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For simplicity consider the case of vane congruent flow with no pre-rotation, i.e., 0=900
Y blade, u 2 c2u (4.75)
u2 (u 2 c2m cot 2)
u 22 u 2 c2m cot 2
Let A u 22 and B u 2 c2 m
Therefore
Y blade, A B cot 2 (4.76)
For a given impeller at a given speed A and B are constants.
The effect of the blade angle 2 on the theoretical specific work is sketched in Figure 4.34
for given u2 and c2m values. It shows that the specific energy transferred by the blades
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 106
highly depends on the vane angle 2. Generally speaking, the theoretical specific work
increases with the blade angle.
Yblade,
Figure 4.34 The effect of the blade 2 angle on Yblade,
For a certain 2 value the vane cannot even transfer any energy at all. Such blades that have
a vane angle 2 which result in no energy transfer are known as datum blades.
Equation 4.77 is used to calculate the exit blade angle for a datum blade.
u2 c
2,datum cot 1 tan1 2 m (4.77)
c2 m u2
The impeller blades are classified into three basic types: backward, radial and forward
based on the discharge angle 2. The backward curved and backward inclined blades are
blades with 2 < 900, and they are curved or inclined in opposite direction to the rotation of
the impeller. The forward curved blades are blades with 2 > 900, and the blades are curved
in the same direction as the rotation of the impeller. Radial tip and radial blades have
2=900.
From Figure 4.34 we also observe that for extremely forward curved blades (2>>900) the
theoretically transferable specific energy by the blade is extremely high. This means that
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 107
you can, theoretically, get a very small impeller that can transfer a very large amount of
energy just by giving it high blade angle at the discharge. This seems very attractive,
because it will then enable us to design very compact fluid machines. However it is not
only the size (compactness) that matters but also the efficiency of the pump, the latter being
more important in most cases especially in duties that require large power. The efficiency
is highly related to the fraction of the energy that is developed in the form of pressure
energy. This fraction is known as degree of reaction of the impeller and the static pressure
energy is commonly known as specific static rotor work. The next section deals with the
static rotor work or degree of reaction of the impeller.
c3 c 0
2 2
Increase of velocity energy
2
Z guide Energy loss in the guide
The purpose of the guide is to convert the velocity energy to pressure energy and the
2
2 2
2 2
velocity energy is c3 c0 c3 c3m c3u , hence the efficiency of the guide is
2 2 2
2
c 3u
Z guide
guide 2 2 (4.80)
c 3u
2
Rearranging the above equation
2
c 3u
Z guide (1 guide) (4.81)
2
Using this in Equation in the equation for Yp
2 2
c3u c3u
Yp Y (1 guide)
2 2
2
c3u
Yp Y guide
2
c32u
guide
2
Y p Y 1
Y blade h
For the given condition Yblade= u2c3u
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 109
c32u
guide
2
Y p Y 1
u 2 c 3u h
Simplifying the above equation
guide c3u
Y p Y 1 (4.82)
h 2u 2
Degree of Reaction
The degree of reaction of a fluid machine is the fraction of the useful energy transferred to
the flow medium, which is in the form of pressure energy.
RYP (4.83)
Y
The degree of reaction for the case of 0=900 c0=c3m
guide c3u
Y p Y 1
h 2u 2
Yp guide c3u
R 1
Y h 2u 2
The guide efficiency and hydraulic efficiency are commonly taken to be equal, i.e.
guide=h.
c 3u
R 1
2u 2
For vane congruent flow
c 2u u 2 c2 m cot 2
R 1 1
2u 2 2u 2
1 c2 m cot 2
R 1 (4.84)
2 u2
c2 m
R=0 for cot 2
u2
Using the above equation the static rotor work can be calculated just by multiplying R by
Y. The curves for Yp and Yblade, at different values of 2 are as shown in Figure 4.37. The
fraction of the pressure energy Yp of the total specific energy transferred by the blade
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 110
increases as the exit blade angle 2 decreases. However the total energy transferred will
also reduce resulting in larger diameter of the impeller for a given specific energy.
e,
lad
Yb
Yvel
YP
YP
Figure 4.37 Yblade, and Yp as functions of 2
Hence the design of impellers at a given speed with small 2 results in larger but efficient
impellers than those with larger 2 for the same performance, which result in compact but
less efficient impellers. When 2=900, the reaction R=0.5, and the theoretical total head
comprises the velocity head and static head equal in value.
All blade types find use in various turbo machines. Pumps and compressors are almost
always provided with backward curved blades, because of the relative importance of
efficiency rather than compactness. Fans may have blades of any of the five basic types.
Fans with unshrouded, flat radial blades called paddle blade fans are used mostly for
moving air containing solids since they reasonably remain free from blockage and can
withstand considerable wear before failure.
