Introduction

Commissionerate building is a four storey building which is a office building of

commissionerate of police of the twin cities, Bhubaneswar and cuttack. The
building is located in seismic zone III on a site with hard soil. Design the
building for seismic loads as per IS 1893(Part 1): 2002.

General
1. The building is used for official work of Commissionerate police, as an
office building so there are no walls inside the building. Walls are constructed
using plywood partitions. Only external walls 230 mm thick with 12 mm plaster
on both sides are considered in our analysis.

2. At ground floor, slabs are not provided and the floor directly rest on
ground. Therefore, only ground beams passing through columns are provided as
tie beams. The floor beams are thus absent in the ground floor.

3. Secondary floor beams are so arranged that they act as simply supported
beams and that maximum number of main beams get flanged beam effect.

4. The main beams rest centrally on columns to avoid local eccentricity.

5. For all structural elements, M25 grade concrete will be used. However,
higher M30 grade concrete is used for central columns up to plinth, in ground
floor and in the first floor.

6. Sizes of all columns in upper floors are kept the same; however, for
columns up to plinth, sizes are increased.

7. Seismic loads will be considered acting in the horizontal direction (along

either of the two principal directions) and not along the vertical direction, since
it is not considered to be significant.

8. The front semi-circular portion is exempted from our analysis.

9. All dimensions are in mm, unless specified otherwise.

LITERATURE SURVEY:
CONSTRUCTION OF A STRUCTURE:
Construction of any structure involves following steps:

Planning

Execution

Quality control

Safety

Store

Accounts

By following all the above steps one can achieve perfection in any construction
process right from the beginning of the project to till the end of it.

PLANNING:
Construction planning is a fundamental and challenging activity in the
management and execution of construction projects. It involves the choice of
technology, the definition of work tasks, the estimation of the required resources
and durations for individual tasks, and the identification of any interactions
among the different work tasks. A good construction plan is the basis for
developing the budget and the schedule for work. Developing the construction
plan is a critical task in the management of construction, even if the plan is not
written or otherwise formally recorded. In addition to these technical aspects of
construction planning, it may also be necessary to make organizational
decisions about the relationships between project participants and even which
organizations to include in a project. For example, the extent to which sub-
contractors will be used on a project is often determined during construction
planning.
Planning for construction projects involves the logical analysis of a project, its
requirements, and the plan (or plans) for its execution. This will also include
consideration of the existing constraints and available resources that will affect
the execution of the project. Considerable planning is required for the support
functions for a project, material storage, worker facilities, office space,
temporary utilities, and so on. Planning, with respect to the critical path method,
involves the identification of the activities for a project, the ordering of these
activities with respect to each other, and the development of a network logic
diagram that graphically portrays the activity planning.

In developing a construction plan, it is common to adopt a primary emphasis on

either cost control or on schedule control. Some projects are primarily divided
into expense categories with associated costs. In these cases, construction
planning is cost or expense oriented. Within the categories of expenditure, a
distinction is made between costs incurred directly in the performance of an
activity and indirectly for the accomplishment of the project. For example,
borrowing expenses for project financing and overhead items are commonly
treated as indirect costs. For other projects, scheduling of work activities over
time is critical and is emphasized in the planning process. In this case, the
planner insures that the proper precedents among activities are maintained and
that efficient scheduling of the available resources prevails. Traditional
scheduling procedures emphasize the maintenance of task precedents (resulting
in critical path scheduling procedures) or efficient use of resources over time
(resulting in job shop scheduling procedures). Finally, most complex projects
require consideration of both, cost and scheduling over time, so that planning,
monitoring and record keeping must consider both dimensions. In these cases,
the integration of schedule and budget information is a major concern.

EXECUTION:
Once the site engineer receives the drawings, the construction or execution of
project starts initiated. Execution of the project involves in the entire
construction i.e. from footings to the slabs.

Execution of project involves following steps:

Study of Drawings
 Important points to be listed out.( Conditions )

Formwork

Reinforcement of Steel

Concreting

Brick work

i) Study of Drawings:

Drawings which contain measurements and reinforcement and schedules are

sent to site engineer from planning department. Once the site engineer receives
those drawings, construction is initiated after a detailed study of drawings by
site engineer and project in charge.

These drawings must be studied painstakingly since any mistake can cause a
great effect to entire construction project. Required number of steel bars and
their diameters are mentioned in these drawings including the schedule of
construction process.

ii) Points to be listed out:

The site engineer must note down important points such as room dimensions,
length and breadth and height etc. and all necessary conditions made by the
client for the execution of construction.

iii) Formwork:

Formwork is an ancillary construction, used as a mould for a structure. Into this

mould, fresh concrete is placed only to harden subsequently. The construction of
formwork takes time and involves expenditure upto 20 to 25% of the cost of the
structure or even more. Design of these temporary structures is made to
economic expenditure. The operation of removing the formwork is known as
stripping. Stripped formwork can be reused. Reusable forms are known as panel
forms and non-usable are called stationary forms.

