BIODIVERSITY-AN OVERVIEW

11.1 Biodiversity and classification

11.2 Kingdom Monera
11.3 Kingdom Protista
11.3.1 Algae
11.3.2 Protozoa
11.4 Kingdom Fungi
11.5 Kingdom Plantae
11.5.1 Phylum Bryophyta
11.5.2 Phylum Pteridophyta
11.5.3 Gymnosperms
11.5.4 Angiosperms
11.6 Kingdom Animalia
11.6.1 - Phylum Porifera
11.6.2 -Phylum Coelentrata/cnidaria
11.6.3 -Phylum Platyhelminthes
11.6.4 -Phylum Nematoda
11.6.5 -Phylum Annelida
11.6.6 - Phylum Arthropoda
11.6.7 - Phylum Mollusca
11.6.8 - Phylum Echinodermata
11.6.9 - Phylum Chordata

11.7 Biodiversity in Malaysia

 Learning outcomes

State types of biodiversity (genetic,

species and ecosystem diversity).
To explain hierarchical classification
State the five-kingdom classification
system based on the levels of cell
organization, organism and types of
nutrition.
 WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY?

Refer to the total number of species, the variability of

their genes, and the communities in which they live. (The
number, variety, and genetic variation of different organisms found
within a specified geographic region)
In terms of hierarchy, biodiversity can be grouped
into 3 elements;

Genetic Diversity

Species Diversity

Ecological Diversity
 Types of Diversity
Species Diversity
The existence of a wide variety of species

Ecological Diversity
The existence of a wide variety of species in a
natural community or habitat

Genetic Diversity
The existence of a wide variety of genetic
variation within a species
 Hierarchical classification (e.g : corn)
Plantae
Kingdom:
Terrestrial, multicellular, photosynthetic organisms

Anthophyta
Phylum:
Vascular plants with flowers, fruits and seeds

Monocotyledonae
Class : Monocots: Flowering plants with one seed
leaf(cotyledon) and flower parts in threes

Commelinales
Order : Monocots with reduced flower parts, elongated leaves
and dry 1-seeded fruits

Poaceae
Family: Grasses with hollow stems; fruits is a grain; and
abundant endosperm in seed

Zea
Genus:
Tall annual grass with separate female and male flower

Zea mays
Species:
Only one species in genus corn
 Kingdom :
Animalia
Phylum :
Chordata
Class :
Mammalia
Order :
Carnivora
Family :
Ursidae
Genus :
Ursus
Species :
Ursus maritimus
(polar bear)
 Classification of cat
Kingdom : Animalia
Subkingdom: Eumetazoa
Phylum : Chordata
Subphylum : Vertebrata
Class : Mammalia
Subclass : Theria
Order : Carnivora
Suborder : Feliformia
Family : Felidae
Subfamily : Felinae
Genus : Felis
Species : Felis catus
 FIVE-KINGDOM SYSTEM
In 1969, Robert Whittaker
(ecologist) proposed 5
kingdom classification
scheme.
Kingdom Monera
Kingdom Protista
Kingdom Fungi
Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Animalia
WHITTAKERS FIVE-KINGDOM SYSTEM
The Classification system using:
The level of cell organization :
Prokaryote (no distinct nucleus &
membranous organelles)
Eukaryote (have distinct nucleus &
membranous organelles)

Organism :
Unicellular
Multicellular

Feeding mode :
Saprophytic
Photosynthetic
Holozoic
Classification system using the levels of the
cell organization, organism and feeding mode

Organisms

Prokaryote (monera) Eukaryote

Unicell Multicell

Feeding mode

Absorption (fungi)

Photosynthesis (plantae)

Ingestion (animalia)
 Classify an organism in the
appropriate kingdom

Based on the levels of the cell organization

Determine whether organism is prokaryote or eukaryote

Based on the organism

If organism is prokaryote, Decide whether organism is archaebacteria or
eubacteria by learning about its characteristic such as presence of peptidoglycan

Based on the mode of nutrition

Decide whether organism is Saprophytic, Photosynthetic, or Holozoic
 Kingdom Monera
Prokaryote (no distinct nucleus & membranous organelles)
Kingdom consisting of simple unicellular
organisms
Their methods of feeding is are extremely
varied: producer (photoautotroph and
chemoautotroph) and decomposers
(heterotroph).
Examples :
Bacteria
Blue green algae
 Kingdom Protista
Eukaryotes (have distinct nucleus & membranous
organelles)
Consisting of simple unicellular or multicellular
organisms
Photoautotroph or heterotroph.
Examples :
Alga (Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra and Fucus)
Protozoa ( Amoeba, Paramecium and Euglena)
 Kingdom Fungi
Multicellular eukaryotic organisms that reproduce by
spores
Heterotrophs (Feed by extracellular digestion and
absorption)
Most decomposers (nutrient cycle)
Others pathogens and parasites
Examples :
Rhizophus
Penicillium
Agaricus
 Kingdom Plantae
Eukaryotic
Multicell, chloroplast-equipped producers
(photoautotroph).
Examples :
Bryophyta
Pteridophyta
Gymnosperma
Angiosperma
 Kingdom Animalia
Eukaryotic
Multicellular heterotrophs (holozoic)
Examples :
Porifera
Coelentrata
Platyhelminthes
Chordata
Prokaryotic cells do not have membrane-enclosed organelle such as
nuclei and mitochondria

KINGDOM MONERA
11.2 KINGDOM MONERA
 Learning outcomes :
At the end of the lesson students should be able :
To explain the unique characteristics of kingdom
Monera
Classify kingdom monera into:
i) Eubacteria included cynobacteria
ii) Archaebacteria
Describe the diversity of bacteria (cell shapes, gram
stain and position of flagella).
Explain the importance the bacteria
 INTRODUCTION
Antoine Van Leeuwenhoek (1632
1723) - the first person seen
bacteria.

Bacteria is the eldest living things

about 3.5 bilion years ago.
 UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS
Prokaryote (without
nucleus) and
unicellular

Cytoplasm
contain chromosomes
and plasmid
- lack membrane
enclosed organelles
(mitochondria &
Reticulum endoplasm)
The structure of common bacteria
 Unique characteristics
Have a circular DNA
molecule
- Generally have a single
chromosome, circular
DNA)
- without histone
- Most bacteria also have
plasmids (smaller
circular fragment of
DNA)
 Unique characteristics
Cell wall
- is made up of peptidoglycan
- Some species produce capsule (provide
protection against phagocytosis and attach to
surface)
- Pili help bacteria to adhere to one another or
attach to certain surface.
sex pili important in transmitting DNA between
bacteria.
 Unique characteristics
Many bacteria are motile
- Flagella for movement or
mobility
Reproduce by binary fission
Endospore formation if
condition is not suitable
 Unique characteristics
Mesosome an
invagination of the
plasma membrane to
form a simple
membranous structure.
 Unique characteristic
Many bacteria are
heterotrophs.
- Free living decomposers
that obtain their carbon and
energy from dead organic
matter.
Others are autotrophs.
Certain bacteria are
parasites - living in host,
draw glucose and other
nutrient
 Classification of bacteria
1)Eubacteria 2) Archaebacteria
true bacteria. Major Live in environments so
group of bacteria extreme that a few
other organisms can
survive

(E. coli)
 KINGDOM MONERA

Eubacteria (E. coli &

Cynobacteria)
-Cannot tolerate
extreme environment
-Peptidoglican is
present in cell wall
-Lipid structure in
plasma membrane:
straight-chain fatty
acids bonded to glycerol
by ester linkage
-DNA is not wrap
round histone protein
Eubacteria (E. coli)
 Cyanobacteria
(Blue green algae)

eg: Nostoc & Anabaena

 Unique Characteristic

Compose of few layers that contains

peptidoglycan.
Gram ve bacteria
Blue green in colour
Photoautotrophic (photosynthesis)
No Flagella
- Movement : glide, whirl and wave
Habitat: aquatic
 Have filamentous
containing differentiated
cells called heterocysts
- Contain enzymes that fix
nitrogen gas (N2) into
ammonium (NH4+) for
use by the growing cell.
(Nitrogen fixation)
 Have akinete (nonmotil reproductive cell) which
protect the organism during periods of darkness,
drying or freezing
 Archaebacteria
(Sulfolobus)

