CEGE1009 Biology

Respiration &
photosynthesis
Energy
 Life needs energy

All living things need energy constantly

What is energy needed for inside your body as

you sit in this lecture?
 Solar energy

The Earth gets most of its energy from

the Sun

Plants only use 2 % for photosynthesis

Rest used to heat the planet avoid

freezing

Plants, algae and cyanobacteria

photosynthesise

Consumed by other organisms

The food chain

All dependent on Sun and its solar

energy
 Why do living things need energy?

Growth and repair of cells and tissues

Active transport
moving substances in and out of cells

Movement

Temperature control

Making electricity and light

e.g. Glow-worms
e. g. Electric eel
 How do they get the energy they need?

Some make their own energy Autotrophs

Photoautotrophs photosynthetic, e.g. plants
Chemoautotrophs energy from chemical reactions, e.g.
bacteria

Get food from elsewhere Heterotrophs

Ingest food and then digest, e.g. animals
Digest and then absorb nutrients, e.g. fungi and bacteria
Cell respiration
 Some definitions

Respiration
The process that releases the energy in organic molecules such as
sugars and lipids
Complex multi-stage process that takes place in all cells and
organisms all the time

Variety of substrates used in respiration

 Some definitions

Aerobic respiration
Requires oxygen
Most organisms respire aerobically
Releases more energy

Anaerobic respiration
No oxygen required
Mainly in bacteria
Facultative anaerobes can respire aerobically and
anaerobically, e.g. some bacteria and yeasts
 Aerobic respiration of glucose

Energy is required to break bonds

and form new bonds
For there to be a release of
energy, the products of
respiration must be at a lower
energy level than the reactants
Glucose
Products are said to be more
thermodynamically stable
 Aerobic respiration of glucose

Basic summary equation:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36ATP

In reality, the reaction is a sequence of many

different reactions
During these reactions up to 36 ATP molecules for
one glucose molecule
 Aerobic respiration of glucose

ATP = adenosine
triphosphate
adenosine
Characteristics:
Base, sugar and three inorganic
phosphate groups three phosphate groups
Small water soluble organic
molecule diffuses easily
around cell to where its needed
ATP provides energy around
the cell
Has a high free energy of pentose sugar
hydrolysis large amount of (ribose)
energy released when
hydrolysed
 Aerobic respiration of glucose

Production of ATP depends on redox reactions

Family of reactions that are concerned with the

transfer of electrons between species
Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation
state by a molecule, atom, or ion

Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation

state by a molecule, atom, or ion

In cell respiration, glucose is oxidised to form carbon

dioxide and oxygen is reduced to form water
 Aerobic respiration of glucose

In hydrolysis, ATP reacts with water, producing ADP and

inorganic phosphate and energy
Exergonic reaction releases energy

Reaction controlled by enzyme ATPase

 Aerobic respiration of glucose

The same amount of energy is released when ADP loses

another phosphate group to become AMP
Less energy is released when the last phosphate group is
lost
Many cellular reactions are endergonic require energy
These are coupled with ATP breakdown to provide the
necessary energy

ATP ADP + Pi + energy (30.6 kJ mol -1)

 The four stages of glucose respiration

1. Glycolysis: glucose is split into

pyruvate

2. Pyruvate oxidation: pyruvate

is oxidised into acetate

3. The Krebs cycle: electrons are

stripped off the acetate

4. The electron transport chain:

the energy in the electrons is
used to make ATP
 Mitochondria

Respiration takes place in

mitochondria in
eukaryotic cells
In the matrix and the
inner membrane
ATP synthesis performed
by ATP synthase
 Aerobic respiration of other fuels

Lipid breakdown
Used when carbohydrates are in short
supply
Fatty acids are broken down to give 2-
carbon acetyl fragments through -
oxidation
These enter the Krebs cycle and
eventually the electron transport chain

Protein breakdown
Amino acids broken down to organic
acids by deamination
Organic acids are fed into the Krebs cycle
and respired
 Anaerobic respiration

Does not require oxygen

Takes place in oxygen-poor Glucose
environments
e.g. stagnant water or deep soil
e.g. parts of an aerobic organisms that are
oxygen starved
Pyruvate oxidation
Glucose is broken down to pyruvate
Pyruvate cannot enter the Krebs cycle
due to lack of oxygen and is converted to Animals & Yeast &
a waste product bacteria plants
Animals and some bacteria convert
pyruvate to lactate by simple reduction
Plants and fungi convert pyruvate to Lactate EtOH & CO2
ethanol and carbon dioxide
 Anaerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration is usually

known as fermentation in
microorganisms
Bacteria produce lactic acid and are
used in the production of dairy
products
Anaerobic respiration in yeast is
known as alcoholic fermentation
Requires a carbohydrate, anaerobic
conditions and a suitable temperature
Many common anaerobic bacteria
can cause disease
e.g. Clostridium tetani tetanus
e.g. Clostridium difficile - diarrhoea
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