Timber is the most common material used for formwork. The disadvantage with
timber formwork is that it will warp, swell and shrink. Application of water
impermeable cost to the surface of wood mitigates these defects.

Types of Formwork:

Traditional Timber formwork

Engineered Formwork System

Re-usable plastic formwork

Permanent Insulated Formwork

Stay-In-Place structural formwork systems

iv) Reinforcement of steel:

Reinforcing steel is a common steel bar, and is commonly used as a tensioning

device in reinforced concrete and reinforced masonry structures holding the
concrete in compression. It is usually formed from carbon steel, and is given
ridges for better mechanical anchoring into the concrete.

Steel has an expansion coefficient nearly equal to that of modern concrete. If

this were not so, it would cause problems through additional longitudinal and
perpendicular stresses at temperatures different than the temperature of the
setting.

v) Concreting:

Concrete is a composite construction material composed primarily of aggregate,

cement and water. There are many formulations that have varied properties. The
aggregate is generally coarse gravel or crushed rocks such as limestone, or
granite, along with a fine aggregate such as sand. The cement, commonly
Portland cement, and other cementations materials such as fly ash and slag
cement, serve as a binder for the aggregate. Various chemical admixtures are
also added to achieve varied properties. Water is then mixed with this dry
composite which enables it to be shaped (typically poured) and then solidified
and hardened into rock-hard strength through a chemical process known as
hydration. The water reacts with the cement which bonds the other components
together, eventually creating a robust stone-like material.

Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but much lower tensile
strength. For this reason it is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in
tension (often steel).

Fig: Mixture machine

QUALITY CONTROL:

Quality control and safety represent increasingly important concerns for project
managers. Defects or failures in constructed facilities can result in very large
costs. Even with minor defects, re-construction may be required and facility
operations impaired. Increased costs and delays are the result. In the worst case,
failures may cause personal injuries or fatalities. Accidents during the
construction process can similarly result in personal injuries and large costs.
Indirect costs of insurance, inspection and regulation are increasing rapidly due
to these increased direct costs. Good project managers try to ensure that the job
is done right the first time and that no major accidents occur on the project.

As with cost control, the most important decisions regarding the quality of a
completed facility are made during the design and planning stages rather than
during construction. It is during these preliminary stages that component
configurations, material specifications and functional performance are decided.
Quality control during construction consists largely of insuring conformance to
these original designs and planning decisions.

Fig: Cube test for quality check of concrete

 Fig: Slump cone test at site

With the attention to conformance as the measure of quality during the

construction process, the specification of quality requirements in the design and
contract documentation becomes extremely important. Quality requirements
should be clear and verifiable, so that all parties in the project can understand
the requirements for conformance. Much of the discussion in this chapter relates
to the development and the implications of different quality requirements for
construction as well as the issues associated with insuring conformance.

SAFETY:
Construction is the most dangerous land-based work sector and is a relatively
hazardous undertaking. Construction has a number of characteristics making it
inherently hazardous. Large forces are involved in many operations. The jobsite
is continually changing as construction proceeds. Workers do not have fixed
worksites and must move around a structure under construction. The tenure of a
worker on a site is short, so the worker's familiarity and the employer-employee
relationship are less settled than in manufacturing settings

In contrast to most industrial accidents, innocent bystanders may also be injured

by construction accidents. Several crane collapses from high rise buildings
under construction have resulted in fatalities to passers-by. Prudent project
managers and owners would like to reduce accidents, injuries and illnesses as
much as possible.
Educating workers and managers in proper procedures and hazards can have a
direct impact on jobsite safety. The realization of the large costs involved in
construction injuries and illnesses provides a considerable motivation for
awareness and education. Regular safety inspections and safety meetings have
become standard practices on most job sites.

STORE:
Store is a place where the entire construction material is stored. Before the
commencement of work, site engineer receives the drawings from planning
department and the amount of material required is mentioned in drawings.

ACCOUNTS:
Accounts include the data of all material and money involved in the
construction project. Records are maintained to keep track of time to time data.

EARTH WORK:

Earth work in construction is an operation in which earth, rock, or other

material in or on the ground is moved or otherwise displaced by means of tools,
equipment, or explosives, and includes earthwork, trenching, wall shafts,
tunnelling and underground work. High-risk obligations apply to excavations
with a depth greater than 1.5 meters.

Excavation is regarded as one of the most hazardous construction operations.

Excavation failure occurs very quickly, giving a worker virtually no time to
escape, especially if the collapse is extensive and the excavation is a trench.
Normally, a slab of earth collapses off the trench face under its own weight and
breaks against the opposite wall of the excavation, burying and crushing any
person in its path. This can result in death by suffocation or internal injuries.
PREPARATION FOR EARTH WORK:
Prior to beginning excavation, grading, or embankment operations in any area,
the following items are required to be completed:

1) Clearing and grubbing is conducted. This includes the removal of all

perishable material such as tree roots, stumps, sod, weeds, agricultural debris,
etc.