- Adapted to extreme
environment
- Peptidoglican is not
present in cell wall
- Lipid structure in
plasma membrane:
Branched-chain
hydrocarbons linked to
glycerol by ether linkage
- allows them to function
at high temperatures
- DNA is wrap round
histone protein
Archaebacteria (Sulfolobus)
 Comparison of archaebacteria and
eubacteria
Character Eubacteria Archaebacteria
Nuclear envelope and Absence Absence
membrane enclosed
organelle
Peptidoglycan in cell wall Present Absence
Membrane lipid Unbranched hydrocarbon Some Branched
hydrocarbon
Histone associated with Absence Present in some species
DNA
Circular chromosome Present Present
Response to the Growth inhibited Growth not inhibited
antibiotic (e.g:
streptomysin)
Growth at temp. >100C No Some species
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
Describe the diversity of bacteria
i. based on cell shapes
ii. gram-stain
iii. Position of flagella
Explain the importance the bacteria.
The diversity of bacteria

Based on cell shapes

Gram-stain
Position of flagella
BACTERIAL SHAPE
 Spherical

Single (s : coccus, pl : cocci)

2 cells (diplococcus)
colonies (staphylococcus)
 Rod

Single cell (bacillus)

Chains
(streptobacillus)
 Spiral

Spirillum
Single
 Classify many bacterial species into two
groups based on differences in cell wall
composition

Gram stain :
A) GRAM-POSITIVE
B) GRAM-NEGATIVE
 Gram Positive Bacteria
Simpler cell wall with a
relatively large amount of
peptidoglycan.(less lipids)

Stained with Crystal violet

violet stain remain.

Peptidoglycan traps the

crystal violet in the
cytoplasm.

Violet stain is not washable

even by using alcohol

Eg: Staphylococcus sp.,

Bacillus sp.
 Gram Negative Bacteria
Cell wall
thin layers of peptidoglycan
(inner layer)
lipid bilayer : lipoprotein and
lipopolysaccharide (outer
layer)

Stained with crystal violet the

crystal violet is easily rinsed
from the cytoplasm
Stain with safranin - appear
bright pink to red color
Eg : Pseudomonas sp., E.coli sp.
Gram stain
 Position of flagella
Bacteria that possess flagella are known as flagellates.
The positions of the flagella give the bacteria different
names as follows:
Monotrichous a single polar flagellum
Amphitrichous a flagellum occurs at each of the
two ends

Monotrichous Amphitrichous
 Lophotrichous two or
more flagella at one
pole of the cell
Lophotrichous

Peritrichous Flagella
distributed over the
entire cell
Peritrichous
IMPORTANCE OF
BACTERIA
 1) Recycling of chemical elements in
ecosystem (nitrogen fixation)
Cycling of the nitrogen between organism and
environment
Live in nodules (sperical swelling) on the root of
legumes-eg:beans,peas,clover
Convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to ammonia
(NH3) a form of nitrogen used by plants.
 2) Symbiotic prokaryote
a) Mutualistic bacteria
E.coli that live in the intestines of humans
benefit from undigested material and release
vitamins K and B12,
which we use to produce blood components.
In the stomachs of cows and goats, mutualistic
bacteria digest cellulose.

a) Commensalistic bacteria
Live in or on organism of other species and
cause them no harm.
 3) Pathogenic bacteria
Some bacteria are pathogenic.
Neisseria gonorrhoeae the causative agent of
the sexually transmitted disease gonorrhoea
Other disease caused by bacteria:
a) cholera Vibrio cholera (from human
faeces)
b) food poisoning Salmonella sp.
 4) Prokaryote in the research and
technology
Used to digest organic wastes, chemical
products, make vitamins and antibiotics.
Food products such as yogurt and cheese have
been using commercially
Bacteria are much used in genetic
engineering. Eg: E.coli
As a biological control agent: Bacillus
thuringiensis ( attacks insects )
11.3

KINGDOM PROTISTA
 Learning outcomes:
Describe unique characteristics of Protista
State the classification of Protista
i. two major phyla of algae
ii. four major phyla of protozoa
 Unique characteristics
Eukaryote: enclosed
nucleus & membrane-
enclosed organelles
Body from: Unicellular,
colony & simple
multicellular
Photoautotrophs &
heterotroph organisms
Most of which are
motile
 Unique characteristics
Mostly are free-living
Habitat - in water or
very damp surfaces
Reproduction: Asexual,
sexual & syngamy
Great diversity in
structure unicellular to
simple filamentous or to
huge seaweeds
Major Types of Protista:

11.3.1 Algae
11.3.2 Protozoa
 Classification of Protista:
2 major phyla of Algae:

- Chlorophyta (green algae, Chlamydomonas)

- Phaeophyta (brown algae, Fucus)

4 major phyla of Protozoa:

- Euglenophyta (Euglena)
- Rhizopoda (Ameoba)
- Ciliophora (Paramecium)
- Apicomplexa (Plasmodium)
 11.3.1 Algae
Learning outcomes:

Describe the unique characteristics of Algae

 Unique characteristics
of Algae
Simple eukaryotic photoautotrophs
Range in size (from unicellular to
multicellular)
They are not considered plants because they
lack many plant structures
Algae lack cuticle
Algal gametangia (organ that produce gamete)
generally are formed from single cells
 Unique characteristics
of Algae
Classification into phyla is largely based on
their pigment composition
Habitat : Damp or wet environment
The body of a multicellular algae is called a
thallus
Algae absorb nutrients from the water over
their entire surface
All algae can reproduced asexually (formation
of fragment, mitosis)
 Two major phyla of algae:
Chlorophyta Phaeophyta
(green algae) (brown algae)

Chlamydomonas Fucus
Chlamydomonas


Fucus
 Structures of brown
algae:
Stipe: stem-like structure
which support blade
Blade: leaf-like structure in
which photosynthesis occur
Bladder: gas-filled
structure that provide
buoyancy
Holdfast: Root-like
structure which anchors
the algae
 11.3.2 Protozoa
Learning outcomes:

Describe unique characteristics of Protozoa

Discuss the importance of Protists

 Unique characteristics of
Protozoa:
Eukaryotic
Unicellular organism
Chemoheterotrophic organism
Most free living
Reproduce asexually by fission, budding or
schizogony (multiple fission), conjugation
Inhabit water & soil
Eg: Euglena, Amoeba, Paramecium and
Plasmodium
 Classification of Protozoa:
Phylum Euglenophyta
(Euglena sp.)

Phylum Rhizopoda (Amoeba

sp.)

Phylum Ciliophora
(Paramecium sp.)

Phylum Apicomplexa
(Plasmodium sp.)
Phylum Euglenophyta

Euglena
Phylum Rhizopoda
(Amoeba sp.)
Phylum Ciliophora (Paramecium sp.)

Cilia

Oral Groove
Macronucleus
Food Vacuole
forming Micronucleus

Food Vacuole

Contractile Vacuole
Paramecium sp.
Phylum Apicomplexa
(Plasmodium sp.)
Plasmodium sp.
 The importance of Protista

i. Roles in biosphere
- Involved in CO2 fixation
- Half of carbon dioxide
fixation is carried out by
marine algae in the
surface layer of oceans
 The importance of Protista
i. Food souces (Additional
food)
Chlorella, Spirulina
Spirulina & Chlorella is the
highest source of B-12,
essential for healthy nerves and
tissue, especially for
vegetarians.
Both high in protein (half of it
consists of amino acids)
Have vitamins & minerals
Able to stimulate the immune
system, spirulina may have
antiviral and anticancer effects.
Help protect against harmful
allergic reactions
 Nori. The red alga Porphyra is the
source of a traditional Japanese food. ii) Food source
The seaweed is
grown on nets in
shallow coastal
waters.