Forward curved fans are commonly used for ventilation of commercial buildings in view of
their compact size for a given duty. Backward bladed fans are likely to be used for large
installations where their higher efficiency is of an advantage.
called specific speed relates the shape of the impeller to its performance. By the shape of
the impeller we mainly mean the ratio D1/D2. For axial flow pumps it is 1. For mixed flow
a bit greater (around 2) and for highly radial flow it is larger. The shape number is the
dimensionless number that relates the performance Q and Y of the impeller to the shape of
the impeller at a given impeller speed.
3 m2
N shape n 1 s Q s Y
m (4.85)
s 2
m: 3 2 0
s : 2 0
____________________
2 0
2
for =1
1 3
2 4
Therefore
n Q
N shape 3/ 4
(4.86)
Y
[Q]: m3/s, [n]: rps, [H]: m
However the most commonly used number in the role of shape number is the specific
speed. It has the same form to the shape number but it is not dimensionless. Two
modifications are made on the shape number to get the specific speed, the constant term g
is left out and commonly used unit of rotational speed, rpm, is used for n. The formula is
written below.
n Q
nq (4.87)
H 3/ 4
Where nq=Specific speed
n: impeller speed of rotation in rpm
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 112
c
Y h u 2 c2U h u 2 1 2 m
tan 2
c2m
Y h u 22 1
u 2 tan 2
but
c2m
Y h 2 D22 n 2 1
(4.91)
D2 n tan 2
b1 D1
c2 m c1m
b2 D 2
(u1 tan 1) b1 D1
b2 D 2
2
b
c2 m D1 1 n tan 1 (4.92)
D 2 b2
Using (4.83) in (4.82)
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 113
b1 tan 1
2
Y h D n 1
2 D
2 1
2
(4.93)
b tan 2
2
2 2
D
H=Y/g;
Using (4.81) and (4.84) in (4.78)
n Q
nq
H 3/ 4
60n[rps] D1 b1 n tan 1
nq 3/ 4
2
h 2 2 2 D1 b1 tan 1
D 2n 1
g D 2 b2 tan 2
Rearranging we get
D1 b1
tan 1
1 D 2 D2
n q 187.62 3 / 4 (4.94)
h 2
3/ 4
tan
1 D1 b1 1
D 2 b2 tan
2
The relationship between nq and the ratio D1/D2 can be observed from the equation above.
The relationship is also drawn in Figure 4.38. As it can be easily seen from the figure and
the formula, increase in the ratio means increase in the specific speed. This means to get a
performance with high head and low flow rate, for a given speed, we need an impeller with
low D1/D2 ratio, that means a radial flow impeller. On the other hand, to get high flow rate
and relatively low head, we need D1/D2 ratio close to 1, i.e., axial flow impellers. For a
performance midway we need a mixed flow impeller.
2000
1500
nq
1000
500
0
0 0.5 1
D1/D2
Radial Axial
Figure 4.38 Trend of D1/D2 and specific speed relationship
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 114
Hence the specific speed combines the flow rate and head for a given speed and tells us the
type of impeller we have to use. Figure 4.39 shows the relation between the specific speed
and shape of the impeller.
The specific speed is highly related to the efficiency of the impeller, consequently, the fluid
machine. To get a performance that results in a very small specific speed (very high head
and relatively small capacity), we need an impeller with narrow and long impellers that
result in high energy loss due to fluid friction. Figure 4.40 shows the relationship between
efficiency, specific speed and volume flow rate. As can be seen from the figure, for a given
specific speed high flow rate results in a design with high efficiency. This is because the
impeller width will be larger and the energy loss due to fluid friction becomes small.
100
Over 2300m3/hr
90 2300m3/hr
80 3
680m3/hr
230m /hr
Eff. % 115 m3/hr
70 45 m3/hr
23 m3/hr
60
50
40
Figure 4.40 Relationship between efficiency and specific speed and flow rate.
The efficiency of centrifugal fluid machine falls very rapidly for specific speed below 20.
In such low specific speeds the efficiency will be unacceptably low.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 115
In such cases, either positive displacement pumps or multi stage pumps, with the impellers
mounted on the same shaft are used. Multi stage centrifugal machines are commonly
manufactured with impellers mounted on the same shaft.
The number of stages can be determined easily if the minimum allowable specific speed
per stage is determined. The minimum allowable specific speed is determined mainly by a
compromise between the increase in the cost of the pump due to the complexity in design
and manufacturing of multistage pumps and the saving of power cost due to higher
efficiency.
Figure 4.43 shows double suction impeller, it is equivalent to two impellers working in
parallel; hence each impeller will have half the total flow rate and the same total head.