2) Check sections are taken and checked satisfactorily with those on the plans.
On contracts with construction engineering, the Contractor is responsible for
securing check sections. The method of checking original cross sections is
outlined in the General Instructions to Field Employees.

3) After the previous items have been completed, the Contractor proceeds with
scalping in areas where excavations are to be made, or embankments are to be
placed. Another common term for scalping is stripping. Scalping is the removal
of the upper 4 in. of the soils.

Removal is necessary to ensure that decay able vegetation is not incorporated

into an embankment. Although 4 in. is the maximum depth, top soils containing
large quantities of humus to a depth greater than 4 in. are removed until suitable
materials are exposed. Scalping is completed to the limits the area where
excavations are to be made or Embankments are to be placed. The grading
operations are inspected closely for unsuitable material. Roots and other large
perishable objects are removed and stockpiled outside of the construction limits
for later disposal.

4) All pronounced depressions left in the original ground surface by removal of

objectionable material from within embankment limits are filled with acceptable
material and compacted to the density required for the embankment. The upper
6 in. of the original ground is compacted with a roller weighing no less than 10
t, or with other approved compacting equipment.

5) The final step before embankment placement is proof rolling. This work is
done with a pneumatic tire roller. Other approved equipment, such as a fully
loaded tri-axle dump truck, may be substituted for the pneumatic tire roller.
When an unstable area is encountered, the engine labours to pull the roller
through the spongy area. After proof rolling has been completed and all soft or
unstable areas have been corrected, the area is ready for placement of the new
embankment.

Fig: Building Under construction

HAZARDS ASSOSIATED WITH EARTH WORK:

Without careful planning and management, an excavation site can be hazardous
to all persons in the vicinity of the construction work. Particular hazards
identified in relation to excavation work include:

The depth of the excavation

Nature of the strata (soil variations creating the potential for the sides to
collapse)

Fractures or faults

The presence of water (from other sources)

Exposure to wet weather

Any load close to the edge of the zoned of influence

The exposure time

Any previous disturbance

Adjoining buildings
 Adjacent excavations

Vibration which may increase the potential to collapse

The presence of existing underground services

Chemical gases

RISKS ASSOSIATED WITH EARTHWORK:

Excavation work is inherently dangerous and regarded as the most dangerous
construction work. Excavation failures occur quickly and this limits the ability
of the worker to escape especially if the collapse is extensive or is a trench.

The speed of an excavation collapse increases the risk associated with this
type of work and the consequences are significant as the falling earth can bury
or crush any person in its path. This can result in death by suffocation or
internal crush injuries.

The magnitude of the consequences particularly in relation to trench collapse

highlights the need to protect the employees and other person working at or near
excavation sites.

FOUNDATION:

A foundation is the lowest and supporting layer of a structure. Foundation is

part of a building, usually below the ground, that transfers and distributes the
weight of the building onto the ground such that the compressive stresses do not
exceed the bearing capacity of the soil.

TYPES OF FOUNDATION:
Foundations are generally divided into two categories: shallow foundations and
deep foundations.

1. Shallow foundations:
Shallow foundations, often called footings, are usually embedded about a meter
or so into soil. One common type is the spread footing which consists of strips
or pads of concrete (or other materials) which extend below the frost line and
transfer the weight from walls and columns to the soil or bedrock.

Another common type of shallow foundation is the slab-on-grade foundation

where the weight of the structure is transferred to the soil through a concrete
slab placed at the surface. Slab-on-grade foundations can be reinforced mat
slabs, which range from 25 cm to several meters thick, depending on the size of
the building, or post-tensioned slabs, which are typically at least 20 cm for
houses, and thicker for heavier structures.

2. Deep foundations:
A deep foundation is used to transfer the load of a structure down through the
upper weak layer of topsoil to the stronger layer of subsoil below. There are
different types of deep footings including impact driven piles, drilled shafts,
caissons, helical piles, and earth stabilized columns.

The naming conventions for different types of footings vary between different
engineers. Historically, piles were wood, later steel, reinforced concrete, and
pre-tensioned concrete.

DESIGN:
Foundations are designed to have an adequate load capacity with limited
settlement by a geotechnical engineer, and the footing itself is designed
structurally by a structural engineer.

The primary design concerns are settlement and bearing capacity. When
considering settlement, total settlement and differential settlement is normally
considered. Differential settlement is when one part of a foundation settles more
than another part. This can cause problems to the structure the foundation is
supporting. It is necessary that a foundation not be loaded beyond its bearing
capacity or the foundation will "fail".

Other design considerations include scour and frost heave. Scour is when
flowing water removes supporting soil from around a footing (like a pier
supporting a bridge over a river). Frost heave occurs when water in the ground
freezes to form ice lenses.

Changes in soil moisture can cause expansive clay to swell and shrink. This
swelling can vary across the footing due to seasonal changes or the effects of
vegetation removing moisture. The variation in swell can cause the soil to
distort, cracking the structure over it. This is a particular problem for house
footings in semi-arid climates such as South Australia, Southwestern US,
Turkey, Israel, Iran and South Africa where wet winters are followed by hot dry
summers. Raft slabs with inherent stiffness have been developed in Australia
with capabilities to resist this movement.