The harvested
seaweed is spread
on bamboo screens
to dry.

Paper-thin, glossy sheets of nori

make a mineral-rich wrap for rice,
seafood, and vegetables in sushi.
 The importance of Protista
iii. Eutrophication (Algal Bloom)
- Having waters rich in mineral and organic
nutrients that stimulate excessive growth of
phytoplankton algae in an aquatic system
(algal bloom)
- Provide oxygen for the aerobic bacteria.
(eg: green algae which breakdown sewage)
- Reduces the dissolved oxygen content
- Often causes the extinction of other organisms.
- Colors observed are green, yellowish-brown or
red
- Drinking water polluted
 The importance of Protista
iv. Red tide (red algae)
The blooms, which frequently
color coastal waters orange,
red or brown are known as red
tides.
Caused by species of
dinoflagellates
Produce a toxin that attacks the
nervous systems of fishes,
leading to fish died
Bird sometimes died when
exposed to toxin by eating the
died fish
11.4

KINGDOM FUNGI
 .

FUNGI
 Learning outcomess
To describe unique characteristics of
Fungi

State the classification of Fungi into

three major phyla: Phylum Zygomycota,
Ascomycota and Basidiomycota.

Discuss the importance of Fungi

 Unique characteristics
Structural organisation
Eukaryote (cell with
membrane bound nucleus
and membranous
organelles)
Fungal body
structure are
multicellular and single
cell (yeast)
Fungal cell wall are
contain chitin
 Unique characteristics
Structural organization
The bodies of all fungi
are filamentous (except
unicellular fungi).
- Individual filaments are
hyphae (pl) / hypha (s)
- Hyphae branch profusely
forming network called
mycelium
 Unique characteristics
Structural organization
in most fungi, hyphae
are divided into cell by cross
walls or septa.
Body are thallus ( root,
stem & leaf cannot be
differentiates)

Hyphae with septa :

Septate hyphae

Hyphae lack septa :

Coenocytic hypha
Hyphae
 Unique characteristics
Spores
Spores are produced either
asexually and sexually:
- asexual reproduction
spores
- sexual reproduction after
plasmogamy and karyogamy
of different mating strain,
leading to the formation of
zygospores, ascospores and
basidiospores.
Life cycle of fungi
 Unique characteristics
Energy reserve is glycogen, not
starch
Heterotroph
No chlorophyll
Lives in dark, humid & rich in
organic compound environment
Mostly resistant to pH & extreme
temperature & high osmotic pressure
Non motile
 The Filamentous Body
of a Fungus
(a) Mycelium (c) Hyphal Cells (cutaway)
Haploid
Cytoplasm Nuclei

Septum
(b) Individual Hyphae
Pore

Cell Walls
 Nutritional mode
Saprobes (saprobionts)

- absorbs nutrients from non-living

organic material
- Fungi and bacteria decomposers of
the biosphere
- eg: mildew, field mushrooms
Parasites

- absorbs nutrients from the cells of

living hosts
- either it kill or might not kill the
cell hosts
 Mutualistic symbionts (lichen)

- Absorbs nutrient from another organism

- but reciprocate with beneficial functions
to their partners
- Associatian between division
ascomycetes, and unicellular
green algae or cyanobacteria
- eg : aiding a plant in the
uptake of minerals from
the soil
Some mutualistic and parasitic fungi grow
specialized hyphae called haustoria.

Can extract nutrients from living plant cells

Lichens:Symbiotic Partnerships

Algal Layer

Fungal Hyphae

Attachment
Structure
Lichen
 Classification
3 main phyla :

Zygomycota Ascomycota Basidiomycota

Agaricus
Rhizopus
(club fungi)
Fungi
 Zygomycota
Rhizopus
 Structure of Zygomycota (e.g.
Rhizopus)
Stolon: horizontal
vegetative hyphae
Rhizoid: hyphae
structured like root
Sporangiophore:
upright hyphae
 Phylum Ascomycota (Penicillium &
Saccharomyces)
Ascomycetes (sac
fungi)
Yeasts (unicellular
Ascomycete)
Most are composed
of septate hyphae.

Penicillium
 Phylum Basidiomycota
(Club fungi /mushroom)
 Some Basidiomycetes

(a) Giant Puffball

(b) Shelf Fungi
THE IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI
Decomposers:

Most fungi are saprotrophs

Saprotrophs decomposers that

absorb nutrient from organic wastes
and dead organisms.

Able to degrade cellulose and lignin

 Symbionts
Fungi form symbiotic relationships with
plants, algae, cynobacteria and animals.
All these relationships have profound
ecological effects.
 As a pathogens

Responsible for many serious plant

disease
Certain animal disease, Candidiasis a
yeast infection of mucous membranes
at the mouth, throat or vagina
Histoplasmosis in serious infection of
the lungs : inhaling spores of fungus,
common in soil contaminated with bird
feces.
 Production of beverages and food

Yeasts - produce ethyl alcohol and

carbon dioxide from sugars (e.g :
glucose) through fermentation

make wine, beer and other fermented

beverages (used in making bread)
Produce useful drugs and chemicals

Penicillium notatum - penicillin : antibiotics

(inhibit the growth of bacteria).
Drugs derived from fungi
griseofuluin (used clinically to inhibit
the growth of fungi)

lovastation (used to lower blood

cholesterol levels)

Some fungi - grown commercially to

produce citric acid and other industrial
chemicals
 11.5
KINGDOM PLANTAE
 LEARNING OUTCOMES:

Describe unique characteristics of

plantae.

State the classification of Plantae into:

Bryophytes, Pteridophytes,
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
 Unique characteristics
Multicellular
Eukaryotes
Photosynthetic autotrophs
Vascular and nonvascular
plant
Alternation of generation
(two generation life cycle)
 Alternation of generation
The life cycles of all land
plants alternate between two
different multicellular bodies.

Two generation life cycle:

(i) sporophyte is
generation diploid(2n)
- production of spores
by meiosis.
- spore is haploid (n)
 Alternation of generation
(ii) gametophytes is the generation haploid (n)
- production by mitosis of haploid gamet.
Classification of plant:
 11.5.1
BRYOPHYTES
 LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of the lesson students should be
able to :
1. Describe the unique characteristics of Bryophytes
2. State the classification of Bryophytes into 3 phyla:
i. phylum Bryophyte (Polytrichum sp.)
ii. phylum Hepatophyta (Marchantia sp.)
iii. Phylum Anthocerophyta (Anthoceros sp.)
1. Describe the sexual life cycle of Polytrichum sp. to
show alternation of generation
Unique characteristics of Bryophytes

Nonvascular plants- water

transported through rhizoids.

Small plants and seedless

the body form is often a

flattened shape called thallus,
do not have true roots, stem and

leaves
 Unique characteristics of Bryophyta

Lack of a cuticle
little protection
againts
dessication

Homosporous-
produced only
one type of spore
 Unique characteristics of Bryophyta
Life cycle alteration of generation:
i. Sexual (gametophyte generation -n)
- dominant phase of the life cycle
 Unique characteristics of Bryophyta
Life cycle alteration of generation:
ii. Asexual ( sporophyte generation- 2n)
- smaller and shorter lived
- depend on the gametophytes for the
water and nutrient
Unique characteristics of Bryophyta
Their gametes develop within gametangia
(Sporophyte).
 Unique characteristics of Bryophyta

The male gametangium

known as an
antheridium produces
flagellated sperm.
 Unique characteristics of Bryophyta

In each female
gametangium or
archegonium
produce ovum.
Terrestrial Adaptations for Bryophyta

A sterile jacket prevent antheridia and archegonia

from drying out.

Bryophyte depend on water to live - only live at moist

place

Zygote and embryo still live in archegonia to prevent

from drying.

The presence of stoma facilitate the movement of

gasses.
 Classification of Bryophyte
Phylum Bryophyta
(moss- Polytricum sp.)

Phylum Hepatophyta
(Liverworts Marchantia sp.)