This method relies on aerobic respiration

Based on the measurement of dissolved oxygen used by
microorganisms in the biochemical oxidation of organic
matter
If sufficient O2 is available, decomposition of organic
waste will continue until all is consumed
Three distinct activities:
1. Oxidation
2. Synthesis
3. Endogenous respiration
All based on aerobic
respiration
 BOD

1. Oxidation
A portion of waste is oxidised to end products to obtain energy
for cell maintenance and the synthesis of new cell tissue

COHNS + O2 + bacteria CO2 + H2O + NH3

+ other end products + energy
The elements carbon,
oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen & sulphur
representing organic
waste
 BOD

2. Synthesis
Some of the waste is simultaneously converted into new cell
tissue using part of the energy released by oxidation
Waste is represented as COHNS below

COHNS + O2 + bacteria + energy

C5H7NO2

New cell tissue

 BOD

3. Endogenous respiration
Then the organic matter is used up, the new cells begin to
consume their own cellular material to obtain energy for cell
maintenance
C5H7NO2 below represents cell tissue

C5H7NO2 + 5O2 5CO2 + NH3 + 2H2O

 BOD application

The 5-day BOD (BOD5) is used:

1. To determine the approximate quantity of O2 that

will be required to biologically stabilise the organic
matter present
2. To determine the size of waste-treatment facilities
3. To measure the efficiency of some treatment
processes
4. To determine compliance with wastewater
discharge permits
 BOD limitations

Main limitations:
1. A high concentration of seed
bacteria is required
2. Pre-treatment is needed when
dealing with toxic wastes
3. Only the biodegradable organics
are measured
4. The test does not have
stoichiometric validity after the
soluble organic matter present in
the solution has been used
5. A relatively long period of time is
needed to obtain results
 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

The basis for the COD test is that nearly all organic
compounds can be fully oxidized to carbon dioxide
with a strong oxidising agent under acidic conditions
The COD test is used to
measure the O2 equivalent
of the organic material in
wastewater that can be
oxidised chemically using
dichromate (the oxidising
agent) in an acid solution
 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

The following formula is used:

CnHaObNc + dCr2O72- + (8d + c)H+

nCO2 + a + 8d 3c H2O + cNH4+ + 2d Cr3+
2

where d = 2n + a b c
3 6 3 2
 BOD vs COD

One would expect BOD and COD to correlate,

however they dont always
This is because:
1. Many organic substances which are difficult to oxidise
biologically, such as lignin, can be oxidised chemically
2. Inorganic substances that are oxidised by the dichromate
increase the apparent organic content of a sample
3. Certain organic substances may be toxic to the
microorganisms used in the BOD test
4. High COD values may occur because of the presence of
inorganic substances with which the dichromate can react
Photosynthesis
 Photosynthesis

Why is photosynthesis such

an important process?
Feeds the world
Replenishes oxygen
Photosynthetic organisms
capture the Suns energy and
use it to make carbohydrate
The carbohydrate is used by
these organisms but also by
non-photosynthetic species
that consume them
Literally turns air into food
 Photosynthesis

Takes place in higher plants, algae

(including seaweed) and
photosynthetic bacteria

Called producers or autotrophs

Produces billions of tonnes of

organic compounds
One estimate puts the figure at 70 x 1012
kg per year

Up to 50 % of all photosynthesis
takes place in the sea by
phytoplankton (algae)
 Photosynthesis

The synthesis of carbohydrate

in chloroplasts from CO2 as a
carbon source and water as a
hydrogen donor with the release
of O2 as a waste product
There are two stages:
Light energy is trapped by the green
pigment, chlorophyll, to drive the
synthesis of ATP (the light reaction)
This is subsequently used as an
energy source in carbohydrate
synthesis (the dark reaction)
 Photosynthesis

Basic summary equation for photosynthesis:

6CO2 + 6H2O light C6H12O6 + 6O2

chlorophyll

Note this is almost the exact reverse of respiration:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36ATP

Photosynthesis traps energy in organic molecules

and respiration releases it
 Adaptations for photosynthesis

Usually occurs in leaf

Thin so gases can diffuse
easily
Large surface area to
maximise light absorption
Waxy cuticle to reduce
evaporation
Rich vascular network:
Xylem fibres deliver water and
minerals
Phloem fibres remove the
products of photosynthesis
 Adaptations for photosynthesis

Palisade cells are the

most actively
photosynthetic
Deep and tightly packed
Chloroplasts can move to
get optimal light
Cells of the upper
epidermis have no
chloroplasts so more
light gets through
 Adaptations for photosynthesis

Guard cells surround the

stomata
Open during the day to allow
CO2 in
Close at night to reduce
water loss
Spongy mesophyll cells
create air spaces making
gas exchange more
efficient between the
atmosphere and the
palisade cells
 Chloroplasts

Organelle where photosynthesis

takes place
Usually 20-30 per cell
Double outer membrane
Elaborate inner membrane
system
Chlorophyll pigment stored in
thylakoids stacked into grana
Thylakoid membrane surrounds the
lumen
Surrounding fluid named
stroma
 Chlorophyll