When structures are built in areas of permafrost, special consideration must be

given to the thermal effect the structure will have on the permafrost. Generally,
the structure is designed in a way that tries to prevent the permafrost from
melting.

FOOTINGS:
CONSTRUCTION OF FOOTINGS:

Construction of footings involves following steps:

Reinforcement of Steel bars.

Shuttering on all sides (except bottom)

Placing cover blocks so as to prevent appearance of Skeleton

Concrete pouring.

Curing.

Providing starter for the erection of column.

TYPES OF FOOTINGS
Footing requirements are generally covered in the building code and sized in
accordance with the bearing capacity of the soil and the weight of the building.
In areas subject to seasonal frost, the bottom of the footing must be placed
below the frost line to prevent damage to the footing and structure due to frost
heave.

Typical footing types include:

Spot footings

Continuous spread footing

grade beam footing

Spot Footings:

A spot or pad footing is used to support a single point of contact, such as under
a pier or post. A spot footing is typically a 2' by 2' square pad, 10" to 12" thick,
and made with reinforced concrete rated to 3,000 to 5,000 pounds per square
inch (psi) in compression.

Fig: Showing types of Footings

Continuous Spread Footing:
A continuous spread footing is commonly used to provide a stable base around
the entire perimeter of a structure. Buildings with spread footings often include
interior spot footings. A spread footing supports the weight (load) from the
exterior or foundation walls. The footing thickness provides the strength needed
to support the weight. The wider width of the footing base creates a large area to
transfer this weight to the ground and to prevent settlement.

The dimensions of a continuous spread footing vary according to the soil

conditions under the building, the load placed on the footing, and the
construction style of the structure being supported. It is common practice to
make the footing thickness equal to the thickness of the foundation wall, and to
provide a footing projection on each side of the foundation wall equal to one-
half the foundation wall thickness. Spread footings are frequently 16" to 24"
wide, 6" to 16" thick, and made with reinforced concrete rated to 2,000 to 5,000
psi in compression. Table lists the minimum footing widths required for a range
of allowable bearing capacities and building sizes.

Grade Beam Footing:

A grade beam footing is a continuous reinforced-concrete member used to
support loads with minimal bending. Grade beams are capable of spanning
across non-load bearing areas, and are commonly supported by soil or pilings. A
continuous grade beam is frequently constructed by digging a trench at least 8"
wide to the depth needed to span the distance between supports. Grade beam
footings differ from continuous spread footings in how they distribute loads.
The depth of a grade beam footing is designed to distribute loads to bearing
points, while the width of a continuous spread footing is designed to transfer
loads to the ground.
 Fig Showing Grade Beam Footing

FORMWORK (SHUTTERING):

Shuttering or form work is the term used for temporary timber, plywood, metal
or other material used to provide support to wet concrete mix till it gets strength
for self-support. It provides supports to horizontal, vertical and inclined surfaces
or also provides support to cast concrete according to required shape and size.
The form work also produces desired finish concrete surface. Shuttering or form
work should be strong enough to support the weight of wet concrete mix and the
pressure for placing and compacting concrete inside or on the top of form
work/shuttering. It should be rigid to prevent any deflection in surface after
laying cement concrete and be also sufficient tight to prevent loss of water and
mortar form cement concrete. Shuttering should be easy in handling, erection at
site and easy to remove when cement concrete is sufficient hard.

TYPES OF FORMWORK:

Formwork comes in several types:

1. Traditional timber formwork: The formwork is built on site out of timber and
plywood or moisture-resistant particleboard. It is easy to produce but time-
consuming for larger structures, and the plywood facing has a relatively short
lifespan. It is still used extensively where the labour costs are lower than the
costs for procuring re-usable formwork. It is also the most flexible type of
formwork, so even where other systems are in use, complicated sections may
use it.

2. Engineered Formwork System: This formwork is built out of prefabricated

modules with a metal frame (usually steel or aluminum) and covered on the
application (concrete) side with material having the wanted surface structure
(steel, aluminum, timber, etc.). The two major advantages of formwork systems,
compared to traditional timber formwork, are speed of construction (modular
systems pin, clip, or screw together quickly) and lower life-cycle costs (barring
major force, the frame is almost indestructible, while the covering if made of
wood; may have to be replaced after a few - or a few dozen - uses, but if the
covering is made with steel or aluminum the form can achieve up to two
thousand uses depending on care and the applications).

3. Re-usable plastic formwork: These interlocking and modular systems are

used to build widely variable, but relatively simple, concrete structures. The
panels are lightweight and very robust. They are especially suited for low-cost,
mass housing schemes.