Phylum Anthocerophyta
(Anthoceros sp.)
Phylum Bryophyta
Moss - Polytricum sp.
 Phylum Hepatophyta
(Liverworts Marchantia sp.)
Phylum Anthocerophyta
Anthoceros sp.
Life cycle sexual reproduction
Polytricum sp.
 Gametophyte generation (n)
The gametophyte of
mosses develop in two
stages :
Protonema : is a green
algal-like (a branching
filaments of cell.
Gametophyte : after
about 3 days of
favorable growing
conditions, up straight
leafy shoots are seen at
intervals along the
protonema.
 Gametophyte generation (n)
2 type of gamete
The anterozoid (sperm)
formed in the antheridium
have flagella

The oosphere /egg formed

in the archegonium
 Sporophyte generation (n)
- Green capsule able to do
photosynthesis
- less depend on the
gamethophtes
- contain stoma and layers
of cuticles cover.
-Produce spore develop
into protonema
-Protonema produce bud,
develop into young
mosses plants (leaflike)
 Life cycle sexual reproduction
Polytricum sp.

Male gametophyte
possess antheridium
that produces
antherozoids

Female gametophyte
possess archegonium
that produced oosphere
/egg
 Life cycle sexual reproduction
Polytricum sp.
Antherozoid use
flagella to swim
through miosture and
then fertilize the ovum
to form zygote (2n)

Zygote develops into a

new sporophyte
emerging from
gametophyte.
 Life cycle sexual reproduction
Polytricum sp.
Sporophyte generation
consist food, seta and
capsule
Sporophyte generation
is dependent on the
gametophyte
generation for nutrient
and water
Sporophyte produces
spore(n) by meiosis in
the capsule
 Life cycle sexual reproduction
Polytricum sp.
When the sporangium
lid pops off, the
peristome teeth
release of the spores
Spores develop into
threadlike protonema
The haploid protonema
produce bud that
grow into
gametophytes
 11.5.2
Pteridophytes

Lycopodium sp.
Selaginella sp.
Dryopteris sp.
 Learning outcome :
Student should be able to :

Explain unique characteristics of the

Pteridophytes

Classified Pteridophytes into two phyla:

Phylum Lycopodiophyta (Lycopodium sp.,
Selaginella sp.)
Phylum Pteridophyta (Dryopteris sp.)
 Unique Characteristics
1. Seedless plant
2. Presence of simple vascular system
Xylem Lignified vascular tissue permitted
vascular plant to grow to greater height than
bryophyte
Phloem Transport the nutrient from soil &
photosynthesis product
composed only tracheids and
sieve tube

3. Presence of cuticle to prevent from

desiccation/dry out
 Unique Characteristics
1. Dominant generation is sporophyte the
sporophyte is independent from gametophyte

1. Sporophyte has been differentiated into true

root, stem and leaves
True roots anchor vascular plants and
allow the shoot system to grow taller
True stem become strong enough to
withstand droping.

1. Have two types of spore production

heterospore and homospore
Two types of spore production

Homospore : one types of spore

(Dryopteris sp. and Lycopodium sp.)

Heterospore :2 types of spore

(Sellaginella sp.)
Microsporagium microspore
male gametophyte
(microgametophytes)
Megasporagium megaspore
female gametophytes (mega
gametophytes)
Selaginella sp. Lycopodium sp.
Dryopteris sp.
 Classification of Pteridophytes
Phylum
Lycopodiophyta
eg: Lycopodium sp.
Selaginella sp.
 Classification of Pteridophytes

Phylum
Pteridophyta
eg: Dryopteris sp.
11.5 KINGDOM PLANTAE
 Seed plant

Naked seed Cover seed

Gymnosperms Angiosperms
(Phylum Anthophyta /
Phylum Mangnoliophyta )
Coniferophyta
(Pinus sp.)
Phylum Cycadophyta Class Dicotyledonae
(Cycas sp.) (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis)

Phylum Ginkgophyta Class Monocotyledonae.

(Ginkgo sp.) (zea mays)

Phylum Gnetophyta
(Gnetum sp.)
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
Describe the unique characteristics of
Gymnosperms

State the classification of gymnosperms into

four phyla:
Phylum Coniferophyta (Pinus sp.)
Phylum Cycadophyta (Cycas sp.)
Phylum Ginkgophyta (Ginkgo sp.)
Phylum Gnetophyta (Gnetum sp.)
11.5.3 Gymnosperms
 INTRODUCTION
Gymnosperm means naked seed.

The group includes seed plants in which the

seed are exposed on the surface of spore-
producing structures, sporophylls.

Reproductive organs are usually borne in

cones on which the sporophylls are spirally
arranged.
Unique characteristics of Gymnosperms
Presence of vascular system
Xylem only have tracheids
except Gnetophyta
Phloem only have sieve
tube

Dominant generation is
sporophyte the
gametophyte is dependent
from sporophyte
Unique characteristics of Gymnosperms

Consist of 2 types of
spores microspore,
megaspore called
Heterospore.

Naked seeds:Their
seeds are exposed on
modified leaves that
usually form cones
Unique characteristics of Gymnosperms

Fertilization is not
depend on water. Need
the pollination agent
only wind

No double fertilization
and no endosperm
forming.
Classification Of Gymnosperms
Phylum Coniferophyta
(Pinus sp.)

Phylum Cycadophyta
(Cycas sp.)

Phylum Ginkgophyta
(Ginkgo sp.)

Phylum Gnetophyta
(Gnetum sp.)
Phylum Coniferophyta
(Pinus sp.)
Phylum Cycadophyta
(Cycas sp.)
Phylum Ginkgophyta
(Ginkgo sp.)
Phylum Gnetophyta
(Gnetum sp.)
 11.5.4
ANGIOSPERMS
 Learning Outcomes
Describe the unique characteristics of
angiosperms ( Phylum Anthophyta /
Mangnoliophyta )

State the classification of angiosperm into two

classes:
i. Class Dicotyledonae
(Hibiscus rosa-sinensis)
ii. Class Monocotyledonae.
(zea mays)
 Seed plant

Naked seed Cover seed

Gymnosperms Angiosperms
(Phylum Anthophyta /
Phylum Mangnoliophyta )
Coniferophyta
(Pinus sp.)
Phylum Cycadophyta Class Dicotyledonae
(Cycas sp.) (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis)

Phylum Ginkgophyta Class Monocotyledonae.

(Ginkgo sp.) (zea mays)

Phylum Gnetophyta
(Gnetum sp.)
 Unique characteristics of Angiosperms
The largest phylum of plants.

All angiosperms are placed in

a single phylum, phylum
Anthophyta / Magnoliophyta

Dominant generation is
sporophyte the
gametophyte is dependent
from sporophyte
 Unique characteristics of Angiosperms
Presence of vascular system
Xylem have tracheids and
vessel element.
Phloem have sieve tube
members and
companion cell
Ovules are surrounded by an
ovary wall (produce seeds
within a fruits)

Fertilization is not depend on

water. Need the pollination
agent such insects and wind.
 Unique characteristics of Angiosperms
Flowering plants has
a flowering plant life-
cycle (double
fertilization)

A flower is a
specialized shoot with
four circles of modified
leaves: sepals, petals,
stamens, and carpals.
 Classification Of Angiosperms
Two main classes:
Class Monocotyledonae Class Dicotyledonae

Zea mays Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

11.5.5 Evolutionary relationship in
plant kingdom
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
Explain the evolutionary relationships among
groups in the plant kingdom (bryophytes to
angiosperms) based on:
i) size
ii) dominance of gametophytes and sporophytes
iii) dependence of gametophytes and
sporophytes
iv) water dependence in fertilization
v) Presence of vascular tissues
vi) Embryo protection
 Evolutionary relationships among groups in
the plant kingdom
C ha ra c te ris tic s B ryophyte s P te ridophyte s G ym nos pe rm A ng ios pe rm

S iz e S m a ll V a ried s hrub to T ree W oody tree,

tree va ried hug e
tree
D om ina nc e of G am etophytes S porophytes S porophytes S porophytes
g a m e tophyte s
& s porophyte s
D e pe nde nc e of S porophytes S porophytes is G a m etophytes G a m etophyte
g a m e tophyte s depends on independent depends on s depends on
& s porophyte s g a m etophytes from s porophytes s porophytes
g a m etophytes