While double suction impellers have the advantage of reducing maintenance cost due to
unbalanced axial thrust, their efficiency is lower, because each impeller works with half the
flow rate. This results in reduced specific speed of each which leads to reduced efficiency.
In calculating the specific speed for such cases, the volume flow rate should be taken half
of the total flow handled by the pump (consider it as two pumps working in parallel)
whereas the head is the total head of the system.
In pumping liquids, the pressure at any point in the suction line must never be reduced to
the vapor pressure of the liquid. If it happens the liquid will vaporize and form cavities of
vapor. The vapor bubbles are, then, carried along with the stream until a region of higher
pressure is reached where they collapse with a tremendous shock on the adjacent walls.
This phenomenon is called cavitation. The sudden inrush of liquids into the cavity created
by the collapsed vapor bubbles causes mechanical destruction on the impeller surfaces
called erosions. Besides the erosion it also causes other undesirable phenomenon like
vibration, noise, loss efficiency and loss of capacity. Once boiling occurs and vapor
bubbles are formed the erosion and wear due to cavitation occur further upstream at points
where sudden collapse occur due to increase in pressure.
Avoiding Cavitation
If vaporization can be avoided up to the entrance of the blade channel by ensuring a static
pressure above the vapor pressure, then the pump will be safe from cavitation since inside
the blade channel the pressure starts to increase. Measures to avoiding cavitation are taken
during the design and manufacturing of the pump and installation and operation of the
pumping system.
During design the most important components related to cavitation are those components
related to the suction condition of the pump. The quality of a centrifugal pump with
respect to cavitation is given by Net Positive Suction Head Requirement (NPSHR) of the
pump. The NPSHR is related to the head loss inside the pump and the dynamic head at the
inlet of the blade channel. When the NPSHR it is large it means the dynamic head and the
loss are large and the quality of the pump with respect to avoiding cavitation is poor.
The Net Positive Suction Head Available is the static pressure head of a given system that
is above the vapor pressure of the liquid at the pumping temperature. It is the measure of
the safeness of the system with respect to cavitation. Higher NPSHA means that the system
is not susceptible to cavitation. The relation between the two is discussed in the next
section.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 118
NPSHR
NPSHA
hs
hA=PA/ g hstat
PT/ g
ZS
eS
PA=Patm
Figure 4.44 The NPSHA and NPSHR in a system
PA= The pressure above the liquid surface at beginning of the suction pipe (PA=
atmospheric pressure in Figure 4.44).
hA= PA/g
es= Geodetic head
zs= Friction loss
hs= Total suction head
PT= Vapor pressure at the liquid temperature T.
The total head before the liquid enters the pump is the pressure head at the surface of the
liquid, i.e., hA. No energy is added until the liquid reaches the pump blade channel. At the
inlet of the blade channel, the total suction head is the total static head minus the friction
loss, and the elevation above the liquid surface , i.e., hs= hA zs es. The total suction head
minus the vapor pressure head gives the NPSHA. Note that the total suction head at the
inlet can also be divided into the static head hstat and the dynamic head plus the friction loss
at the suction side of the pump, which is commonly known as the NPSHR. Hence we can
expect that the main parameters that affect the NPSHR are the flow angle 0, the pre-
rotation factor and the speed of rotation of the impeller, since they contribute to the
velocity of the liquid at the blade inlet and the velocity is directly related to the head loss
due to friction and the velocity energy of the pump.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 119
The following derivation shows that to avoid cavitation the NPSHA of the system should
be greater than the NPSHR of the pump.
NPSHA NPSHR 0
Therefore to avoid cavitation
NPSHA NPSHR (4.99)
NPSHR is the characteristics of the pump and is normally given with the pump data. For
design purpose the NPSHR can be estimated by the following formula.
2 2
w0 C
NPSHR 1 2 0 (4.100)
2 2
Experimental values show that
1: 0.25 to 0.35
2: 1.1 to 1.3
The optimum values of 0 that minimize NPSHR at 1= 0.3, 2 =1.2 for various pre-
rotations are obtained by differentiation and equating the result to zero. The optimum 0
values are presented in the graph below. When there is no pre-rotation the optimum value
of 0 is 17.30.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 120
0.3
60
30
0
2 r=1 0
Pre-rotation Pre-rotation
in opposite in direction
direction of rotation
n Q
Sq (4.101)
NPSHR g 3 / 4
n Q
Sq (4.102)
NPSHR 3 / 4
nqs=333Sq (4.103)
The attainable values of suction number are influenced by the pre-rotation in the eye of the
impeller for optimum 0 values are shown in Figure 4.46. The higher the value of the
suction number, Sq, the better is the quality of the pump with respect to avoiding
cavitation. As shown in the diagram a slight pre-rotation (r=0.8) in the direction of
impeller rotation avoids cavitation best. Providing, the fluid with a certain pre-rotation
however requires a special device in the suction side of the pump, and is used only when
the pump operates at high risk of cavitataion, like boiler feed pump. Otherwise, in almost
all cases pumps are designed with no pre-rotation.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 121
0.6 0a =( )
0a opt
1=0.3
0.4 2=1.2
Sq
0.2
0
2 1.5 1 0.8 0.5 0
r
From Figure 4.46 we see that the best flow angle 0 with respect to avoiding cavitation is
around 170. For design purpose 0 =17.20 is commonly used for a case of no-prorogation.