4. Permanent Insulated Formwork: This formwork is assembled on site, usually

out of insulating concrete forms (ICF). The formwork stays in place after the
concrete has cured, and may provide advantages in terms of speed, strength,
superior thermal and acoustic insulation, space to run utilities within the EPS
layer, and integrated furring strip for cladding finishes.
5. Stay-In-Place structural formwork systems: This formwork is assembled on
site, usually out of prefabricated fiber-reinforced plastic forms. These are in the
shape of hollow tubes, and are usually used for columns and piers. The
formwork stays in place after the concrete has cured and acts as axial and shear
reinforcement, as well as serving to confine the concrete and prevent against
environmental effects, such as corrosion and freeze-thaw cycles.

Recommended Period for Removal of Shuttering:

48 hours for sides of foundations, columns, beams and walls.

7 days for underside of slab up to 4.5 meter span

14 days for underside of slab, beams, arches above 4.5 meter up to 6 meter
span.

21 days for underside of beams arches above 6 meter span and up to 9 meter
span.

28 days for underside of beams arches above 9 meter span.

Defects Found In Shuttering/Form Work

The supports of form work are not in plumb and are not cross braced.

The ground supports of ballies are poor and therefore settle the form work.

There is insufficient thickness of shuttering plates/planks unable to bear lateral

pressure imposed by wet concrete especially in columns.

Shuttering plates are not cleaned and oiled or oiled with dirty oil.

There are many insufficient and loose connections in centering and shuttering.

The form work is removed before time. The work is not planned and designed
properly.

In case of beam shuttering proper provision for retaining side is not made.
Hence the side of beam is not in proper line.
 The shuttering is poorly made with cracked and warped timber planks having
lots of holes and knots.

Through bolts for RCC walls form work for an underground tank is used.
Later these holes made by bolts are not plugged.

Ballies are resting on bricks or brick pillars

Ballies are not in one piece. Small ballies are used and these are not properly
jointed. Also no additional cross bracing is provided at the joint.

The supports under shuttering plates are not properly tight.

The earth work under supports is not properly compacted before starting
shuttering work.

The bottom of ballies are in wedge shape, not having proper base.

SCAFFOLDING:

Scaffolding is defined as any structure, framework, swinging stage, suspended

scaffolding, or boatswains chair, of a temporary nature, used or intended to be
used for the support or protection of workers engaged in or in connection with
construction work, for the purpose of carrying out that work or for the support
of materials used in connection with any such work; and includes any
scaffolding constructed as such and not dismantled, whether or not it is being
used as scaffolding; and also includes any plank, coupling, fastening, fitting or
device used in connection with the construction, erection, or use of scaffolding.

Scaffolding process is defined as the planning for, the design of, the erection of,
the inspection of, the use of, and the dismantling of any scaffolding. The
scaffolding process does not include the erection of structures constructed using
scaffolding components, such as false work, temporary grandstands, lighting
towers, etc.
 Fig: Scaffoldings at site

5.2 Types of Scaffolding (according to IS: 2750

1992):

1) Independent Scaffold:

The scaffolding supports on two rows of uprights, independent of the structure

under construction. It may be either individual component type or unit frame
type.
 Fig: Independent Scaffold

2) Individual Component Type Scaffold:

Independent or putlog scaffold consisting of an assembly of individual tubes
and fittings.

3) Putlog Scaffold:

This scaffolding is supported by a single row of up rights in combination with

load bearing parts of the structure. It may be either individual component type
or unit frame type
 Fig Putlog Scaffold

4) Unit Frame Type Scaffold:

Independent or putlog scaffold consisting of an assembly of prefabricated

frames suitably connected or fitted and used in combination with or without
tubes.
 Fig: Unit Frame Type Scaffold

MATERIALS:

Various standards prescribe scaffolding made of timber, steel tubes, aluminium

tubes or prefabricated frames. Other materials, provided they are suitable and
adequate in strength, may be used subject to the approval of the Secretary of
Labour. All scaffold materials must be in sound condition and be examined by a
competent person before use.

ERECTION, ALTERATION AND DISMANTLING:

All scaffolding, whether notifiable or not, must be erected, altered and

dismantled by competent workers under proper supervision. Scaffolding must
not be used unless the employer or employers representative on the work is
satisfied that it is safe for use and complies with the regulations. Scaffolding
must not be altered or interfered with except on the instructions of the employer
or employers representative. Scaffolder must ensure that members of the public
are not endangered while they are erecting, altering or dismantling scaffolds.
They should also ensure that the lower working platforms are not used while the
upper lifts are being worked on unless a fully decked platform, with screens if
necessary, separates the part being erected or dismantled from the lower part in
use.

REINFORCING STEEL:

A reinforcing bar also known as reinforcing steel, reinforcement steel, rerod, a

deformed bar, reo, or reo bar, is a common steel bar, and is commonly used as a
tensioning device in reinforced concrete and reinforced masonry structures
holding the concrete in compression. It is usually formed from carbon steel, and
is given ridges for better mechanical anchoring into the concrete.