W a te r F ully depend N eed wa ter for N o need wa ter N o need

de pe nde nc e in on wa ter fertiliz ation for fertiliz a tion wa ter for
fe rtiliz a tion m edium fertiliz a tion
 Evolutionary relationships among groups in
the plant kingdom
C ha ra cteris tic B ryophyta P teridophyta G ymnos perm A ng ios perm
s
P res ence of A bs ence P res ence but P res ence, P res ence
va s cula r cannot be P hloem: no
tis s ue dis tinguis hed companion,
between xylem xylem: no ves s el
& phloem element
E mbryo none none S eed protect the F ruit
protection embryo s urrounding
the s eed
protect
embryo
20.6 KINGDOM
ANIMALIA

189
 Learning outcome:
Describe the unique
characteristics of
Kingdom Animalia

State the classification of

Animalia into nine
phyla :
- please refer to
phylogenetic tree 190
>>>>>>
 UNIQUE CHARACTERISTIC OF
ANIMALS :
Eukaryotes ,Multicellular & lack cell wall
This cell is specialize to form tissue and organ.
Nutritional Mode- Heterotrophic
- as consumer, depend on producers for their raw materials and energy.
Tissues develop from embryonic layers
Mobile that help them to reproduce, obtain food and protect
themselves
Cells are specialized to perform specific function
In general, the reproduction is sexual but certain reproduce by
asexual
An adult animal are fixed in size and shape - do not continue to
191
grow
 Animals can be characterized by
body plans
Some of the major features of
animal body plans:

Symmetry
Tissue organization
Body cavity

192
 Symmetry
Animals can be categorized
according to the symmetry of their Multiple plane can be
bodies (or its absence). drawn through central
axis.
Divide to 2 group:

i. Radial symmetry animal

- Has a top (oral or mouth) and
bottom (aboral), they have no head
and rear end, no left and right side.

- Sessile ( living attach to a

substrate) or planktonic (drifting or
weekly swimming)
193
ii) Bilateral symmetry Can be divided through only
animal one plane to produce
equivalent right and left
halves that are mirror image.

- Has dorsal (top),

ventral (bottom),
anterior (head) and
posterior (tail)
- Has a left side & a right
side
- More actively from place
to place
194
 Radial
Asymmetrical
Eg: Phylum
Eg: phylum
Cnidaria
porifera

Radial Symmetry

Bilateral Eg: Phylum

Chordata

Bilateral Symmetry
195
 Tissue organization
Animal can be grouped into two type of animals till
tissue
remember ?
organization
germ layers
i) Parazoa formed during
gastrulation of the
- No true tissue/No germ layer eg; sponges blastula.
-germ layers-
forming tissue &
ii) Eumetazoa organs of the
body in
- Have true tissues - are collections of specialized
organogenesis
cells isolated from other tissues by membranous
layers.
- Germ layers
- Diploblastic organism with two germ layers
(ectoderm, endoderm)
- Triploblastic organism with three germ
196 layers
 Body cavity
is a fluid filled space
separating the digestive
tract from the outer body
wall.
Also known as coelom

i.Acoelomates
No body cavity- lack a coelom
They have mesoderm but
no coelom
Eg : Phylum
197
Platyhelminthes
ii. Pseudocoelomates
Coelom formed from the
blastocoel not mesoderm
Body cavity incompletely
lined by mesoderm
(It develops between mesoderm and the endoderm)

A layer of mesoderm exists

beneath the body wall but
not around the gut
Eg : Phylum Nematoda and
Phylum Rotifera

198
iii. Coelomates
True coelom formed from
tissue derived from
mesoderm.
Have a coelom/body cavity
that is complete lined
with mesoderm.
Internal organ develop &
suspended in coelom.
Advanced animal
E.g : Phylum Mollusca, Phylum
Annelida, Phylum Arthropoda,
Phylum Echinodermata and
Phylum Chordata .
199
 200
Gut- is the gastrointestinal tract,/the system of digestive organs
Classification of Animalia.
We classify organism according to similarity
between them.
The system of classifying is called
phylogenetic based on evolutionary
history. can be traced in the phylogenetic tree

One way in which zoologist categorized the

diversity of animals is according to general
features of morphology (animals form and structure) and
development.
Two current phylogenetic hypotheses
201
assumes modes of development : Campbell p/g 633-636
 Hav
e
-Cla secon
de do Most animal phyla belong
ver tha pen
teb t i n ing
rate c l ude to bilaterial symmetry.
s.

A clade of animals with true tissues

All animals share a common ancestor

(multicellular)
202
Animal Phylogeny based mainly on molecular data
203
204
 1. 3. Phylum 5. Phylum 7. Phylum 9.
Phylum Platyhelminthes Annelida Mollusca Phylum
porifera Chordata

2. Phylum 4. Phylum 6. Phylum 8. Phylum

Coelentrata/Cnidaria Nematoda Arthropoda Echinodermata
205
 20.6.1
PHYLUM PORIFERA
Objectives:

- Describe the unique

characteristics of the
phylum Porifera

- Include water system in

Porifera

Eg : Sponges
(Leucosolenia) 206
 Unique characteristics
1. Some cell differentiation, but no
tissue organisation
- Sponges have collar cells, or
choanocytes flagellate cells
- Epidermal cells form the outer
layer of the sponge and line the
canal
2. Body has two layers of cells
3. Adult do not locomotion
4. All aquatic mainly marine
5. Asymmetry
6. Single body cavity
207
7. Numerous pores in body wall
8. Usually a skeleton of
calcareous (calcium
carbonate)or silica-rich
spicules, or horny fibre
9. No differentiated nervous
system
10. Asexual reproduction by
budding
11. All are hermaphrodite can
produce both egg and sperm
for sexual reproduction.
12. Great regeneration power
13. dead-end phylum - it has
given rise to any other group of 208
organism
Water system in Porifera
3.
Osculum

2. Central
1. cavity :
Incurrent
pores Spongoc
oel

209
 Sponges divided into three types based upon the
arrangement of their water canal systems.
*Note that types are not taxonomic groupings
Osculum
Osculum Osculum

Asconoid Syconoid Leuconoid

210
211
TOMORROW
.. Study smart &
study hard

212
 11.6.2
PHYLUM
COELENTRATA /
CNIDARIA
Animal with radial symmetry and two cell layer

213
Learning outcomes: Hydra sp.

1) Describe unique
characteristics of
coelentrata/cnidaria.

2) State the classification of

Coelentrata into three classes:
i. Class Hydrozoa
ii. Class Scyphozoa
iii. Class Anthozoa

3) Describe dimorphism/
polymorphism in Obelia sp. 214
 Unique characteristics of
Cnidaria
Animal in Clade eumetazoa
body plan : true tissues
Body plan : radial symmetry
Body Plan : Diploblastic ectoderm & endoderm
(2 definite tissue layers that separated by mesoglea)

Single opening for ingestion function as both mouth and

anus and surrounded by tentacles.

Mesoglea is the
translucent, inert, jelly-
like substance that
makes up most of the
bodies of jellyfish
215
216
Cnue characteristics.
Habitat : Aquatic animal mostly marine
Tentacles contain specialized cells called
cnidocytes -stinging cells- (defense & capture
prey).
Carnivores- Use tentacles around to capture prey
and push the food into gastrovascular cavity-
(hollow central digestive compartment & acts as
hydrostatic skeleton in contraction of bell-
shaped body e.g jellyfish)
Types of Reproduction: Favorable condition:
Asexual reproduction by budding & deteriorate
217
condition : sexual reproduction forming resistant
Some Cnidarians may exist in polyps or
medusae, or alternately in their life cycle.
Dimorphism individual of a species exist in
two different form :
a) Polyp : Eg :Hydra and sea anemones.
- Cylindrical form.
- Dorsal mouth surrounded by tentacles
- Sessile adhere to the substrate
- Solitary or colonies.
b) Medusa : Eg : Jellyfish
- Flattened.
- Mouth located in the lower surface.
- The tentacles of medusa dangle from the

oral surface which points downwards.

