCIATES LTD
CANNAVACCIUOLO, A. 71 Eccleston Square
Naval Architecture UK LONDON SW1V 1PJ
TECNOMARE SpA
San Marco 2091
I 30124 VENEZIA
CHIERICI, G.L.
Chairman, R & D Committee
CARISSIMO, L. AGIP S.p..
Managing Director PO Box 12069 .
SERGE0 s.r.l. I 20120 MILANO
Viale Mentana 142
I 43100 PARMA
CHRISTIANE, S.
Commission of the European
CARR, J. Communities
GEP ASTO DirectorateGeneral 'Energy'
15, rue Beaujon 200, rue de la Loi
F 75008 PARIS 1049 BRUXELLES

CASTELA, . CLAUDE, J.
Directeur de Recherche Head of Development
INSTITUT FRANCAIS DU PTROLE SN TECHNIGAZ
B.P. 311 PO
F 92500 RUEILMALMAISON Cedex F 78884 ST. QUENTIN YVELINES Cedex
1032

COBBETT, J. COUDERT, J.F

Consultant PrsidentDirecteur Gnral
GAFFNEY, CLINE & ASSOCIATES PRINCIPIA RECHERCHE DEVELOPPEMENT
Bentley Hall, Black West Place Sophie Laffitte
UK ALTON, HANTS. GU34 4PU Sophia Antipolis
.P. 22
F 06561 VALBONNE
COLAMASI, C.
Sr. VP Production
AGIP SpA COURJAULT, J.
PO Box 12069 COMPAGNIE GENERALE DE GEOPHYSIQUE
I 20120 MILANO 1, rue Lon Migaux
F 91341 MASSY Cedex

COLOMBO, A.
R & D Engineer COWLING, M.J.
SNAM S.p.A. Director
Piazza Vanonl, 1 GLASGOW UNIVERSITY
I 20097 S. DONATO MILANESE (MI) Glasgow Marine Technology Centre
UK GLASGOW G12 8QQ

COOPER, B. D'ALI, G.
Biologist Reservoir Engineer
BASF AG / ZHB/C A30 AGIP S.p.A.
D 6700 LUDWIGSHAFEN AGIP / GISD
I 20097 S. DONATO MILANESE (MI)

COOPER, V.
Business Development Manager DALL'AGLIO, D.
AKER ENGINEERING LTD. Chief Executive Officer's Assistant
Egginton House ENI SAIPEM
2528 Buckingham Gate P.O. Box 12072
UK LONDON SW1E 6LD I 20120 MILANO

CORNO, C. DAMINELLI, G.
Researcher INDUSTRIE PIRELLI SpA
ENIRICERCHE Viale Sarca 222
Via Maritano, 26 I 20126 MILANO
I 20097 S. DONATO MILANESE (MI)

DAMSEAUX, J.F.
Vice Prsident
CORTEVILLE, J. FINA EXPLORATION NORWAY
Ingnieur PO Box 4055 Tasta
INSTITUT FRANCAIS DU PETROLE Skogststraen 37
14, avenue de BoisPrau 4004 STAVANGER
F 92506 RUEILMALMAISON

D'ANCONA J.E.
COUDERC, B. Government Servant
Engineer UK Dept of Energy
ELF AQUITAINE The Offshore Supplies Office
C.S.T.C.S. Alhambra House
Avenue Laribau 45 Water Loo Street
F 64018 PAU UK GLASGOW G2 6AS
 1033

DANON, L. DELACOUR, J.
Adjointe du Chef de Service Ingenieur
ExplorationProduction INSTITUT FRANCAIS DU PETROLE
Direction des Hydrocarbures B.P. 311
5, rue Barbet de Jouy F 92506 RUEILMALMAISON
F - 75007 PARIS

DARDE, B. DELAUZE, H.G.

TOTAL COMPAGNIE FRANAISE DES Prsident
PETROLES COMEX SERVICES
Tour Total 36, boulevard des Ocans
Cedex 47 F 13275 MARSEILLE Cedex 9
F 92069 PARIS LA DEFENSE

DEAN, T. DELVAUX, J.
TEXACO ELF AQUITAINE
195 Knightsbrldge SNEA (P) C.S.T.C.S.
UK LONDON SW7 1RU Avenue Larribau
B.P.
F 64018 PAU Cedex
DE BAUW, R.
Commission of the European
Communities
Directorate General 'Energy' DENISE, J.P.
200, rue de la Lol FOSTER WHEELER PETROLEUM DEVELOPMENT
1049 BRUXELLES LTD
Foster Wheeler House
Station Road
DE GUZMAN, J.P. Reading
Managing Director UK BERKSHIRE RG1 1LX
INIDERMOTT S.A.
179C, avenue Brasil
E 28020 MADRID DEPREZ, M.
Ministre des affaires conomiques
DE HAAN, H.J. Administration de l'nergie
Professor Service ptrole
FACULTY OF MINING AND PETROLEUM 30, rue J.A. de Mot
ENGINEERING 1040 BRUXELLES
DELFT UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Mijnbouw Straat 120
NL 2628 RX DELFT
DEROUANE, E.G.J.
Professeur
DE RADD, J.. Facults Universitaires N.D. de la
R.T.D. Paix
Delftweg 144 61, rue de Bruxelles
PO Box 10065 5000 NAMUR
NL 3400 AB ROTTERDAM

DEUTSCH, J.
De VISMES, B. Assistant Manager
Administrative & Financial Manager ELF AQUITAINE
GERTH Tour Elf b 38G92
4, avenue de Bois Prau Cedex 45
F 92502 RUEIL MALMAISON F 92078 PARIS LA DEFENSE
1034

DEYSSON, J.Y. DURIX, Ph.

Direction Thermodynamique Dlgu gnerai du CEP & M
SOCIT BERTIN & CIE COMITE D'TUDES PTROLIRES ET
.P. 3 MARINES
F 78373 PLAISIR Cedex 101, Terrasse Boieldieu Tour
Franklin
F 92081 PARIS LA DEFENSE
DIALUCE, 6.
MINISTERO DELL'INDUSTRIA
Ufficio Nazionale Minerario per gli EBELING, H.
Idrocarburi e la Geotermia Div. V Dipl.Ing.
via Molise 2 SALZGITTER AG
I 00187 ROMA Postfach 15 06 27
D 1000 BERLIN 15

DILLEN, M.
Commission of the European EERING, J.Th.
Communities Manager
DirectorateGeneral 'Employment, RONTGEN TECHNISCHE DIENST B.V.
Social Affairs and Education' P.O. Box 10065
L 2920 LUXEMBOURG NL 3004 AB ROTTERDAM

DIMONT, B. EICHNER, C.R.

President Dipl.Ing.
ASTEO DEMINEX (Deutsche
15, rue Beaujour ErdSlvereorgungsgesllschaft mbH)
F 75008 PARIS Postfach 10 09 44
D 4300 ESSEN 1

DONCHE, . EIMERMANN, G.P.C.M.