Fig Showing the reinforcement work being carried out at the construction site.
Use in Concrete:
Concrete is a material that is very strong in compression, but relatively weak in
tension. To compensate for this imbalance in concrete's behavior, rebar is cast
into it to carry the tensile loads. For this purpose, the steel reinforcement of a
concrete structure is, conceptually, divided in two types of reinforcement:
primary reinforcement and secondary reinforcement. Primary reinforcement
refers to the reinforcement steel which is employed specifically to guarantee the
necessary resistance needed by the structure to support the design loads.
Secondary reinforcement, also known as distribution reinforcement, is
employed for durability and aesthetics reasons, by providing enough localized
resistance to limit cracking and resist stresses caused by effects such as
temperature changes and shrinkage. It is also employed to confer resistance to
concentrated loads by providing enough localized resistance and stiffness for a
load to spread through a wider area.

Fig: casting of concrete

Different aspects of reinforcement placement:
The important aspects of reinforcement placement are:-

Concrete Cover

Lap Length

Development Length

Bar spacing and Bar size

1) Concrete Cover:
Cover less than the design cover: The life of the reinforcing steel can be
shortened due to corrosion from increased exposure to deicing materials and/or
the elements. Corrosion of the reinforcing steel will cause an increase in the
diameter of the steel, which will cause the concrete outside the steel to
sometimes spall off and the concrete around the reinforcing steel to become
debonded from the reinforcing steel. This debonding of the concrete from the
reinforcing steel can reduce the strength of the structure by preventing the
necessary interaction between the concrete and the reinforcing steel.

Cover more than the design cover: will reduce the strength of the structure.
Placing the reinforcing steel with more than the design cover causes the neutral
axis to be shifted higher in the section, which reduces the area of concrete that is
in compression and increases the cracked area of concrete in tension. This
decrease in useful concrete (over Neutral Axis) and increase in useless concrete
(below Neutral Axis) greatly reduces the strength of the structure.36

2) Lap Length:
It would be ideal to make reinforcing bars in structural members (like slabs,
columns, beams etc.) one continuous bar, this however would be impractical
due to difficulties in transporting and handling the steel.

In order to achieve the same effect as having one continuous bar, shorter bars
with minimum (over) lap lengths are used.

The design lap length is usually a minimum length required to transfer stress
from one bar to another. If the actual lap length is less than the required lap
length, the stress may not be transferred to the other bar, which could cause a
failure in the structure at that lap location.

3) Development Length:
The development length is often shown on the plans as a minimum embedment
length. The purpose of the development length is to anchor the reinforcing bars
beyond the area where the strength of the bars is needed.

Without the required development length, the reinforcing bar would pull out of
the concrete surrounding it and the structure could fail.

4) Bar Spacing and Bar Size:

Both the spacing and the size of the reinforcing bars control the amount of steel
in the tension area. The amount of reinforcing steel in the tension area of the
structure has a large impact on the strength of the structure.

MANUFACTURE (IS 1786-2008):

Steel shall be manufactured by the open-hearth, electric, duplex, basic-oxygen
process or a combination of these processes. In case any other process is
employed by the manufacturer, prior approval of the purchaser should be
obtained.

The bars/wires shall be manufactured from properly identified heats of mould

cast, continuously cast steel or rolled semis.

The steel bar/wires for concrete reinforcement shall be manufactured by the

process of hot rolling. It may be followed by a suitable method of cold working
and/or in-line controlled cooling.

CHEMICAL COMPOSTION (IS 1786-2008):

Table: Chemical composition of Steel

NOMINAL SIZES (IS 1786-2008):

The nominal sizes of bars/wires shall be as follows:

4 mm.

5 mm
 6 mm

10 mm

12 mm

16 mm

20 mm

25 mm

28 mm

32 mm

36 mm

40 mm

Effective Cross-Sectional Area and Mass of Deformed Bars and Wires:

Mass of Deformed Bars is calculated from the formula:

Unit weight of steel (w) =^2162; whered is diameter of Steel Bar.

For bars/wires whose pattern of deformation is such that by visual inspection,

the cross-sectional area is substantially uniform along the length of the bar/wire,
the effective cross-sectional area shall be the gross sectional area determined as
follows, using a bar/wire not less than 0.5 m in length:

Gross cross-sectional area, in2=0.00785;

Where, L= Length measured to a precision of 0.5%,

NOMINAL CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA AND MASS
(IS1786-2008):
 Table: Nominal Cross Sectional Area and Mass.

Depending on the loading conditions appropriate steel size is selected giving

due consideration to Mass and Cross section Area per 2

Mechanical Properties of High Strength Deformed Bars and Wires (IS 1786-
2008):
 Table: Mechanical properties of High strength Deformed Bars and Wires40

BAR BENDING SHEDULE:

Bar bending schedule or bar scheme diagram is used to communicate the design
requirement of reinforcement steel to the fabricator and execution team and to
enumerate the weight of each size of steel. It is a list of reinforcement steel bars,
which includes size and number of bars, cutting length of bars, weight of steel
and a sketch representing the shape of bar to be bent. Generally, civil engineers
who are familiar in RCC structure are employed to prepare Rebar bending
schedule. When compared to common quantity take offs, preparation of Rebar
schedule needs excessive time for calculation. These calculations include
cutting length, deduction of bend allowance within cutting length and summary
of weight of each size separately. Insertion of any omitted items or revisions in
the drawing may lead to repeated calculations and consume ample time.
 Fig Bar bending of Steel.