- a mobile organism - freely swimming
218
219
 Classification of Coelentrata
1. Class Hyrozoa 2. Class Scyphozoa
(hydra such as Obelia) (jellyfish)

3. Class Anthozoa
(sea anemones
and corals)
Dimorphism/polymorphism in
Obelia

Free-swimming
Polyp colony
medusae

Have the polyp shape during one stage of

221their
life cycle and medusa form during another stage
Dimorphism/polymorphism in
Obelia
"alternation of
generations"
between the sessile
polyp phase and the
mobile medusa
phase.

unlike plants, both

phases (polyp and
the medusa) are
diploid organism.

222
 Life Cycle of Obelia

Life cycle showing alternation of two stages (one producing

the other) of sexual and asexual stages.

Both the polyp and the medusa are diploid organisms.

The polyp stage if Asexual : (please refer to next figure)

- A polyp colony composed of 2 types of polyp
a) reproductive polyp- lack tentacles
b) feeding polyp- equipped with tentacles
Reproductive polyp lack tentacles and produce tiny
medusa by asexual budding.
The medusa stage is sexually reproduce by producing
haploid gametes through meiosis.
223
 A colony of
interconnected
polyps results
from asexual
reproduction
by budding.

1. Life cycle begins when

the medusae are
released
- - Producing free swimming
male and female medusae

224
2. Male female medusa produces sperm while
the female medusa produces eggs.
3. Fertilization occur externally- Produce zygote
4. The zygote grow & develops into a solid
cilliated larva known as planula.

225
5. The planula
develop into a
new polyp.

6. Planula
attach to some
solid surface

7. Then planula
quickly Undergo mitosis
develops into
one feeding
polyp.

226
Q: How the Obelia forming a new
generation of polyps? A: by asexual
budding of reproductive polyp. 227
 11.6.3
PLATYHELMINTHES

228
 fro
mea m Greek
ning
"m
first" outh
)

229
LEARNING
OUTCOMES:
Describe the unique
characteristics of
Platyhelminthes
State the classification of
Platyhelminthes into 4 classes
Describe germ layers and body
cavity of the Platyhelminthes
State Platyhelminthes as a
parasites with exception of
tubellarians. 230
Unique characteristics
of Platyhelminthes
Bilateral symmetry , Triploblastic &
acoelomates
moderate cephalization with eyespot
and sensory organ in head.
Unsegmented worm

Flattened and thin bodies (called

flatworms)

Have a mouth and no anus-

gastrovascular cavity with only one
opening.
* cephalization -Anterior specialization resulting in the concentration of sensory and neural organs in the head.
231
 Have a simple nervous
system with concentration
of ganglia (brain) in anterior
region
Planaria sp.
Parasitic, Carnivores and
scavengers
Mostly hermaphrodites
complex reproductive
organs of both male and
females organs in same
individuals
No circulation and
respiration organ 232
 Class Cestoda (tapeworm
Taenea)
Endoparasitic (live inside host one or two
intermediate host e.g undercooked meat)
Absorb nutrient across the body surface from
digestion in the hosts intestine)

Sucker

Hooks

233
Sucker

Hooks

Taenia saginata

234
 Classification of Platyhelminthes
1. Cestoda - eg. Taenia saginata 2. Trematoda - eg. Fasciola sp.
(tapeworms)

4. Class Monogenea eg.

3. Turbellaria - eg. Planaria sp.
Dactylogyrus
 Class Trematoda and Class Monogenea
(Dactylogyrus) (also called flukes)
1. Two types of parasite: Endoparasitic (live
inside host)or ectoparasitic (live on outer
surface of host)
2. Parasitism on one or more intermediate
host in which larvae develop such as
snail and fish
3. Have sucker in addition to sucker on
head for attachment to hosts organ

236
A tough
covering helps
protect the
parasites within
their hosts.

Produce
immunological
molecules to
manipulate
hosts immune
system.

e.g:
Fasciola
237 hepaticea
238
Dactylogyrus
Needs only one
host to complete its
entire life cycle

Free-swimming
larva initiates the
infection

External/ectoparasit
e parasite

239
 BYE,
ASSALAMUALAIK
UM
240
 KINGDOM ANIMALIA

Phylum Phylum Phylum Phylum Phylum

porifera Platyhelminthes Annelida Mollusca Chordata

Phylum Phylum Phylum Phylum

Coelentrata/Cnidaria Nematoda Arthropoda Echinodermata

Primitiv (Worms) Succes

e s
Animal are Charaterized by
body plans

1.Tissue ( Parazoa vs
Eumatazoa)
2.Symmetry (Radial vs Bilateral)
3.Body Cavity (Acoelomates,
Pseudocelomates vs
Coelomates)
11.6.4

PHYLUM NEMATODA
 Learning
outcomes:
Describe the unique characteristics of
Nematoda -roundworm (e.g: Ascaris
lumrbicoids)

State Nematoda (e.g; Brugia malayi) as

Elephantiasis causing agent
 Unique Characteristics
Bodies are cylindrical with
tapered ends. (fine tip at posterior end & blunt tip at anterior end)

Pseudoceolom and Unsegmented.

Triploblastic (three embryonic/germ layers:
ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm)

Bilateral symmetry
Anterior end shows a degree of
cephalization (have
development of head)
Figure 1 : roundworms
No cilia
No circulatory system
complete digestive tract
Pseudocelomic body - nutrients are transported
through the body in & contain fluid-as hydrostatic
skeleton

Tough & transparent cuticle forms

the outer body covering for shape and
protection
whip-like movements because have
longitudinal .
Sexes are separated ( female larger
than males) with internal fertilization. Figure2: Female and
Male roundworms
 Habitat : Found in fresh
water, marine and moist
soil.
Endoparasit in human
intestine &pig.
Plant parasitic forms
are agricultural pests.
can be hazardous to
health.
Free-living forms are
important in
decomposition and
nutrient cycling.
Example : Ascaris lumbricoides
Example : Ascaris lumbricoides
 Elephantiasis/ Lymphatic
filariasis
Causes by roundworms-
Brugia malayi ,Wuchereria
brancroftii or B.timori.
Live in the lymphatic system
(is blocked) - severe

inflammation and swelling.

Extreme lymphatic filariasis
produces the condition
known as elephantiasis
Transmitted by mosquito
KOSMO! 6 Mei 2009 Shaliza nekad mahu di bedah
KUALA LUMPUR - "Saya bersedia untuk dibedah, sudah tidak
tertanggung lagi kesakitan ini."
Begitulah kesediaan pesakit kerosakan urat saraf atau
'Lymphaedema Praecox', Shaliza Shahzul Karib, 38, ekoran
penderitaan sakit untut yang ditanggung selama 19 tahun.
Biarpun sebelum ini, iaitu tahun 2003, beliau pernah menolak untuk
dibedah kerana takut risikonya, kini Shaliza sudah sanggup
berhadapan dengan apa sahaja cabaran untuk pulih.
"Saya tekad demi anak-anak, suami dan ahli keluarga yang tidak
sanggup lagi untuk melihat penderitaan yang saya tanggung selama
ini.
"Harapan saya kini sebagai anak, ibu dan isteri adalah untuk kembali
normal supaya dapat menjalani dan menjalankan tanggungjawab
kepada ahli keluarga saya," jelasnya sayu.
Semalam, akhbar melaporkan penderitaan bekas pramugari MAS itu
yang menghidap penyakit bengkak kaki akibat kerosakan pada
saluran limfa yang tidak diketahui puncanya sehingga kini.
Ibu kepada lapan anak ini, kini mengharapkan bantuan orang ramai
untuk menampung kos pembedahan yang dianggarkan hampir
RM500,000.
Tambah Shaliza, walaupun risiko yang pernah diberitahu kepadanya
agak menggusarkan hati, dia sudah nekad untuk pulih.
"Dulu pelbagai kemungkinan diberitahu oleh doktor seperti mungkin
kaki saya akan membengkak kembali atau lumpuh sebab urat yang
berselerakan selain tersumbat.
"Malah saya mungkin akan bergantung sepenuhnya dengan
berbagai jenis ubat bagi mengelakkan kaki kembali
membengkak
Phylum / Plathyhelminthes Nematoda Annelida
characteristics Flat Worms (round worms) (ring worms)