Hence the blade angle1 is determined based on 0=17.20 and considering the vane
contraction factor it becomes around 190.
Table 4.3 Range of suction number and quality with regard to cavitation
Sq
Comment
0.3 to 0.4 Low quality in regard to avoiding cavitation
0.4 to 0.45 Normal
>0.45 High quality in regard to avoiding cavitation
n Q
Sq
NPSHR g 3 / 4
Rearranging the above equation
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 122
4/3
1 n Q
NPSHR
g S q
To avoid cavitation
4/3
1 n Q
NPSHA NPSHR
g S q
4/3
1 n Q
NPSHA
g S q
S q NPSHA g
3/ 4
n (4.104)
Q
Hence, by assuming the attainable Sq, the NPSHA and the design flow rate; one can
determine the limit of the speed for avoiding cavitation. Too large Sq will be too ambitious
which may not be attained and finally will lead to unsafe operation with respect to
cavitation, too small Sq will lead to far much smaller speed, with a number of related
disadvantages mainly low efficiency and bulky design.
PA Patm
es=+ve
es=-ve
es=-ve Patm
NPSHA P A es h fs PT (4.105)
g g
Note that the geodetic height es, is measured from the liquid surface to the entrance of the
suction blade. It is positive if we measure up from the liquid surface and negative if we
measure below the liquid surface.
NPSH A P A es h fs PT (4.105)
g g
a. Lower elevation (small es)
From Equation 4.105 we see that, lowering the value of the suction elevation es, increases
NPSHA. When the pump is below the surface of the liquid to be pumped, es becomes
negative hence it increases the NPSHA. Therefore it is always better, with respect to
avoiding cavitation, to install the pump below the surface of the liquid. This is usually
simple when we transfer liquid from one tank to another. In some cases, like pumping from
a well if the NPSHR is high, we have to use specially designed submersible pumps so that
the pump will be installed inside the liquid without damaging the motor.
d. Increase PA
In some cases when the risk of cavitation is high, we can increase the NPSHA by
increasing PA. This can be done by bypassing some of the liquid from the discharge line
to the suction line. By so doing we increase the static pressure of the suction side.
c2u u 2
H blade, (4.106)
g
From the velocity triangle at 2
c2u u2 c2m cot 2 (4.107)
For vane congruent flow
Q
c2 m (4.108)
D 2 b2
Using (4.97) in (4.96)
Q cot 2
c2u u 2 (4.109)
D 2 b2
Using (4.98) in (4.95)
u 2 u 2 Q cot 2
2
H blade, (4.110)
g g D2 b2
Replacing U2 with D2n
D2 n2 D2 nQ cot 2
H blade,
g g D2 b2
H blade,
D2 n 2 n cot 2
Q (4.111)
g g b2
b
D2 n 2
constant (4.112b)
g
Using (4. 101a) and (4.101 b) in (4.100)
H blade, aQ b (4.113)
Where a and b are constants for a given impeller geometry and speed. The nature of the
theoretical head as a function of the flow rate for different blade angles 2, speed (n) and
impeller diameter D2 can be studied.
n cot 2
since a
g b2
for 2<900 cot 2>0 hence a0
Therefore the theoretical characteristic curves for 2 in the mentioned ranges will be as
shown in Figure 4.48.
Hblade, 2>900
2=900
2
u2
b 2<900
g
Q
Figure 4.48 Theoretical characteristic curves
D2 n1
2
D 2 n2
2
D2 n3
2
and
b1 b2 b3
g g g
n3 n3
n2 Hblade, n2 Hblade, n3
Hblade, n2
n1 n1 n1
Q Q Q
For three impellers running at the same speed, with difference only in their diameter
D2,1<D2,2< D2,3.