ELF AQUITAINE Civil Engineer
26bis, avenue des Lilas OIL & GAS PROJECT CONSULTANTS
F 64018 PAU Duindoorn 30
Postbus 1220
NL 2262 AR LEIDSCHENDAM
DONAT, G.
Assistant du VicePrsident
GAZ DE FRANCE EISUM, N.H.
Courcellor 2 WATER QUALITY INSTITUTE
33, rue d'Alsace Forskerparken, Gustav Wiedsvej 10
F 92531 LEVALLOIS PERRET DK 8000 AARHUS C

DREVON, C. ENGELHARDT, F.
Consultant Chemist
ARTHUR YOUNG CASSELLA AG
Steners GT 10 Hanauerlandstrae 526
0184 OSLO 1 D 6000 FRANKFURT/MAIN 61

DUFOND, R. ENGELMANN, E.
Directeur, R & D and Industrial TOTAL COMPAGNIE FRANAISE DES
Relations PTROLES
ELF AQUITAINE Tour Total
Tour Elf Cedex 45 Cedex 47
F 92078 PARIS LA DEFENSE F 92069 PARIS LA DEFENSE
 1035

EVGENIOS, 0. FEY, J.M.

Chemist
PUBLIC PETROLEUM CORPORATION OF
GREECE DEPEKY SA
199, Kifisslas avenue
GR 151 24 MAROUSSI, ATHENS
FALCIMAIGNE, J.
Engineer
INSTITUT FRANCAIS DU PETROLE
.P. 311
F 92506 RUEILMALMAISON Cedex
Chef du service Technique
COMPAGNIE GENERALE POUR LE GAZ S.A.
137, rue de Luxembourg
L 4221 ESCH/ALZETTE
FISCHER, L.P.
Naval Architect
US NAVY
Scientific & Technical Group Europe
KeplerstraOe 15
D 8000 MNCHEN 80

FOKIANOV. Th.
FALCONER, H.D. Geologist
Business Development Manager MINISTRY OF INDUSTRY, ENERGY &
HARWELL LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY
Offshore Technology Centre 80, Michalakopoulov Str.
Building 329 GR 101 92 ATHENS
UK OXON 0X11 ORA

FOUAD NAGUIB, M.
Petroleum Engineer
FARABOLINI, W. MINISTRY OF OIL KUWAIT GOVERNMENT
COMPAGNIE GENERALE DE GEOPHYSIQUE KUWAIT
1, rue Lon Migaux
F 91341 MASSY Cedex FOX, C.F.
Journalist
OFFSHORE ENGINEER MAGAZINE
FAVRE, J. Thomas Telford House
Directeur Gnral adj. 1 Heron Quay
INSTITUT FRANCAIS DU PTROLE UK LONDON E 14 9XF
14, avenue de Bois Prau
B.P. 311
F 92506 RUEILMALMAISON FREDERIK, .
Chief Representative for Europe
PERTAMINA
FERNANDES, A.A.M. The Indonesian State Oil & Natural
Engineer Gas Mining Enterprise
PARTEX 29 Queen Anne's Gate
Companhia Portuguesa de Servios UK LONDON SW1H 9BU
Avenida 5 de Outubro, 1601
1000 LISBON FREITAS, A.
Project Manager
THYSSEN NORDSEEWERKE GmbH
FERNANDEZ ARRIBAS, J.R. P.O. Box 23 51
Instituto Nacional de Hidrocarburos D 2970 EMDEN
C/o REPSOL EXPLORACIN
C/Pez Volador, 2
E 28007 MADRID FRIAS, M.
Commission of the European
Communities
FERRARI, D. DirectorateGeneral 'Science,
SNAM SpA Research and Development
Piazza Vanoni 1 200, rue de la Loi
I 20097 S.DONATO MILANESE (MI) 1049 BRUXELLES
1036

FRIEDRICH, J. GEBHARDT, .
Engineer BASF AG
GERMANISCHER LLOYD A 30 530 ZHB/F
Hauptverwaltung D 6700 LUDWIGSHAFEN
Postfach 11 16 06
D 2000 HAMBURG 11
GEHRINGER, .
Dipl.Ing.
FRYKMAN, P. MAN TECHNOLOGIE GmbH
Geologist Abt. TV/V6
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF DENMARK Postfach 50 04 26
Thoravej 8 D 8000 MNCHEN 50
DK 2400 COPENHAGEN NV

GALKA, R. GEORGOULAS, C.
Research Engineer Operations Research Analyst
BHRA, THE FLUID ENGINEERING CENTRE PUBLIC PETROLEUM CORPORATION OF
Cranfield GREECE DEPEKY SA
UK BEDS, MK43 OAJ 199, Klfleslas avenue
GR 151 24 MAROUSSI, ATHENS

GANZ, H.
Technische Universitt Berlin GHILARDI, J.P.
Ackerstrae 7176 EMH
D 1000 BERLIN 65 196, bureaux de la Colline
F 92213 ST. CLOUD

GARCIASINERIZ, B.
Managing director GHILARDOTTI, G.
REPSOL EXPLORACIN S.A. Prof.
C/ Pez Volador, 2 AGIP SpA
E 28007 MADRID Viale Europa 38/44
I 20093 COLOGNO MONZESE

GASPARINI, M.
Production, Research & Development
AGIP SpA GLAS, K.
Piazza Vanoni, 2 Chief Editor
I 20097 S. DONATO MILANESE (MI) OTS INTERNATIONAL
5, Grotekerksplein
NL 3311 CC DORDRECHT
GATOUILLAT, D.
Area Sales Manager
FMC EUROPE S.A. G0EDE, A.
Z.I. des Vauguillettes DESDEC NEDDRILL NEDERLAND B.V.
route des Clrimois PO Box 115
F 89013 SENS Cedex NL 3370 AC HARDINXVELDGIESSENDAM

GAZELANTHOINE, G.
Manager
PLATEFORMES ET STRUCTURES OCANIQUES
116bis, avenue Albert 1er
F 92500 RUEIL MALMAISON
GOODFELLOW, R.
Managing Director
GOODFELLOW ASSOCIATES LTD
71 Eccleston Square
UK LONDON SW1V 1PJ
 1037

GORTAN, C. GUTIERREZ ESCUDERO, G.

Hyperbaric Experimental Center Director of Representation towards
Manager EEC
COMEX SERVICES REPSOL S.A.
36, boulevard des Oceans 38, avenue dee Arts, Bote 2
F 13275 MARSEILLE Cedex 9 1040 BRUXELLES

GRANCHER, F. HAJIYA, J.G.