Body cavity Aceolemate Pseudocoelomate Ceolom

Segmented No No Yes

Circulatory No (osmoregulatory Closed

No system
system system)

Digestive No (have mouth, no Yes (mouth and Yes (mouth

system anus) Enteron anus) and anus)

Excretory protonephridia Metanephridia

system /nephreridia

Supporting No Hydrostatics Hydrostatics

system skeleton skeleton

Reproduction Hermaphrodites Dioecious Hermaphrodites

(tapeworms) Sex separated (earthworms)
11.6.5

PHYLUM ANNELIDA
 Learning Outcomes
Describe unique characteristics of
Annelida.
State the classification of Annelida
into 3 classes. (Oligochaeta e.g structure
of earthworm- Pheretima)
Discuss roles of Annelida in soil
aeration & medical use (anti-coagulant
heparin).
 Unique Characteristics
Bilateral symmetry and Anus
triploblastic
Segmentation
Coelomates (partitioned
by septa pl).
Metameric
segmentation(known as
segmented worms)
Have a through gut ( a gut
with both a mouth and
anus). Mouth
Complete Digestive
system.
Circular
- The digestive tract, muscle
Longitud
Septu
m
longitudinal blood anal
Muscle
Dorsal
vessels, and nerve
cords penetrate the Vessel
septa and extend the Chaeta
Ventral Nerve e
length of the animal. vessel cord
chaetae per segment (hair
like structures made of
chitin) except leeches.
Locomotion, which is
accomplished section
by section & utilizes
muscle contraction.
Figure The cross-sectional cut of earthworms
An excretory system of
paired metanephridia is
found in each segment -
long coiled tubule as an
excretory organ.
Nervous system is
composed of a pair of
cerebral ganglia lying
above and anterior to the
pharynx.
Clitellum- organ that
secretes a mucous
cocoon (for reproduction between two
earhtworms).
Sexual reproduction-
Hermaphrodite-has
both male and female
reproductive systems
for (eg; earthworms)
Asexual reproduction- by
fragmentation followed
by regeneration
Earthworms are the most
familiar Annelids.
Habitat: freshwater,
marine and terrestrial
(damp soil)
Figure: Earthworms male-
female mating.
 Three Classes of Phylum
Annelida
1) Class Oligochaeta
Eg: Earthworms
(Pheretima sp.)
2) Class Polychaeta eg.
Eg: Ragworms (Nereis
sp.)
3) Class Hirudinea eg.
Eg: Leeches (Hirudo sp.)
i. Class Oligochaeta
ii. Class Polychaeta
Chaetae

Segmented body

Parapodia
(almost feet)

Example:
Ragworms
(Hesiolyra bergi)
iii. Class Hirudinea

Example:
leeches
(Hirudo medicinalis)
 Important Roles of Leeches???
Blade-like jaw to slit kin.
Secrete saliva as anesthetic and
antibiotic, and suck so much blood of
the host.
In Medical Use.
It secretes chemical (hirudin) to keep
the host from coagulating.
Drain blood that accumulates in tissues
because of injuries or sugeries.
remove "bad blood" from the
diseased.
Blood sucking leeches
 Importance of Annelida???
Aeration and drainage
-burrow, exert both physical and chemical effect on soil
-improve soils porosity, increase a soils moist-holding capacity-serve as
drainage system during irrigation and heavy rainfall
-effective agents of soil aeration, penetrate the topsoil and proceed
downward into subsoil, increase soil-to-air ratio by 8-30%.

Builder of soil
-cast composed of soil mixed digested plant residue
-cast modify soil structure, can contribute up to 50% of the soil aggregates
-cast also provide nitrogen in a useable form for other organism that
decompose organic matter on the soil surface

Soil fertility enhanced

-important to nutrient availability of the soil
- cast rich source of nutrient, useful to plant.
Q: How does the Nematodes body
plan and morphology differ from that
of Annelids?
 BODY CAVITY

Acoelomat Pseudocelomat Coelomat

e e e
Phylum / Plathyhelminthes Nematoda Annelida
characteristics Flat Worms (round worms) (ring worms)

Body cavity Aceolemate Pseudocoelomate Ceolomate

Segmented No No Yes

Circulatory No (osmoregulatory
No Closed
system system) system

Digestive No (have mouth, no Yes (mouth and Yes (mouth

system anus) Enteron anus) and anus)

Excretory protonephridia ? Metanephridia

/nephridia
system
Supporting No Hydrostatics Hydrostatics
system skeleton skeleton

Reproduction Hermaphrodites Dioecious Hermaphrodites

(tapeworms) (earthworms)
Sex separated
 Reference
Campbell, Neil A..2002.Biologi (6th ed). University of
California,Riverside,The Benjamin/Cummings
Publishing Company.Inc. page 659-660

Raven, Peter H & Johnson, Gearge B,2002.Biologi (6th

ed),WCB/Mcgraw-hill. page 906-909

Mader, Sylvia S,.2004.Biologi (8th ed), WCB/Mcgraw-

hill, page 542-544

Martin,Berg& Solomon,2005.biologi (7th ed)

Thompson Learning.Inc. page 559-560
 THANKS
CONTINUE PHYLUM ARTHROPODA ON
NEXT WEEK tips belajar di kolej :
1. Teamwork
2. Hardworking
3. Like the subject & ur teachers =)
please!!!
 11.6.6
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
 LEARNING OUTCOME

At the end of this lesson, students should be

able to:

Describe the unique characteristics of

Arthropoda

State the classification of phylum

arthropoda:
 Unique characteristics of Arthropoda

Largest phylum
Bilateral symmetry
Triploblastic
Coelom much reduced, main body cavity a
haemocoel - filled with blood (biological science pg 68)
Metameric segmentation
head, thorax & abdomen
Open circulatory system
heart
Factors contributing to the success of the arthropods
Exoskeleton
body covered by exoskeleton ,(cuticle) -
layers of protein and chitin.
provides protection and support
points of attachment for muscles that
move the appendages.
light and waterproof to withstand
dryness or physical threats
permeable to air
 Efficient nervous and sensory system
for quick response
Segmented body is divided into three parts
enables specialization of function for each
part
Jointed appendages
enables various kinds of flexible movement/
efficient locomotion
Wings
enables flying well distributed
search for food and mates
avoid predators
 Life cycle consists of different stages
(metamorphosis)
enables adapt to different environment
intraspecies competition is low

Short life cycle

enables insect to reproduce rapidly in
vast number
produce many egg
 Various kinds of mouth
adapted to different kinds of
nutrition
to feed on various kinds of food
Trachea system
increase efficiency transport of
oxygen
Even though insects are
highly diverse, interspecific
competition is low
CLASSIFICATION:

Class Crustacea : prawn (Macrobrachium sp. )

Class Chilopoda : centipede (Scolopendra sp.)
Class Diplopoda : millipede (Iulus sp. )
Class Insecta : grasshoppers (Valanga sp. )
Class Arachnida : spider (Nephila sp.)
Class Merostomata : (Tachypleus sp.)
Class Crustacea : prawn
(Macrobrachium sp. )
Class Chilopoda : centipede
(Scolopendra sp.)
Class Diplopoda : millipede
(Iulus sp. )
Class Insecta : grasshoppers
(Valanga sp. )
Class Arachnida : spider
(Nephila sp)
Class Merostomata :
(Tachypleus sp.)
 11.6.7 Phylum Mollusca

LEARNING OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson, students
should be able to:

a) Describe the unique characteristics of

Mollusca
b) State the classification of mollusca:
i. Class Gastropoda (Achatina)
 Unique characteristics of Mollusca
Bilateral symmetry
Triploblastic
Coelomate
Unsegmented
Body soft and fleshy
mantle
muscular foot - used for
locomotion
dorsal visceral mass -
contain most of the
internal organs
 Mantel secretes a calcareous shell (containing calcium
carbonate)
Main body cavity is haemocoel - hydrostatic skeleton
Open circulatory systems.
Excretory organs - nephridia to remove
metabolic waste from the hemolymph ( body fluid).
Respiration system gill in mantel cavity
Mollusca using radula to scrape up food
 Classification of mollusca
1) Class Gastropoda
(Achatina sp.)