D2,1n
2
D2, 2 n
2
D2, 3 n
2
and
b1 b2 b3
g g g
n1 cot 2
a1 a 2 a3
b2 g
Hence the theoretical curves become
D2, 3 D2, 3
Hblade, D2, 2 Hblade, D2, 3
Hblade, D2, 2 D2, 3
D2, 1
D2,1 D2, 1
2>900 2=900 2<900
Q Q Q
H blade, aQ bQ
2
2>900
Nth 2=900
2<900
Q
Figure 4.51 Theoretical power curves
Hblade,
Hblade Hydraulic
H loss
Shock losses
Q
Figure 4.52 Deviation of theoretical characteristic curve from the actual
Remark
From Figure 4.52 it is observed that to come from vane congruent to actual flow
we multiply the head from the vane congruent by a factor that mainly depends only
on 2 and z.
To get H from Hblade we subtract the hydraulic loss. There is no hydraulic loss for
Q=0 and it increases as the flow rate increases.
When a turbo machine is operated at a point other than the design point the flow
angles and the blade angles will not be similar. The loss due to this difference is
called shock loss. Its value is zero at the design point and increases as you move
away from it.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 129
Similarly typical actual power and efficiency curves for radial flow impellers are drawn in
Figure 4.53.
Nbrake
Q
Figure 4.53 Actual power curve and efficiency curve
The actual characteristic curves of centrifugal pumps are obtained by test and are usually
reported in the same axes (See Figure 4.54). The point of maximum efficiency is
commonly known as best efficiency point or BEP.
Best Efficiency
Point (BEP)
H
Nb (kw)
Rising Characteristics
In these types of curves the head increases continuously as the capacity is decreased.
They are typical for radial flow impellers with backward curved blades.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 130
Q
Figure 4.55 Rising H-Q curve
Dropping Characteristic
In this case there is a head greater than that developed at shutoff. Such characteristic
curves cause instability during operation, causing variation in flow rates even when the
machine works against one head. Dropping characteristic curves are commonly
obtained in forward curved radial blade impellers.
Q
Figure 4.56 Dropping H-Q curve
Steep Characteristic
In such types of characteristic curves there is a large difference in head between the
best efficiency point and the shutoff. This characteristic is sometimes applied to only
portion of the curve. Impellers with high specific speeds usually have such curves.
Q
Figure 4.57 Steep characteristic
Flat characteristic
A head- capacity curve in which the head varies very slightly with capacity from shutoff to
design capacity is known as flat characteristic curve. Radial flow impellers with blade
angle around 900 exhibit such characteristic curve.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 131
Q
Figure 4.58 Flat H-Q curve
Characteristic curve in which only one capacity is obtained at any one head is called stable.
In some types of characteristic curves, however, we may get two or more capacities at one
head, such characteristic curves are known as unstable, dropping characteristic are
examples of unstable characteristic curves (See also Figure 4.59). Axial flow pumps also,
usually have unstable characteristic. Figure 4.59 is a typical axial flow impeller
characteristic.
3
N 1 n1 (4.116)
3
N 2 n2
In all the calculations the overall efficiency of the fluid machine is assumed to remain
constant with speed for each point.
Example 4.5
The head and capacity of a centrifugal water pump is running at 1450 rpm are 64m and
240m3/hr respectively. The overall efficiency of the pump at the mentioned working point
is 75%. The density of water at the pumping condition is 998kg/m3. If the speed is changed
to 1980 rpm, what will be the head, capacity and brake power of the pump.
Solution
Data
=998kg/m3, H1=64m, Q1=240m3/hr, =75%, n1=1450 rpm, n2=1980 rpm
We use the affinity laws to solve each problem.
1st Method
i. Capacity
Q1 n1
Q2 n2
n2 1980
Q2 Q1 240 327.7 m3 /hr
n1 1450
ii. Head
2
H 1 n1
2
H 2 n2
2
2
n2 1980
H 2 H 1 2 64 119.3 m
n1 1450
iii. Brake Power
The brake power for the first speed can be calculated from the power formula
gQ1 H 1 998 9.81 (240 / 3600) 64 kW
N1 55.7 kW , the power for the
0.75 1000
new speed can be calculated using the affinity law
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 133
3
N 1 n1
3
N 2 n2
3
3
n2 2980
N 2 N 1 3 55.7 141.8 kW
n1 1450
2nd method
H2=119.3 m and Q2 =327.7 m3/hr are calculated before, the efficiency doesnt change with
speed, for the given point, =0.75% hence
gQ2 H 2 998 9.81 (327.7 / 3600) 119.3 kW
N2 141.8 kW
0.75 1000
The Iso-effciency Curves
Once the characteristic curve of a turbo machine is obtained for a certain speed,
characteristic curves for other speeds can be drawn using the affinity laws. Since the
affinity laws are used for calculating heads, flow rates and brake powers for the same
efficiency pints at various speeds, it is easier to do the calculation and the curve for the
same efficiency point. The resulting curves are known as iso- efficiency curves.