Manager Research & Development Engineer
ELF AQUITAINE MINISTRY OF OIL
Tour Elf PO Box 5077
Cedex 45 KUWAIT SAFAT
F 92078 PARIS LA DEFENSE

HALL, C.
Head
GRANDVAUX, . Rock & Fluid Physics Dept
Directeur SCHLUMBERGER CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH
IFREMER PO Box 153
Centre de Toulon, Zone Portuaire de UK CAMBRIDGE CB3 OHG
Brgaillon
.P. 330 HARBONN, J.
F 83507 LA SEYNE SUR MER Cedex TOTAL COMPAGNIE FRANAISE DES
PTROLES
5, rue Michel Ange
GRAVELLE, P. F 75781 PARIS Cedex 16
Directeur adj.
INSTITUT DE RECHERCHE SUR LA
CATALYSE, CNRS PIRSEM HARBONN, M.
2, rue Albert Einstein Assistant
F 69626 VILLEURBANNE GERTH
4, avenue de Bois Prau
F 92502 RUEIL MALMAISON
GRIBAA, R.
Directeur des Etudes et du
Dveloppement HEGNER, J.F.
SITEP Geologist
92, rue de Palestine DANISH PETROLEUM EXPLORATION
1002 TUNIS CONSULTANTS (Danpec Aps.)
Sydvestvej 125A
DK 2600 GLOSTRUP

GRIBAT, R. HELLE, W.
AGIP AFRIQUE Leiter der Kabelfabrik II
87, avenue Daieb Mehlri NORDDEUTSCHE SEEKABELWERKE AG
B.P. 473 Postfach 80
TUNIS KabelstraQe
D 2890 NORDENHAM

GROUSET, D.
Ingnieur HIND, B.J.
Socit BERTIN & Cie Director
Z.I. des Gtines J. MARR LTD
B.P. 3 St. Andrew's Dock
F 78373 PLAISIR Cedex UK HULL, NORTH HUMBERSIDE HU3 4PN
1038

HINSTRUP, P.I. HUYNEN, W.

Head, Offshore DepC Government Official
DANISH HYURAULIC INSTITUTE Ministry of Economic Affairs
Agern Alle 5 Mining Dept
DK 2970 HORSHOLM PO Box 20101
NL 2500 EC 'sGRAVENHAGE

HOLDSWORTH, R.
EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT OFFICIAL
Comit , on Energy, Research and HYSKY, J.
Technology Entwicklungsingenieur
L 2929 LUXEMBOURG NEPTUN PAGOFLEX
PO Box 330166
D 4000 DUSSELDORF
HOLEKAMP, R.
Dipl.Ing.
SALZGITTER AG
Postfach 41 11 29 IMARISIO, G.
D 3320 SALZGITTER 41 Commission of the European
Communities
DirectorateGeneral 'Science,
HOVING, K. Research and Development
Chemical Engineer 200, rue de la Loi
N.V. NEDERLANDSE GASUNIE B 1049 BRUXELLES
Laan Corpus Den Hoorn 102
PO Box 19
NL 9700 MA GRONINGEN
IWAMA, S.
General Dlcector of Paris Office
HUARD, G. JAPAN NATIONAL OIL CORPORATION
Vice President 48, rue St. Anne
BOUYGUES OFFSHORE F 75001 PARIS
F 78884 ST. QUENTIN YVLINES Cedex

HUBBARD, T. JACOBSEN, A.
Sr Geophyslcist Chemical Engineer
BRITOIL PLC HALDOR TOPSE A/S
301 St. Vincent Street Nymllevej 55
UK GLASGOW G2 5DD DK 2800 LYNGBY

HUBER, K.
Dipl.Ing. JENSEN, B.J.
OMV AG Head of Section
GerasdorferstraOe 151 MINISTRY OF ENERGY
Postfach 200 Slotsholmgade 1
A 1211 WIEN DK 1216 COPENHAGEN K

HUGHES, C. JORDAN, P.
Research Geochemiet Managing Director
UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD THE FLOATING TECHNOLOGY CO LTD.
Dept of Geology Greenford House
Beaumont Building 309 Ruislip Road East
UK BROOKHILL, SHEFFIELD S3 7HF UK GREENFORD, MIDDLESEX UB6 9BQ
 1039

JOUBERT, Ph. KEMSLEY, T.J.

INSTITUT FRANCAIS DO PETROLE SHEERWEY TECHNOLOGY GROUP LTD
4, avenue du Bois Prau Kings Court
F 92502 RUEILMALMAISON Church Street East
UK WOKING, SURREY GU21 1HA

JOULIA, J.P.
Commission of the European
Communities
DirectorateGeneral 'Energy'
200, rue de la Loi
1049 BRUXELLES
KENZAOUI, H.
Directeur de Production
Office National de Recherches et
d'Exploitation Ptrolires
17, avenue Michlifen
RABAT (MAROC)

KAPNIST0S, M.
Geophysicist KERMABON, A.J.
PUBLIC PETROLEUM CORPORATION OF President
GREECE SYMINEX S.A.
Kifiseias Avenue 199 2, boulevard de l'Ocan
GR 15124 MAROUSSI, ATHENS F 13275 MARSEILLE Cedex 9

KARGE, V.
Head of Development Dept
J.H. BORNEMANN GmbH & Co KG
PO Box 1180
D 3063 OBERNKIRCHEN
KESSEL, D.
Director
Institute for Petroleum Research
WaltherNernstStrae 7
D 3392 CLAUSTHALZELLERFELD

KARMANN, R. KIEBERT, J.
President Scientific Editor
METRONIX ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS b..
Petzvalstrae 36a P.O. Box 330
D 3300 BRAUNSCHWEIG NL 1000 AH AMSTERDAM

KAROUI, . KIRCHHOFF, W.
Directeur Gnral Projektbegleiter
COMPAGNIE FRANCO TUNISIENNE DE GKSSForschungezentrum
PTROLE (CFTP) MaxPlanckS trafle
116, avenue de la Libert D 2054 GEESTHACHT
TN TUNIS

KASPER, R. KIRKEGAARD, J.
General Manager General manager
SALZGITTER AG DANISH OFFSHORE LABORATORIES
Postfach 15 06 27 Agern Alles
D 1000 BERLIN 15 DK 2970 HRSHOLM

KAUFER, M. KNIEWSKE, R.
WOLFF WALSDRODE AG WOLFF WALSRODE AG
Postfach Postfach
D 3030 WALSRODE 1 D 3030 WALSRODE 1
1040

KNUTZEN, 0. KOUWENHOVEN, P.A.

Marketing Manager Consultant
RIS NATIONAL LABORATORY SMITH RAE
PO Box 49 66 High Street, Hinxton
DK 4000 ROSKILDE Saffron Halden
UK ESSEX CB10 1QY

KOHLER, .
Sr Research engineer
INSTITUT FRANCAIS DU PETROLE
.P. 311
F 92506 RUEILMALMAISON Cedex
KRONBORG, Th.
Head of Division
DANISH ENERGY AGENCY
Landemaerket II
DK 1119 COPENHAGEN

KOHLER, .
Geophysicist LAGERS, G.H.G.
PRAKLA SESMOS AG Director
Buchholz Strae 100 DESDEC
Postfach 51 05 30 PO Box 115
D 3000 HANNOVER 51 NL 3370 AC HARDINXVELDGIESSENDAM

KOHRTZ, J.W. LAMAU, .