2) Class Cephalopoda
(Sepia sp.)

3) Class Bivalvia
(Anadara sp.)
11.6.8 Phylum Echinodermata
 LEARNING OUTCOME:
a) Describe the unique characteristics of Echinodermata

b) State the Classification of Echinodermata into five classess :

Class Asteroidea (Starfish)
Class Holothuroidea (Sea cucumber)
Class Crinoidea (featherstar)
Class Echinoidea (Sea urchin)
Class Ophiuroidea (Brittlestar)

Discuss the role of Echinodermata

eg: crown of thorn Starfish threaten the coral reef
 The unique characteristics of
Phylum Echinodermata
Echinoderm spiny skin
Unsegmented
Triploblastic
Coelomates
Larva bilateral symmetry.
Adult shows pentamerous radial
symmetry
 Water vascular system, network of
hydraulic canals branching into
extensions called tube feet function in
locomotion, feeding and gas exchange
Calcareous endoskeleton
No head. Mouth generally on lower
(oral) surface of body and anus on
upper (aboral) surface.
Simple nervous system no brain
All marine
 Classification of Echinodermata
5 classes:

Class Asteroidea (Starfish)

Class Holothuroidea (Sea cucumber)

Class Crinoidea (featherstar)

Class Echinoidea (Sea urchin)

Class Ophiuroidea (Brittlestar)

Class Asteroidea
(Starfish)
Class Holothuroidea
(Sea cucumber)
Class Crinoidea
(feather star)
Class Echinoidea
(Sea urchin)
Class Ophiuroidea
(Brittlestar)
 Role of Echinodermata
eg: Crown of thorn Starfish threaten
the coral reef
The crown of thorns starfish is a predator that eats other
living animals.
It is able to move across the coral reef using its suckers to
find new prey.
After finding a suitable coral it sucks away the polyp's
tissue, leaving only a white coral skeleton.
When the crown of thorns starfish is present in large
numbers, it often eats together in groups called
aggregations.
In recent years crown of thorns aggregation have caused
large scale coral destruction in other areas of the Pacific,
but especially in the Great Barrier Reef.
 Role of Echinodermata
eg: Crown of thorn Starfish threaten
the coral reef
A female COTS (crown of thorns) releases millions of eggs
each year but usually only a very small number survive to
become mature starfish.
However, if conditions are favourable, it may allow more
larvae to settle on the coral reef and to survive. This then
can lead to a population explosion on the reef.
The outbreak of this starfish on the Great Barrier Reef has
probably been the most extensive of all those recorded in
the Indo-Pacific region.
The last serious outbreak in the Great Barrier Reef
occurred in 1991/1992.
It was predicted to occur in 1994 but came 3 years early.
These outbreak cause drastic destruction to the corals
leaving some areas totally dead.
A juvenile starfish eats a mushroom coral. COTS
consume about half their diameter in coral in 24 hours.
Yellow-ended "suckered feet" of the crown of thorns
starfish pull out its white stomach which then digests the
living coral polyps of this staghorn coral.
11.6.9 Phylum Chordata
 LEARNING OUTCOME:
a) Describe the unique characteristics of phylum
Chordata
i.Notochord
ii.The presence of pharyngeal cleft (slits in the
pharynx)
iii.Dorsal hollow nerve cord
iv.Post anal tail
v.myotomes

b) State the classification of phylum chordata

into 4 subphyla :
 LEARNING OUTCOME:
c) State the classification of subphylum
vertebrata into 6 classes :
Class Chondrichthyes (ray, Raja)
Class Osteichthyes (ikan selar, Selar)
Class Amphibia (frog, Rana)
Class Reptilia (crocodile, Crocodilus)
Class Aves (pigeon, Columba)
Class Mammalia (rat, Rattus)
 Unique characteristics of
Phylum Chordata

Notochord
The present of pharyngeal cleft (slits in the
pharynx)
Dorsal hollow nerve cord
Close circulatory system
Post-anal tail
Myotomes.

e.g. :Lancelet
 Notochord Tentacle 2 cm

Dorsal longitudinal rod

Mouth
firm but flexible
Located between Pharyngeal cleft

digestive tube and nerve Atrium

cord Notochord
Digestive tract
Supports the body and
Dorsal
attachment for muscles hollow
Atriopore
nerve
Segmental
Vertebrate - during cord
muscles

development, embryonic
notochord replaced by Anus

vetebral column Tail

 Pharyngeal cleft Tentacle 2 cm

Pharyngeal cleft gill slits present

Mouth
Connect the pharynx and
esophagus
Pharyngeal cleft
Most vertebrate - seen only during Atrium
embryonic development
Notochord
Fishes and amphibian larvae Digestive tract

become functioning gill Dorsal

Atriopore
hollow
Function as suspension-feeding nerve
Segmental
devices in many invertebrates cord
muscles
chordates
Humans first pair become Anus

auditory tube
Tail
 Dorsal hollow Nerve cord
Have dorsal tubular nerve cord
Located at dorsal
Hollow
Single
Nerve cord develop into central nervous system: brain and
spinal cord
Nerve cord (spinal cord) protected by vertebrae
 Post-anal tail
Aquatic vertebrate - posterior extends beyond the anus
post-anal tail
For locomotion
 Myotomes
Blocks of muscle
Arranged in pairs on either side of the body
series of muscle segment
Certain chordata only at embryo stage
Remain in primitive chordata
Work antagonistically
Providing locomotion
The classification of phylum chordata
divides into 4 sub-phyla :

i Urochordata (Sea squirt)

ii Hemichordata (Acorn worm)

iii Cephalochordata (Lancelet)

iv Vertebrata
 Urochordata
eg : Sea squirt
 Hemichordata
eg : Acorn worm
Cephalochordata
eg : Lancelet
 Vertebrata

The classification of sub-phylum Vertebrata

divides into six classes :

Class Chondrichthyes (ray, Raja sp.)

Class Osteichthyes ( ikan selar, Selar sp.)
Class Amphibia (frog, Rana sp. )
Class Reptilia (crocodile, Crocodilus sp.)
Class Aves (pigeon, Columba sp.)
Class Mamalia (rat, Rattus sp.)
Class Chondritchyes
(e.g. Ray, shark)
 Class Osteichthyes
(e.g.): ikan selar, Selar sp.)
Class Amphibia (e.g. Frog)
 Class Reptilia
(crocodile, Crocodilus sp.)
Class Aves
Class Mammalia
 11.6.8 Evolutionary relationship in
animal kingdom
LEARNING OUTCOME:

Describe the evolutionary relationship of animals

based on their :
i Level of organization
ii Germ layers
iii Body plan (symmetry)
iv Body cavity
v Segmentation / metamerism
Levels of organization
 Evolutionary relationship of animals
Germ layers Body plan Body cavity Segmentation
(symmetry) (metamerism)

Porifera No germ Asymmetry no unsegmented

layers
Cnidaria diploblastic Radial no unsegmented

Platyhelminthes triploblastic Bilateral acoelomate unsegmented

Nematoda triploblastic Bilateral pseudocoelom unsegmented

ate
Annelida triploblastic Bilateral coelomate Metameric
segmentation

Arthropoda triploblastic Bilateral coelomate segmentation

Mollusca triploblastic Bilateral coelomate unsegmented

Echinodermata triploblastic Larvae bilateral coelomate unsegmented

Adults radial
Chordata triploblastic Bilateral coelomate segmentation