Mixture of compounds
Chlorophylls a & b absorb red
and blue spectrum
Carotenoids like -carotene
harvest light from different
wavelengths
Chlorophylls a & b have an
intricate ring structure
surrounding a Mg2+ ion
Many double bonds
responsible for absorbing light
conjugated system
 The light-dependent reaction

1. Takes place in the

thylakoid
2. Light hits chlorophyll
3. Chlorophyll emits two
high-energy electrons
4. These pass through a
series of electron transfer
reactions that make ATP
and reduced NADP
5. The electrons lost from
the chlorophyll are
replaced when water is
split producing oxygen as
a by-product
 The light-independent reaction

1. Takes place in the

stroma
2. ATP and reduced
NADP are used to
power a series of
reactions known as the
Calvin cycle
3. CO2 is reduced into
carbohydrates
 Alternative strategies

We have been looking at

the most common
pathway: C3 pathway in
photosynthesis
There are two variations
on this theme:
CAM plants
C4 plants
 C3 plants

e.g. legumes, wheat, oats,

barley, rice
C3 plants open their stomata in
the day
In C3 plants the enzyme rubisco
is involved in the Calvin cycle
has an affinity for both CO2 and
O2
This competition leads to lower
efficiency in CO2 fixation
 CAM plants

Crassulacean acid metabolism

(CAM) plants
e.g. pineapple, cactus, lillies,
orchids
Adapted to very hot and dry
environments:
Having fewer stomata
Having a lower surface area-to-volume
ratio
only opening their stomata in the night
to take up the CO2 they need for
photosynthesis
CO2 is stored in the form of an organic
acid, malate, during the night
Malate is then broken down into CO2
during the day
 C4 plants

C4 plants grow in the tropics

e.g. sugar cane, corn,
bermuda grass, sorghum
Show remarkably rapid
growth compared to C3 plant
C4 plants use an alternative
enzyme, PEP carboxylase
during the Calvin cycle
This enzyme has a greater affinity
for CO2 than Rubisco and doesnt
react with O2
Better CO2 fixation
 What limits photosynthesis?

Very important in agriculture

and commercially

1. Light intensity
Varies according to latitude
Varies according to time of day and
year
Cloud cover
Shade
Compensation point: rate of
photosynthesis equals the rate of
respiration
Plants adapted to shady conditions
have a low compensation point
What limits photosynthesis?

Compensation point
 What limits photosynthesis?

2. Water supply
A lack of water tends to affect other
plant functions before it affects
photosynthesis
3. Carbon dioxide
Most important limiting factor after
light intensity
Necessary substrate
4. Temperature
Optimal temperature for C3 plants
is 25 C and 35 C for C4 plants
5. Inorganic ions
Certain ions are required for plant
health
Nitrogen and magnesium for
chlorophyll molecule
 Reading

Collins Advanced Science Biology. Eds. Boyle &

Senior. 3rd Edition, 2008.
Chapters 7-9 Energetics
Environmental Biology for Engineers and Scientists.
Eds. Vaccari, Strom & Alleman. Wiley, 2006.
Chapter 5 Energy and Metabolism (lots of chemistry)
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and
Science. Eds. Masters & Ela. Pearson, 2008.
Chapter 5 Water pollution (BOD)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0IJMRsTcwcg
 The four stages of glucose respiration

No of ATP Acetyl Co-A (acetyl

Site within
Stage
cell
Overall process molecules coenzyme-A):
produced
Glycolysis Cytosol Glucose split into 2 2 per glucose Pyruvate is oxidised to
molecules of acetate and picked up by
pyruvate
coenzyme A to form acetyl
Pyruvate Matrix (inner Pyruvate is converted None Co-A
oxidation fluid) of into acetyl Co-A
mitochondria
Krebs Matrix (inner Acetyl Co-A drives a 4 per glucose
cycle fluid) of cycle of reactions
mitochondria which produce
hydrogen
Electron Inner Hydrogen drives a Up to 32 per
transport membrane of series of redox glucose
chain mitochondria reactions which
release enough
energy to make ATP

Total?
 Aerobic respiration of glucose

Respiration involves the removal of electrons from the

glucose molecules, then using the energy in the
electrons to make ATP
NADH (NAD: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) is
an electron carrier
NAD+ + e- NADH

Coenzyme + electron reduced coenzyme

NAD+ is a coenzyme that picks up electrons from the processes that release
them (glycolysis; link reaction (pyruvate oxydation); Krebs cycle) and delivers
them to the process that converts them to ATP (the electron transport chain)
The 2 molecules of NADH made during glycolysis cannot carry their electrons
into the electron transport chain as the mitochondrial membrane is
impermeable to NADH, therefore we get 36 rather than 38 molecules of ATP
per glucose
 Aerobic respiration of glucose

In a cell, ATP is made by adding a phosphate group

to a molecule of ADP phosphorylation

Substrate-level phosphorylation: phosphate group

from a substrate molecule is transferred to ADP to
form ATP (e.g. in glycolysis & Krebs cycle)

Oxidative phosphorylation: ATP is synthesised using

free phosphate groups. The energy required is
obtained from a series of redox reactions from the
electron transport chain