R & D Manager Deputy Research & Develop. Director
DANISH ENERGY AGENCY ELF AQUITAINE
Landemaerket 11 Tour Elf
DK 1119 COPENHAGEN Cedex 45
F 92078 PARIS LA DEFENSE

KOKKINOWRACHOS, K.
Professor
Technische Hochschule Aachen
Lehrgebiet Meerestechnik
Templergraben 55
D 5100 AACHEN
LARUE, J.
Project Manager
INSTITUT FRANCAIS DU PETROLE
14, avenue de Bois Prau
F 92500 RUEIL MALMAISON

KOLB, P. LAWRENCE, R.E.

ELF AQUITAINE Commercial Director
F 64018 PAU Cedex G00DFELL0W ASSOCIATES LTD
71 Eccleston Square
UK LONDON SW1V 1PJ
KOSTER, J.K.
DELFT UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Faculty of Mining and Petroleum LAWRENCE, S.R.
Engineering Sr. Geologist
PO Box 5028 EXPLORATION CONSULTANTS LTD
NL 2600 GA DELFT Highlands Farm, Greys Road
Henley on Thames
UK OXON
KOSUAS, G.
Dipl.Ing.
NORTH AEGEAN PETROLEUM COMPANY LEBLOND, D.
(NAPC) Journaliste
15210 Chalandri THE PETROLEUM ECONOMIST
PO Box 26 34, rue du Docteur Blanche
GR ATHENS F 75781 PARIS Cedex 16
 1041

LEBLOND, H. LOLLI, A.
Chairman R & D Director
GERTH SNAM S.p.A.
4, avenue de Bois Prau Piazza Vanoni 1
F 92502 RUEIL MALMAISON I 20097 S. DONATO MILANESE (MI)

LEBRETON, J.M.
Directeur Commercial LOWES, J.M.
E.M.H. Managing Director
196. Bureaux de la Colline BUE HYDRALOK LTD.
F 92213 ST. CLOUD Cedex Walney Road, BarrowinFurness
UK CUMBRIA LA14 5UX
LECOMTE, H.
COFLEXIP
B.P. 7
rue Jean Hur LYNGBERG, .S.
F 78580 LE TRAIS Structural & Marine Manager
MARSK OLIE & GAS A/ S
Rnnegade 2
LEDDC, B. DK 2100 COPENHAGEN 0
Universit Libre de Bruxelles
Institut de Mcanique
50, avenue F.D. Roosevelt MAINETTI, R.
B 1050 BRUXELLES c/o ENI
Piazzale Enrico Mattel
I 00144 ROMA
LEGRAS, J.L.
Engineer
.M
33, rue d'Alsace MAINGUETSUARES, Y.
F 92531 LEVALL0IS Engineer
E.R.A.P.
LE PAGE, J.F. Tour Elf, Bureau 43 II 44
DirecteurCoordinateur de Projets F 92078 PARIS LA DEFENSE Cedex 45
INSTITUT FRANCAIS DU PTROLE
B.P. 311
F 92506 RUEILMALMAISON Cedex MAKRIS, J.
Universitt Hamburg
Abt. Geophysik
LESSI, J. BundesstraOe 55
Research Engineer D 2000 HAMBURG 13
INSTITUT FRANCAIS DU PETROLE
B.P. 311
F 92506 RUEILMALMAISON
MALY, V.
LEVEQUE, P. Engineer
Communication Manager KFAPBE
PAUL LEVEQUE NOTORIETE Postfach 19 13
49bis, av. Franklin Roosevelt D 5170 JLICH
F 75008 PARIS

MANCA, B.
LINDER, F. Data Processing Centre Manager
Techn. Director OGS (Osservatorio Geofsico
SVENSKA PETROLEUM EXPLORATION Sperimentale Trieste
PO Box 30074 PO Box 2011
S 10425 STOCKHOLM I 34016 TRIESTE
1042

MANIATOPOULOS, C S . MAZZ0N
Director General TECNOMARE
Commission of the European San Marco 2091
Communities I 30124 VENEZIA
DirectorateGeneral 'Energy'
200, rue de la Loi
1049 BRUXELLES McDONALD, A.
Marketing Executive
NATIONAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY
East Kilbride
MANTHEY, D. UK GLASGOW G75 OQU
BRUKER MEERESTECHNIK GmbH
Wikingerstrae 13 McKAY, S.C.
Postfach 21 02 32 Government Servant
D 7500 KARLSRUHE UK Dept of Energy
The Offshore Supplies Office
Alhambra House
MARCHESI, E. 45 Waterloo Street
AEM MILANO UK GLASGOW G2 6AS
Corso d.pta Vittoria, 4
I MILANO
McNAMARA, J.F.
Company Director
MARIANI, E. MARINE COMPUTATION SERVICES
AGIP SpA INTERNATIONAL
Viale Europa 38/44 Science Park
I 20093 C0L0GN0 MONZESE Upper Newcastle
IRL GALWAY

MARSLAND, G. MEADOWS, E.
ZFHERIONSYSTEMTECHNIK GmbH Technical Manager
Postfach 21 68 HOULDER OFFSHORE Ltd
D 7012 FELLBACH 59 Lafone Street
UK LONDON SEI 2LX

MASSE, P. MEIJER, R.
Gologue Commission of the European
ELF AQUITAINE Communities
Centre Scientifique et Technique du DirectorateGeneral 'Energy'
Carni Salie 200, rue de la Loi
avenue Larribau B 1049 BRUXELLES
F 64018 PAU Cedex

MENENDEZ, R.
MATTIELLO, D. Engineer
Project Manager ELF AQUITAINE
SNAMPROGETTI SpA, ENI Tour Elf
PO Box 97 Cedex 45
I 61032 FANO (PS) F 92078 PARIS LA DEFENSE

MAY, H.
Prof, of Mechanical Engineering
UNIVERSITY OF KAISERSLAUTERN
Gottlieb Daimler StraOe
D 6750 KAISERSLAUTERN
MO, J.
Prsident du Conseil d'Admin.
INSTITUT FRANCAIS DU PETROLE
1 et 4, avenue de Bois Prau
F 92506 RUEIL MALMAISON
 1043

MERLINI, D. MORRIS, W.D.M.