A thorough structural analysis must be done before making a bar bend schedule
for safety purposes. Bar bending schedule will aide as in determining the
materials quantity, strength and for economic and practical purposes as well.
Structural members such as beams, girders, columns, footings, piles are usually
done with bar bend schedule as a guide in positioning them upon casting in
place. Some examples are the proper bending of ties and stirrups, bending of
hooks, point where the top and bottom bars terminate, bend for anchorages,
bend for development, bend for splicing if necessary, U straps, bend of bars in
slabs, and bend for longitudinal position of rebar.
In-situ Soil tests
1.Standard penetration test
Procedure

The test uses a thick-walled sample tube, with an outside diameter of 50 mm

and an inside diameter of 35 mm, and a length of around 650 mm. This is driven
into the ground at the bottom of a borehole by blows from a slide hammer with
a mass of 63.5 kg (140 lb) falling through a distance of 760 mm (30 in). The
sample tube is driven 150 mm into the ground and then the number of blows
needed for the tube to penetrate each 150 mm (6 in) up to a depth of 450 mm
(18 in) is recorded. The sum of the number of blows required for the second and
third 6 in. of penetration is termed the "standard penetration resistance" or the
"N-value". In cases where 50 blows are insufficient to advance it through a 150
mm (6 in) interval the penetration after 50 blows is recorded. The blow count
provides an indication of the density of the ground, and it is used in many
empirical geotechnical engineering formulae.
Purpose
The main purpose of the test is to provide an indication of the relative density of
granular deposits, such as sands and gravels from which it is virtually
impossible to obtain undisturbed samples. The great merit of the test, and the
main reason for its widespread use is that it is simple and inexpensive. The soil
strength parameters which can be inferred are approximate, but may give a
useful guide in ground conditions where it may not be possible to obtain
borehole samples of adequate quality like gravels, sands, silts, clay containing
sand or gravel and weak rock.

2. Plate Load Test

Plate Load Test is a field test for determining the ultimate bearing capacity of
soil and the likely settlement under a given load. The Plate Load Test basically
consists of loading a steel plate placed at the foundation level and recording the
settlements corresponding to each load increment. The test load is gradually
increased till the plate starts to sink at a rapid rate. The total value of load on the
plate in such a stage divided by the area of the steel plate gives the value of the
ultimate bearing capacity of soil. The ultimate bearing capacity of soil is divided
by suitable factor of safety (which varies from 2 to 3) to arrive at the value of
safe bearing capacity of soil.

Test Setup:
A test pit is dug at site up to the depth at which the foundation is proposed to be
laid. The width of the pit should be at least 5 times the width of the test plate. At
the centre of the pit a small square depression or hole is made whose size is
equal to the size of the test plate and bottom level of which corresponds to the
level of actual foundation. The depth of the hole should be such that the ratio of
depth to width of the loaded area is approximately the same as the ratio of the
actual depth to width of the foundation. The mild steel plate (also known as
bearing plate) used in the test should not be less than 25 mm in thickness and its
size may vary from 300 to 750 mm. The plate could be square or circular in
shape. Circular plate is adopted in case of circular footing and square plate is
used in all other types of footings. The plate is machined on side and edges.
Testing Procedure:

The load is applied to the test plate through a centrally placed column.

By gravity loading or reaction loading method

In case of gravity loading method, a loading platform is constructed over the

column placed on the test plate and test load is applied by placing dead weight
in the form of sand bags, pig iron, concrete blocks, lead bars etc. on the
platform. Many a times a hydraulic jack is placed between the loading platform
and the column top for applying the load to the test plate the reaction of the
hydraulic jack being borne by the loaded platform. This form of loading is
termed as reaction loading.

Data of the Building

The design datas are as follows:

Live load: 4.0 kN/m2 at typical floor

: 1.5 kN/m2 on terrace

Floor finish: 1.0 kN/m2

Water proofing: 2.0 kN/m2

Terrace finish: 1.0 kN/m2

Location: Bhubaneswar city

Wind load: As per IS: 875-Not designed for wind load, since earthquake loads
exceed the wind loads.

Earthquake load: As per IS-1893 (Part 1) - 2002

Depth of foundation below ground: 2.5 m

Type of soil: Type III, Hard as per IS:1893

Allowable bearing pressure: 200 kN/m2

Average thickness of footing: 0.9 m, assume isolated footings

Storey height: Typical floor: 5 m, GF: 3.4 m

Floors: G.F. + 3 upper floors.

Ground beams: To be provided at 100 mm below G.L.

Plinth level: 0.6 m

Walls: 230 mm thick brick masonry walls only at periphery.

Material Properties
Geometry of the Building
The general layout of the building is shown in Figure 1. At ground level, the
floor beams FB are not provided, since the floor directly rests on ground (earth
filling and 1:4:8 c.c. at plinth level) and no slab is provided. The ground beams
are provided at 100 mm below ground level. The numbering of the members is
explained as below.