75% 70%
H [m] 60%
Q [m3/hr]
You can follow the following procedure to draw the iso-effciency curves when the H-Q
and the efficiency curves are given for one speed.
Select certain efficiencies and the corresponding flow rates, heads and brake
powers. Note that except the best efficiency point a given efficiency can
correspond to two pints in the H-Q curve. It is clearly shown in Figure 4.61.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 134
H
H1
1 2
H2
Q1 Q[m3/hr] Q2
Figure 4.61 One efficiency value(1=2 ) two H-Q points
Calculate H, Q, Nb for the same efficiency at various speeds and mark and join
these pints by a curve and they represent the corresponding points for the same
efficiency (iso-eficiency point) at different speed.
Joining the values of the head and Q for a given speed you get the H-Q curve for
that particular speed.
The characteristic curves (iso - efficiency) will finally appear as shown in Figure 4.60.
From (3.4)
cD cS
2 2
dp
Y D ge
S
2
The geodetic head for compressors is negligible, hence
cD cS
2 2
dp
Y D
S
(4.117)
2
Considering only the impeller inlet and outlet
cS=c0 The velocity of the gas at the inlet of the impeller
cD=c3 The velocity of the gas at the exit of the impeller
P1 The pressure of the gas at the inlet of the impeller
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 135
compression ratio is high the heat to be removed to bring the compression close to
isothermal condition increases. The effective way to remove this large amount of
heat is to use multistage compression where the gas is cooled using separate heat
exchangers after each stage of compression.
Single stage designs with very high pressure compression ratio results in low
specific speed impellers that have very low efficiency.
log( tot )
z (4.125)
log( )
where
tot=Total compression ratio
= Compression ratio of each stage
z=Number of stages
ii) Inter cooling: - In this type of cooling the gas is cooled by a heat exchanger
between every stage or group of stages. A significant amount of saving can be
achieved if the heat exchanger provides sufficient heat transfer area.
Figure 4.62 shows the p-v diagram for compression without and with inter cooler. Note that
the shaded area is the energy saved due to intercooling.
v [m3/kg]
Figure 4.62 Specific energy saved per stage due to cooling
iii) Combined inner and intercooling :- This is the most efficient and extensively
used method. However, due to the complexity of the design the cost is high.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 138
iv) Direct cooling: - This is achieved by directly injecting cooling medium (oil or
water) into the flow medium. The oil/water should later be separated from the
compressed gas if it is in a level that cannot be tolerated.
Maximum
head
Q
Figure 4.63 Maximum head of a centrifugal pump
Consider a centrifugal water pump with a maximum head of 60m whose suction is filled
with air. Since the velocity triangle from which we calculate the head does not depend on
the type of fluid (whether liquid or gas) it will transfer a maximum head of 60m to the air.
Assuming the density of air to be 1.2 kg/m3 the total pressure developed will be P=1.2
9.8160=706.3 Pa. This pressure however will lift the water, density=1000 kg/m3, H=
706.3/ (1000* 9.81)=0.072 m or just 7.2cm. This however, in most cases, will not be
sufficient to cover even the friction loss. Therefore priming is necessary when centrifugal
and axial flow pumps are installed above the liquid surface.
Methods of Priming
The simplest and cheapest way to prime a centrifugal pump is accomplished during
installation. Whenever possible it is good to install the pump below the liquid level, in that
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 139
case no special priming mechanism is required. Just opening the suction valve and the vent
will let the liquid flow by gravity and push the air out. However, sometimes we will be
forced to install the pump above the liquid level (with suction lift). In such situations we
need special means of priming. Some of these priming methods are:
Using foot valve
Using priming chambers
Using Vacuum devises
Foot Valves
A foot valve is a form of check valve installed at the bottom or foot of a suction line. Like
any check valve, it allows flow in one direction only-toward the pump. When the pump is
stopped and the ports of the valve close, if the valve seats tightly, the liquid cannot drain
back to the suction well. Unfortunately a foot valve does not always seat tightly, and the
pump occasionally loses its prime.
Foot valves have another serious drawback. They cause significant pressure drop which
may increase the pumping cost and also reduces the NPSHA significantly. Due to this, foot
valves are not common in modern installations.
Priming Chambers
A priming chamber consists of a priming tank and suction and discharge openings that are
connected to the suction line at the top and suction nozzle of the pump at the bottom
respectively. The pump will be primed by gravity from the tank. Once the pump is primed
and started, vacuum will be created at the top of the priming tank. The liquid from the
source will flow to the tank due to the pressure difference between the source which is at
higher pressure and the priming tank.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 140
Priming
tank
Suction
line Discharge
Vacuum line
Pump
Patm
For proper operation the volume of the tank should be approximately three times the
volume of the suction piping. It is usually more advantageous to buy a commercial priming
chamber with proper automatic vents and other features. The use of priming chambers is
restricted because of their size to relatively small pumps.