TECNICO BP Shipping Ltd.
AEM MILANO Britannic House
7, Corso di Porta Vittoria Moor Lane
I MILANO UK LONDON EC2Y 9BR

MESSINES, J.P.
Engineer MOSAR, .
ELF AQUITAINE Member of the Commission
SNEA () CSTCS Commission of the European
F 64018 PAU Cedex Communities
200, rue de la Loi
1049 BRUXELLES
MEYN, V.
Dr.wies Mitarbeiter
Institut ftlr Erdlforschung MUNK NIELSEN, M.
WaltherNernetStrae 7 Head of Section
D 3392 CLAUSTHALZELLERFELD DANISH MINITRY OF ENERGY
Slotsholmsgade 1
DK 1216 KBENHAVN K
MICHON, D.
COMPAGNIE GENERALE DE GEOPHYSIQUE
1, rue Lon Mlgaux
F 91341 MASSY Cedex MUSAZZI, V.
Ingeniere
SNAM
MILLICH, E. Piazza Vanoni 2
Head, Oil Policy I S.DONATO MILANESE
Commission of the European
Communities
DirectorateGeneral 'Energy' MYRIANTHIS, M.L.
200, rue de la Loi Engineering Geologist
1049 BRUXELLES PUBLIC PETROLEUM CORPORATION OF
GREECE
Klfissias Av. 199
MIRANDO BOTELHO, C. GR 15124 MAR0USSI, ATHENS
Manager
COMPANHIA PORTUGUESA DE PIPELINES
rua do Acuar, 86
1900 LISBOA NICOLAY, D.
Commission of the European
Communities
M0LLARD, M. DirectorateGeneral
COFLEXIP S.A. Telecommunications, Information
.P. 7 Industries and Innovation
rue Jean Hur L 2920 LUXEMBOURG
F 76580 LE TRAIS

NICOLETIS, S.A.
MOREL, D. Research Geophyslcist
Research Engineer TOTAL COMPANIE FRANAISE DUS
INSTITUT FRANCAIS DU PETROLE PETROLES
.P. 311 TEP/DE/GPH
F 92506 RUEILMALMAISON Cedex F 92069 PARIS LA DEFENSE Cedex 47
1044

NINGLER, M. OTTESEN HANSEN, .E.

EC Consultane Civ.ing. Director
5, Terrasse des Reflets LICengineering A/S
F 92400 COURBEVOIE Vimmelskaftet 47
DK 1161 KBENHAVN

NISIO, P.
R & D Engineer OVIEVE, G.
COATING DEVELOPMENT R & D Manager
TECHNOPOLE FMC EUROPE S.A.
74, rue des Aciries route des Clrlmols
F 42000 SAINTETIENNE Z.I. des Vauguilettes
F 89100 SENS

NORTON, H.E.
Chief Executive OZANNE, P.
B.P. Exploration Coordinator of Research
B.P. pic IFREMER
Britannic House, Moor Lane 66, avenue D'Ina
UK LONDON EC2Y 9BU F 75116 PARIS

O B R O , H.
Reservoir engineer OZON, P.
DANSK OLIEOG GASPRODUKTION A/S Engineer
Slotsmarken 16 ELF AQUITAINE
DK 2970 HRSHOLM Boussene
F 31360 SAINT MARTORY

OBST, W.
Commission of the European PACSIRSZKY, J.
Communities Engineer
Directorate General 'Employment, INSTITUT FRANCAIS DU PETROLE
Social Affairs and Education' B.P. 311
L 2920 LUXEMBOURG F 92506 RUEILMALMAISON Cedex

O'DEO, J.
EOLAS THE IRISH SCIENCE & PALMGREN, C.T.S.
TECHNOLOGY AGENCY Reservoir Engineer
Glasnevin FACULTY OF MINING AND PETROLEUM
IRL DUBLIN 9 ENGINEERING
DELFT UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Mijnbouw Straat 120
O'LOUGHLIN, S. NL 2628 RX DELFT
Consultant
CERES
Price Waterhouee PAPATHANASSOPOULOS,
60, rue Ravenstein Chemical Engineer
B 1000 BRUXELLES 341, Messoglon Av.
GR 15231 ATHENS

OLSEN, K.B.
Head of Offshore Dept PARTRIDGE, D.J.
RAMBLL & HANEMANN CONSULTING SLINGSBY ENGINEERING LTD.
ENGINEERS AND PLANNERS kl S Inge Lane
Teknikerbyen 38 Kirby Moorside
DK 2830 VIRUM UK NORTH YORKSHIRE Y06 6EZ
 1045

PASQUIER, J. PERZBORN, V.
Commission of the European Head of R & D
Communities NEPTUN PAGCFLEX
DirectorateGeneral 'Energy' PO Box 33 Ol 66
200, rue de la Loi D 4000 DUSSELDORF
1049 BRUXELLES

PETERNEL, A.
PEARCE, R.G. PETROL LJUBLJANA
DELFT UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY Titova 66
Faculty of Mining and Petroleum JU 61000 LJUBLJANA
Engineering
PO Box 5028
NL 2600 GA DELFT
PETIT, .
Engineer
PEARDON, L. INSTITUT FRANCAIS DU PETROLE
Senior Technical Engineer .P. 311
SIC F 92506 RUEILMALMAISON Cedex
Chester Hall Lane
Basildon
UK ESSEX PINAMONTI, C.
Corso Salvemini, 41
PEJTERSEN, V.S. I 10137 TORINO
RIS NATIONAL LABORATORY
PO Box 49
DK 4000 ROSKILDE PINKSTER, J.A.
Head Ocean Engineering Dept
MARITIME RESEARCH
PENA, J.L. INSTITUTENETHERLANDS (MARIN)
Gophy8lc8t 2 Haagsteeg
Sociedad de Hidrcarburos de Euskadi PO Box 28
Edificio Albia I NL 6700 AA WAGENINGEN
C/San Vicente 8
E 48001 BILBAO

PINTO, A.D.
PEREZ MANZANERA, L. Manager Exploration and Production
REPSOL EXPLORACIN Division
Head R & D Dept PARTEX Companhia Portuguesa de
Pez Volador, 2 Servios S.A.
E 28007 MADRID Ave 5 de Outubro, 160
1000 LISBOA

PERRONE, .
EC Consultant PLAPPERT, A.
SILMAR Sri Civil Engineer
Via Sistina 123 Ed. ZUBLIN AG
I 00187 ROMA Postfach 80 11 16
D 7000 STUTTGART 80

PERSOGLIA, S.
Seismic Dept Manager
OGS (Osservatorio Geofsico PLATONE, E.
Sperimentale Trieste Researcher
PO Box 2011 ENIRICERCHE
I 34016 TRIESTE Via Maritano 26
I 20097 S. DONATO MILANESE (MI)
1046

POOS, . REDERON, Ch.