Storey number
Storey numbers are given to the portion of the building between two successive
grids of beams.

For this building, the storey numbers are defined as follows:

Portion of the building Storey no.

Foundation top Ground floor 1

Ground beams First floor 2

First Floor Second floor 3

Second floor Third floor 4

Third - Terrace 5

Floor beams (Secondary beams)

All floor beams that are capable of free rotation at supports are designated as
FB. The reactions of the floor beams are calculated manually, which act as point
loads on the main beams. Thus, the floor beams are not considered as the part of
the space frame modelling.

Gravity Load calculations

Unit load calculations
Sizes of beam and column sections are:

Columns: 500 x 500 at all typical floors

Area, A = 0.25 m2,

Columns: 600 x 600 below ground level

Area, A = 0.36 m2,

Main beams: 300 x 600 at all floors

Area, A = 0.18 m2,

Ground beams: 300 x 600

Area, A = 0.18 m2,

Secondary beams: 200 x 600.

Member self- weights:

Columns (500 x 500)

0.50 x 0.50 x 25 = 6.3 kN/m

Columns (600 x 600)

0.60 x 0.60 x 25 = 9.0 kN/m

Ground beam (300 x 600)

0.30 x 0.60 x 25 = 4.5 kN/m

Secondary beams rib (200 x 500)

0.20 x 0.50 x 25 = 2.5 kN/m

Main beams (300 x 600)

0.30 x 0.60 x 25 = 4.5 kN/m

Slab (100 mm thick)

0.1 x 25 = 2.5 kN/m2

Brick wall (230 mm thick)

0.23 x 19 (wall) +2 x 0.012 x 20 (plaster)

= 4.9 kN/m2

Floor wall (height 4.4 m)

4.4 x 4.9 = 21.6 kN/m

Ground floor wall (height 3.5 m)

3.5 x 4.9 = 17.2 kN/m

Ground floor wall (height 0.7 m)

0.7 x 4.9 = 3.5 kN/m

Terrace parapet (height 1.0 m)

1.0 x 4.9 = 4.9 kN/m

Slab Load Calculation

Beam and frame load calculations:
(1) Terrace level:

Floor beams:

From slab

2.5 x (5.5 + 1.5) = 13.8 + 3.8 kN/m

Self-weight = 2.5 + 0 kN/m

Total = 16.3 + 3.8 kN/m

Reaction on main beam

0.5 x 7.5 x (16.3 + 3.8) = 61.1 + 14.3 kN.

Note: Self-weights of main beams and columns will not be considered, as the
analysis software will directly add them. However, in calculation of design
earthquake loads (section 1.5), these will be considered in the seismic weight.
Two point loads on one-third span points for beams B2 and B11 of

(61.1 +14.3) kN from the secondary beams.

Main beams (Inside the building)

From slab

0.5 x 2.5 x (5.5 + 1.5) = 6.9 + 1.9 kN/m

Total = 6.9 + 1.9 kN/m

Two point loads on one-third span points for all the main beams (61.1 + 14.3)
kN from the secondary beams.

Two point loads on one-third span points for beams B13, B15, B22 and B24 of
(61.1+14.3)kN from the secondary beams.
(2) Floor Level:
Floor Beams:
From slab

2.5 x (3.5 + 4.0) = 8.75 + 10 kN/m

Self-weight = 2.5 + 0 kN/m

Total = 11.25 + 10 kN/m

Reaction on main beam

0.5 x 7.5 x (11.25 + 10.0) = 42.2 + 37.5 kN.

Two point loads on one-third span points for beams B2 and B11 (42.2 + 37.5)
kN from the secondary beams.

Main beams B4B5B6, B7B8B9, B16 B17B18 and B19B20B21

From slab 0.5 x 2.5 (3.5 + 4.0) = 4.4 + 5.0 kN/m

Total = 4.4 + 5.0 kN/m

Two point loads on one-third span points for all the main beams (42.2 + 37.5)
kN from the secondary beams.
Main beams B13B14B15 and B22B23B24

Two point loads on one-third span points for beams B13, B15, B22 and B24 of

(42.2 +7.5) kN from the secondary beams.

(3) Ground level:

Outer beams: B1-B2-B3; B10-B11-B12; B13- B14-B15 and B22-B23-B24

Walls: 3.5 m high

17.2 + 0 kN/m

Inner beams: B4-B5-B6; B7-B8-B9; B16- B17-B18 and B19-B20-B21

Walls: 0.7 m high

3.5 + 0 kN/m

Loading frames
It may be noted that since LL< (3/4) DL in all beams, the loading pattern as
specified by Clause 22.4.1 (a) of IS 456:2000 is not necessary.

Therefore design dead load plus design live load is considered on all spans as
per recommendations of Clause 22.4.1 (b). In design of columns, it will be
noted that DL + LL combination seldom governs in earthquake resistant design
except where live load is very high. IS: 875 allows reduction in live load for
design of columns and footings. This reduction has not been considered in this
Building.