Vacuum Devices
Almost every commercially made vacuum producing device can be used with systems in
which pumps are primed by evacuating air. Among these are
Ejectors ( discussed in chapter 2)
Positive displacement pumps ( reciprocating and rotary)
If there are several centrifugal pumps to be primed, one priming device can serve all. Such
an arrangement is known as a central automatic priming system.
i. Surge
Operation of compressors at much lower capacity leads to instability commonly known as
surge. Changes in operation conditions of compressors pressure and the molecular weight
(if a mixture of varying composition is compressed) can also cause instability. Surge is
characterized by intense and rapid flow and pressure fluctuations. This phenomenon is
generally accompanied by strong noise and violent vibration which can severely damage
the machines involved.
Surge prevention is effected through experimental tests in which pressure pulsation at low
flow rates is measured on the individual stages. On this basis, it is possible to identify the
flow values at which stable operation of the stage is guaranteed. Then the surge limit is
identified and is commonly presented with the H-Q curve of each stage of compressor.
Knowledge of the operating limits of each stage can then be used to evaluate the
corresponding operating limits of the machine as a whole. Figure 4.66 shows a
characteristic curve (compressor map) with the surge limit. The engineer has to make sure
that a compressor stage is operated at flow rate well above the surge line for a given head.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 142
Stable
Unstable operation
operation
Had
Q
Figure 4.66 Surge lines of a centrifugal compressor
ii. Choking
Choking or stonewall is a condition at which increased capacity results in a rapid decrease
in head. Choking occurs when the Mach number of the flow medium inside a centrifugal
compressor approaches one. Under this condition increased capacity results in rapid
decrease in head and it can also cause damage. In this condition no further increase in flow
rate will be possible and there will be rapid, abrupt decrease in the performance of the
stage.
Head
Shock wave
Friction
Q
Figure 4.67 Choking limit
The occurrence of choking depends not only on the geometry and operating conditions of
the stage, but also on the thermodynamic properties of the fluid. In this regard, chocking
can be particularly limiting for machines operating with fluids of higher molecular weight,
such as coolants. A good design will have a Mach number less than or equal to 0.9. A
given design operating at a very high flow rate also has similar effect.
Many types of compressors normally operate in conditions far from choking. For these
machines, the maximum flow limit is frequently defined as the flow corresponding to a
prescribed reduction in efficiency in respect to the peak value.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 143
REVIEW EXERCISE
1. An axial flow pump has an impeller rotating at 2950 rpm , the impeller has an outside
diameter of 216mm and a hub ratio 0f 0.7. The outlet angle of the vane, 2, is 220 and
the flow velocity cm is 8.5 m/s. Assuming no pre-rotation at the inlet determine the
head of the impeller for vane congruent flow.
2. The impeller of an axial flow fan has a speed of speed of 1000 rpm. The dimensions of
the impeller are as given below. Determine the flow rate and head of the impeller for
vane congruent flow. Draw the velocity triangles to scale at the inlet and discharge
ends. Dimensions : Dh=160mm, D2=350mm,b1=180, b2=25. Assume no pre-
rotation at the inlet.
3. If the speed of rotation in question 2 is doubled what will be the effect on the flow
rate, head, power and velocity energy percentage of the impeller? What do you think
will happen to the efficiency? Why?
4. A centrifugal pump has an impeller rotating at 2950 rpm and the outside diameter of
the impeller is 216mm. The outlet angle of the vane 2 is 220 and the radial velocity at
the outlet of the vane c2m is 3.5m/s. Assuming radial inlet flow determine the head of
the impeller for vane congruent flow.
D1=160mm D2=350mm
b1=36 b2=28
b1=180 b2=25
5. A stage of an axial flow compressor used to compress air at 101.3 kPa and 200C has an
impeller rotating at 12000 rpm. The blade angle at the inlet,1 , is 250. The rotor stage
has a tip diameter of 42 cm, a hub diameter of 24.3 cm. The air enters the rotor and
leaves the stator in axial direction with no change in velocity or radius. The blade angle
at the discharge is 450 .Assuming constant specific heats with k=1.44. Assume a
hydraulic efficiency of 92%. There are no guide vanes at the inlet. Calculate the volume
flow rate and compression ration for a vane congruent flow.