Commission of the European TOTAL COMPAGNIE FRANAISE DES
Communities PTROLES
DirectorateGeneral Personnel and 5, rue Michel Ange
Administration F 75781 PARIS Cedex 16
L 2920 LUXEMBOURG

REFFSTRUP, J.
POTTIER, J. TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF DENMARK
Charg de Mission PO Box 49
GAZ DE FRANCE / DETN DK 4000 ROSKILDE
Courcellor 2
33, rue d'Alsace
F 92531 LEVALLOISPERRET
REYGRANGE,
POULAIN, D. SEANET INTERNATIONAL
COMIT D'TUDES PTROLIRES ET 61, rue de la Garenne
MARINES F 92310 SEVRES
101, Terrasse Boieldieu
Tour Franklin
F 92081 PARIS LA DEFENSE RIBOUT, M.
ELF AQUITAINE
Tour Elf
PUTZ, A. Cedex 45
Chef de Service F 92045 PARIS LA DEFENSE
ELF AQUITAINE
CST CS, SNEAP
Avenue Larribau ROBIN,
F 64018 PAU Cedex INSTITUT FRANCAIS DU PTROLE
4, avenue du Bois Prau
F 92502 RUEILMALMAISON
RAMOS, J.L.
Manager
REPSOL EXPLORACIN S.A.
C/Pez Volador, 2 ROBINSON, G.
E 28007 MADRID Consultant
SMITH REA ENERGY ASSOCIATES LTD
RASMUSEN, H.J. EC Consultant to DG XVII
President 3 Beer Cart Lane
DANSK OLIEOG NATURGAS A/S UK CANTERBURY, KENT CTI 2NJ
Slotsmarken 16
DK 2970 HRSHOLM
ROESSIG, J.H.
Civil Engineer
RASMUSSEN, M. Ed. ZUBLIN AG
NATIONAL AGENCY OF INDUSTRY & TRADE Postfach 80 11 16
Tagensvej 135 D 7000 STUTTGART 80
DK 2200 COPENHAGEN

RAU, U.
Chemist ROMAGNOLI, R.
TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF BRAUNSCHWEIG Dr.Ing.
Institute of Biotechnology and POLITECNICO DI TORINO
Biochemistry Dip. Georisorse e Territorio
BUltenweg 17 Corso Duca Abruzzi 24
D 3300 BRAUNSCHWEIG I 10129 TORINO

ROSEN, H.
Managing Director
H. ROSEN ENGINEERING GmbH
Windmtihlenberg 10
D 4450 LINGEN 1
ROSSI, E.
EOR Sr Engineer
AGIP SpA Dept LACH
PO Box 12069
I 20120 MILANO
RULLENS, W.
Government Official
Ministry of Economic Affairs
Directorate General for Energy
Bezuidenhoutseweg 30
PO Box 20101
NL 2500 EC THE HAGUE
RUPP, M.
VEBA OEL AG
Abt. 253
AlexandervonHumboldtStrae
D 4650 GELSENKIRCHEN
SADARE, R.A.
Petroleum Geologist
OPEC
Obere Donaustrae 93
A 1020 WIEN
SALA, C.
Engineer
AGIP SpA
AGIP TEIN
PO Box 12069
I 20120 MILANO
SAMOUILIDIS, I.S.
Conseilleur
Representation permanente de la
Grece auprs des Communauts
europennes
71, avenue de Cortenberg
B 1040 BRUXELLES
SANDER, A.
Engineer
BLOHM & VOSS AG
Abt. SP F
Postfach 10 07 20
D 2000 HAMBURG 1
1047
SANTESTEBANRUIZ, M.P.
MINISTERIO DE INDUSTRIA Y ENERGIA
Servicio de Hidrocarburos
Direccin General de la Energia
Paseo de la Castellana 160
Planta 6
E 28071 MADRID
SASANOW, S.
Journalist
SUBSEA ENGINEERING NEWS
PO Box 213
UK SWINDON SN6 8UA
SCHAFSTALL, H.G.
Director of the Institute of
Technical Installations
GKSSFORSCHUNGSZENTRUM GEESTACHT
GmbH
PO Box 1160
D 2054 GEESTHACHT
SCHEPMAN, G.J.
DESDEC MARINE STRUCTURE
CONSULTANTS (MSC) B.V.
PO Box 115
NL 3370 AC HARDINXVELDGIESSENDAM
SCHMIDT, G.C.
Geologist
EC CONSULTANT
Neckarstrae 44
D 4300 ESSEN 18
SCHMIDT, U.
Dipl.Ing.
KAVERNEN B AU UND BETRIEBSGmbH
Roscheretrae 7
D 3000 HANNOVER 1
SCHONEBECK, J.
Dipl.Ing.
Institut ftlr Tiefbohrtechnik, Erdl
und Erdgasgewinnung
Abt. Lagerstttentechnik
Agrlcolastrae 10
D 3392 CLAUSTHALZELLERFELD
SCHOONMADE, W.
R&D
HEEREMA ENGINEERING SERVICE B.V.
PO Box 9321
NL 2300 PH LEIDEN
tu*
J
1048

SCHRANZ, C. SHARP, D.E.

Sr Engineer
TOTAL COMPAGNIE FRANAISE DES
PETROLES
Tour Total- Cedex 47
F - 92069 PARIS LA DEFENSE
Civil Engineer
BP INTERNATIONAL LTD
Britannic House, Moor Lane
UK - LONDON EC2Y 9BU

SIEPMANN, G.
SCHULTHEISS, G.F. Director
Direktor Bundesministerium flir Wirtschaft
Institut fUr Anlagetechnik Villemomblerstrae 76
GKSS-Forschungszentrum Geesthacht D - 5300 BONN
Max-Planck-Strae
Postfach 11 60 SIERRA FERNANDEZ, D.
D - 2054 GEESTHACHT Presidente
DRILLMAR S.A.
Alcal 95
SCHULZE-GATTERMANN, R. E - 28009 MADRID
PRAKLA-SEISMOS AG
Buchholz Strae 100
Postfach 51 05 30 SCHMIDT, G.C.
D - 3000 HANNOVER 51 Geologist
EC CONSULTANT
Neckaretrae 44
D - 4300 ESSEN 18
SCEMAMA, P.
Chairman
CHALLENGER SPECIAL OIL SERVICES SCHMIDT, U.
49bis, avenue Franklin Roosevelt Dipl.-Ing.
F - 75008 PARIS KAVERNEN BAU- UND BETRIEBS-GmbH
Roscherstrae 7
D - 3000 HANNOVER 1
SCL0CCHI, G.
Production Division Laboratories SCHNEBECK, J.
Manager Dipl.-Ing.
AGIP S.p.A. Institut fr Tiefbohrtechnik, Erdl-
LABS - PO Box 12069 und Erdgasgewinnung
I - 20120 MILANO Abt. Lagerstttentechnik
Agricolastrae 10
D - 3392 CLAUSTHAL-ZELLERFELD
SEMPRICH, S.
Dipl.-Ing.
BILFINGER & BERGER BAU AG
Carl-Rei-Platz 1-5 SCHOONMADE, W.
D - 6800 MANNHEIM 1 R&D
HEEREMA ENGINEERING SERVICE B.V.
PO Box 9321
SENNI BURATTI, S. NL - 2300 PH LEIDEN
Project Manager
SNAMPR0GETTI
I - 20120 S.DONATO MILANESE (MI) SCHRANZ, C.
Sr Engineer
TOTAL COMPAGNIE FRANAISE DES
SFLIGIOTTI, G.M. PTROLES
AGIP SpA Tour Total- Cedex 47
I - 20097 S. DONATO MILANESE F - 92069 PARIS LA DEFENSE
 1049

SCHULTHEISS, G.F. SIERRA FERNANDEZ, D.