6. A centrifugal impeller of a pump has a rotating speed of 1450 rpm. The dimensions of
the impeller are as given below. Determine the flow rate and head of the impeller for
vane congruent flow. Draw the velocity triangles to scale at the inlet and discharge
end.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 144
7. A radial flow impeller rotating at a speed of 1450 rpm has the dimensions as given
below. Determine the flow rate and head of the blade assuming radial inlet flow.
Draw the velocity triangles for vane congruent and actual flow.
D1=160mm D2=350mm z=5 (Number of blades)
b1=36mm b2=28mm
1=180 2=250
t1=4mm t2=6mm
8. The impeller of a centrifugal compressor stage rotates at 18,000 rpm. The impeller inlet
and exit diameters are 38mm and 127mm. The blade angles at the inlet and outlet are
280 and 550. The impeller is designed so that the flow velocities at the inlet and exit of
the impeller are equal. Assuming radial inlet and adiabatic compression with k=1.44
and hydraulic efficiency of 86% calculate the compression ratio attained by the
compressor for vane congruent flow.
9. An axial flow impeller having a rotating speed of 1450 rpm has the dimensions given
below. Determine the flow rate and head of the blade. Draw the velocity triangles for
vane congruent and actual flow.
Dh=160mm Do=350mm
1=180 2=250
t1=4mm t2=6mm
z=5 (Number of blades)
10. A centrifugal pump should operate at a head and flow rate of 140m and 115m 3/hr
respectively the available motor speed is 1450 rpm determine the number of stages if
the minimum allowable specific speed is 15 and the actual specific speed in the
number of stages you calculated.
11. A double suction centrifugal pump with an impeller speed of 2950 rpm has flow rate of
1400m3/hr and head of 120 m estimate the highest efficiency expected from the
pump.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 145
12. If the above pump is used to move water with =998kg/m3, using the specific speed-
efficiency curve determine the annual saving of power cost if you use a multi-stage
impeller with your proposed number of stages instead of using a single stage. What if
the number of stages is 8? Use 2600 hr/annum operating hours, unit cost of 0.75
Birr/kw-hr and motor efficiency 0.97.
13. The dimensions of a radial flow impeller rotating at a speed of 2000rpm is given
below draw the theoretical head capacity curves and the power curve. Given:
D2=250mm b2=13mm 2=250, number of blades is 6.
14. The flow rate and head of an impeller rotating at a speed of 1480rpm is 250m3/hr and
40m respectively. The overall efficiency of the pump under the mentioned condition
is 78%. Determine the flow rate, head and coupling power if the speed is increased to
2000 rpm.
14. A centrifugal pump is used to pump a liquid chemical with a density of 860kg/m3.
The vapor pressure of the liquid at the pumping temperature is 40kPa. The friction
head loss in the suction pipe is 2.5m and the pressure PA at the surface of the liquid is
1.013 bar. If the NPSH requirement of the pump is 3m determine the elevation es,
above or below the liquid level that the pump has to be installed to avoid cavitation.
15. The performance characteristic of a centrifugal pump with a speed of 1500 rpm is
given below, answer the following questions about the pump characteristic.
a) Determine the flow rate and head of the pump at the BEP
b) Determine the type of Head Capacity curve and Power curve
c) Draw the characteristic curve with iso-efficiency curves for speeds 1750
rpm 2000rpm and 2500 rpm.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 146
15. The sketch below shows the suction side of a pumping system using centrifugal pump
for pumping water at 500C from a hot spring well at a rate of 130 m3/hr. The NPSH
requirement of the pump is 5m determine, the possibility of cavaitation and if there is
a possibility suggests a method to avoid cavitation. The pipe is 5-40, commercial
steel pipe and has a total length of 25m.
Gate D1a=120mm
900 regular Valve
elbow
3m
PA=1 atm
Foot
Valve/Swing
check V
REFERENCES
[4.1] Matley,J., Fluid Movers: Pumps, Compressors, Fans and Blowers, 1979,McGraw-Hill
[4.2] Karassik, I.J., Krutzsch,W.C., (etal ), Pump Handbook, 2nd Edition, 1986, McGraw-Hill.
[4.3] Karassik, I.J., McGuire, T., Centrifugal Pumps, Chapman &Hall, 1998
[4.4] Sheer,W., Turbo Mahinery (AAU Teaching Material), 1976
[4.5] Cherkassky: Pumps, Fans and Compressors, Mir Publisher,1977.
[4.6] Hanlon, P.C., Compressor Handbook, McGraw-Hill, 2001
[4.7] Bleier,F.P., Fan Handbook, McGraw-Hill,1998
[4.8] Bathie,W.W., Fundamentals of Gas Turbines, John Wiley & Sons,Inc.,2nd Edition, 1996.
[4.9] Lazarkiewicz, S, Impeller Pumps, Pergamon Press, 1965.