Direktor Presidente
Institut fUr Anlagentechnik DRILLMAR S.A.
GKSSForschungszentrum Geesthacht Alcal 95
MaxPlanckStrae E 28009 MADRID
Postfach 11 60
D 2054 GEESTHACHT
TASSINI, P.
AGIP SpA
SCHULZEGATTERMANN, R. PO Box 12069
PRAKLASEISMOS AG I 20097 S. DONATO MILANESE (MI)
Buchholz Strae 100
Postfach 51 05 30
D 3000 HANNOVER 51 TEBBETT, I.E.
Divisional Director
WIMPEY OFFSHORE
SCEMAMA, P. 27 Hammersmith Grove
Chairman UK HAMMERSMITH, LONDON W6 7EN
CHALLENGER SPECIAL OIL SERVICES
49bie, avenue Franklin Roosevelt
F 75008 PARIS THONON, C.
Directeur des Procds de Raffinage
et Ptrochimie
SCL0CCHI, G. INSTITUT FRANCAIS DU PTROLE
Production Division Laboratories B.P. 311
Manager F 92506 RUEILMALMAISON
AGIP S.p.A.
LABS PO Box 12069
I 20120 MILANO TIEDERMANN, H.
Institut fr Tiefbohrtechnik, Erdl
und Erdgasgewinnung
SEMPRICH, S. Abt. LagerstSttentechnik
Dipl.Ing. Agricolastrae 10
BILFINGER & BERGER BAU AG D 3392 CLAUSTHALZELLERFELD
CarlReiPlatz 15
D 6800 MANNHEIM 1
TINDY, R.
Directeur du Budget
SENNI BURATTI, S. INSTITUT FRANCAIS DU PTROLE
Project Manager B.P. 311
SNAMPROGETTI F 92500 RUEIL MALMAISON Cedex
I 20120 S.DONATO MILANESE (MI)

SHARP, D.E.
Civil Engineer
BP INTERNATIONAL LTD
Britannic House, Moor Lane
UK LONDON EC2Y 9BU
TISSOT, B.P.
Directeur Scientifique
INSTITUT FRANCAIS DU PTROLE
B.P. 311
F 92506 RUEILMALMAISON

TODD, .
SIEPMANN, G. Business Manager in Electronic Co
Director STC
Bundesmlnl8terlum ftlr Wirtschaft Chester Hall Lane
Villemomblerstrae 76 Basildon
D 5300 BONN UK ESSEX
1050

TOFT, J. VAN ESPEN, M.

Head of Dept Commission of Che European
CARL BRO A/S Communities
Consulting Engineers & Planners DirectorateGeneral 'Energy'
Granskoven 8 200, rue de la Lol
DK 2600 GLOSTRUP 1049 BRUXELLES

TOWNSEND, .A. Van LUIPEN, P.

Assistant Director Sr Consulting Engineer
BRITISH GAS PLC MENCK (BOMAMENCK GmbH)
Engineering Research Station PO Box 1165
Killlngworth D 2086 ELLERAU
UK NEWCASTLE UPON TYNE NE99 1LH

van der HEYDEN, H.

TRAONMILIN, E. R & D Engineer
ELF AQUITAINE HEEREMA ENGINEERING SERVICE B.V.
26bis, avenue des Lilas PO Box 9321
F 64018 PAU NL 2300 PH LEIDEN

TURA, F. VARGAS, H.
R & D Sr Engineer Engineer
SNAMPROGETTI SpA CHEVRON OIL COMPANY OF SPAIN
PO Box 97 Raimundo Fernandez Vlllaverde, 65
I 61032 FANO (PS) E 28003 MADRID

VASFI, E.
TURLEY, D.N. Assistant Exploration Manager
Research Engineer TURKISH PETROLEUM CORPORATION
BHRA, THE FLUID ENGINEERING CENTRE Turkiye Petrolieri A.O.
Cranfleld Mudafaa Cad. 22
UK BEDS, MK43 OAJ B AKANLIKLAR/ANKARA

TUSON, S. VERMEHREN, P.
Directeur Managing Director
EMH I. KRUGER A/S
196, Bureaux de la Colline Gladsaxevej 363
F 92213 ST. CLOUD Cedex DK 2860 SOEBORG

UEBEL, H. VERROS, C.
Conseil des Communauts europennes Journalist
Direction de l'nergie "NAFTEMPORIKI" Greek Economie Daily
170, rue de la Loi 10, Sq. Ambiorix
1048 BRUXELLES 2me tage Bureau "Le Monde"
1040 BRUXELLES

VAN ASSELT, D.
Commission of the European VIDAL, J.E.
Communities TOTAL COMPAGNIE FRANAISE DES
DirectorateGeneral 'Energy' PTROLES
200, rue de la Loi Tour Total Cedex 47
1049 BRUXELLES F 92069 PARIS LA DEFENSE

VUILLET, J.Cl.
Managing Edltor
PETROLE INFORMATIONS
142, rue Montmartre
F 75002 PARIS
WATSON, C.J.H.
Group Leader
HARWELL LABORATORY
UK OXFORDSHIRE 0X11 ORA
WEIR, E.
Business Development Manager
NATIONAL HYPORBARIC CENTRE
123 Aehgrove Rd West
UK ABERDEEN AB2 5FA
WELLS, K.J.
Head of R & D
BRITOIL PLC
301 St. Vincent Street
UK GLASGOW G2 5DD
WEMPE, J.H.
KFAJUllch
Postfach 19 13
D 5170 JLICH
WESTERKAMP, .
BAYEER AG
D 5090 LEVERKUSEN
WEEL, H.J.
Research Engineer
SALZGITTER AG
Postfach 15 06 27
D 1000 BERLIN 15
WIEMER, K.
Managing Director
ZFHERIONSYSTEMTECHNIK GmbH
Postfach 21 68
HoehenstraQe 21
D 7012 FELLBACH
WILKE, K.
AEG AG
Section Manager
Research and New Technologies
Steinhft 9
D 2000 HAMBURG 11
1051
WILLIAMS, J.R.
Supervising Engineer
WIMPEY OFFSHORE
27 Hammersmith Grove
UK HAMMERSMITH, LONDON W6 7EN
WILSON, .
R & D Coordinator
TOTAL OIL MARINE PLC
Berkeley Square House
Berkeley Sqare
UK LONDON W1X 6LT
WOCKENFUSS, A.
Manager Production Engineer
DEUTSCHE TEXACO AG
Aufschlu und Gewinnung
Uberseering 40
D 2000 HAMBURG 60
WOLLIN, .
Dipl.Ing.
Bundesministerium fr Forschung und
Technologie, Referat 524
Postfach 20 02 40
D 5300 BONN 2
WOOD, P.R.
Offshore Development Manager
BRITISH GAS PLC
59 Bryanston Street
Marble Ach
UK LONDON W1A 2AZ
ZANARDI, A.
AGIP AFRIQUE
87, avenue Daieb Mehiri
B.P. 473
TUNIS
ZARRUG, A.Y.
Director Technical'Dept
Organization of Arab Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OAPEC)
PO Box 20501
KUWAIT 13066
ZI0LK0WSKI, A.M.
Professor of Applied Geophysics
DELFT UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Faculty of Mining and Petroleum
Engineering
PO Box 5028
NL 2600 GA DELFT
1052

INDEX OF AUTHORS

ABRAHAM, W.E., 96 D'ANCONA, J., 47

ADAM, G., 57 DARDE, ., 144
ARMOUTIDIS, C, 426 DAVISON, J.J., 87
AUXIETTE, G., 846 DE BAUW, R., 59, 1021
DE DONNO, S., 214
DE FILIPPI, G., 553
BACKHAUS, H., 223 DE HAAN, H.J., 971
BACKHAUS, H., 255 DELAUZE, H.G., 67, 805
BALSER, ., 837 DELLE CANNE, ., 858
BARTHELEMY, H., 730 DELVAUX, J., 487
BASSE, ., 267 DENISE, J.P., 96
BASU, A.K., 335 DE RAAD, J.A., 511
BATSCHKO, H.D., 223 DEYSSON, J.Y., 304
BATSCHKO, H.-D., 255 DIJK, W. v., 614
BAUDEMENT, M. ., 604 DONAT, G., 977
BAUMGARTNER, H., 642 DONCHE, A., 827
BAXTER, C, 372 DU BOULLAY, ., 383
BECCEGATO, L., 274 DU CHAFFAUT, B., 674
BEGHETTO, L., 185
BENVENUTI, E., 214
BERNICOT, M., 393 EBELING, W., 642
BERTA, M., 335 EICHNER, C.-R., 583
BEZARD, C, 314 EILENZ, H.M., 436
BILGERI, D., 478
BISSO, ., 505
BOIARDI, ., 478 FRUCTUS, X., 805
BOOTH, .., 495
BOURDEAU, Ph., 949
BRAIT, M., 575
GARCIA-SINERIZ, ., 12
BRANDI, R., 248
GARDETTE, B., 805
BREWERTON, R.W., 363
GAZEL-ANTHOINE, G., 657
BRUINING, J., 930
GEHRINGER, H., 784
BRUSCHI, R., 553
GHILARDI, J.P., 604
GILI, V., 858
GOEDEE, ., 695
CAMPELLI, P., 335 GOFFE, D., 797
CARLINI, ., 478 GORTAN, C, 805
CASSI, G., 858 GROUSET, D., 797
CASTELA, ., 144
CAUSIN, ., 868
CHARLOT, J.C., 898 HAAS, J., 779
CHIMISSO, C, 274 HANSTEIN, .., 436
CLAUDE, J., 622 HINSTRUP, P.I., 537
COLOMBO, ., 575 HOLEKAMP, R., 255
CONTER, ., 274 HOVING, ., 614
CORNO, C, 868 HYSKY, J., 345
CORTEVILLE, J., 393
COUDERC, ., 881
COUDERC, J.L., 898 IMARISIO, G., 958

D'ALI, G., 858 JOERGENSEN, ., 194

DAMINELLI, G., 353 JOUBERT, Ph., 135
 1053

KADJAR, D., 674 O'BRIEN, P.J., 325

KAPNISTOS, M., 426 OBRO, H., 632
KEMSLEY, T.J., 282 OLSEN, K.B., 153, 194
KNIEWSKE, R., 837 O'SULLIVAN, R., 325
KOETZ, A.W., 436 OTTESEN HANSEN, .-E., 153
KOHLER, ., 817 OVIEVE, G., 597
KOLB, P., 446 , P., 393
KRAWIETZ, M., 436
KRETSCHMAR, ., 918
KUJATH, U., 233 PALMGREN, C.T.S., 930
PARTRIDGE, D.J., 765
PENNINO, C, 127
LAHURE, J. , 3 PERZBORN, V., 345
LARSEN, L.C., 537 PETRY, H., 436
LATO, ., 353 PINAMONTI, C., 987
LEBLOND, M., 79 PLATONE, E., 868
LEDUC, ., 990
LEGENDRE, Y., 714
LEGRAS, J.L., 204 QUETTIER, L., 881
LEONARD, C, 797
LEOPARDI, G., 553
LE PAGE, J.F., 898 REBUFFAT, D., 797
LESSI, J., 686 REYBILLET, M., 304
LIGTHART, M., 511 ROSEN, H., 528
LIER, N.O., 274 ROSSI, E., 868
LOWES, J.M., 723 ROSSIG, J.-H., 233, 255
RUPP, M., 918

MAKRIS, J., 966

MANCOSU, F., 353 SALA, C, 248
MANIATOPOULOS, CS . , 8 SAHUQUET, B., 881
MARNELIS, PH., 403 SAUZADE, D., 770
MARSLAND, G.E., 751, 758 SCHEPMAN, G.J., 695
MARTIN-NEUVILLE, H., 797 SCHNEIDER, H.-J., 642
MARTISCHIUS, F.D., 940 SCHRANZ, C', 314
MASSE, P., 416 SEMPRICH, S., 642
MATTIELLO, D., 553 SENNI, S., 214
MAZZON, M., 127 SFLIGIOTTI, G.M., 69
McNAMARA, J.F., 325 SHARP, D.E., 737
MEO, J., 27 SIEPMANN, G., 74
MERZ, L., 918 SMITH, A.M.C., 292
MESSINES, J.-P., 817 SPREUX, ., 686
MONFRIN, D., 881 STERZENBACH, M., 583
MORILLON, C, 797 STOKES, A.W., 117
MORRIS, W.D.M., 107 STORER, P., 478
MOSAR, M., 5 STRACK, .-M., 436
MULET, J.C., 797 SVENSSON, T., 537
MYRIANTHIS, M.L., 403 SZABLIKOWSKI, K., 837

NEUBAUER, F.M., 436 THONON, C, 984

NICOLETIS, S., 469 TRAONMILIN, D.M., 674
NIELSEN, J.A.A., 537
NIEMANN, ., 918
NISIO, P., 666 VAN DER HEIJDEN, ., 176
NORTON, .E., 71 VAN DER POT, .J.G., 162
1054

VAN DUYN, C.J., 930 WILLIAMS, J.R., 87

VERMEHREN, P., 77 WOLFGRAM, P., 436

WEIDELT, P., 436 ZAITOUN, ., 817

WES, G.W.J., 614 ZIOLKOWSKI, A.M., 457
WIEMER, ., 751, 758 ZUNDEL, J.-P., 817
WILKE, ., 583
 u u im III ii ii
ISBN 1-05333-05=1-0

9 "781853"330599"