CHAPTER 4

THEORY OF TURBOMACHINES
Centrifugal and axial flow machines are two of the most frequently used types of fluid
machines in the CPI, commonly known as turbomachines. The theory of turbomachines
relates the geometry of centrifugal and axial flow machines (pumps, fans and
compressors) to their performance. Hence it helps the engineer to rationally and
analytically decide on issues related to selection, installation, operation and
maintenance of these machines.

4.1 VELOCITY TRIANGLES

The calculation of specific work, capacity and other performance characteristics of a
centrifugal machine running at a given speed depends on the velocity of the flow medium
inside the fluid machine. The flow medium inside the impeller rotates with the impeller and
also moves in radial direction in centrifugal machines and in axial direction in axial flow
machines guided by the blades. Hence the absolute velocity of the flow medium at any
point, k, inside the impeller is the vector sum of the velocity of the moving frame
(impeller) and the relative velocity of the fluid with the impeller.

The velocity of a fluid element relative to a stationary frame (the casing) is called absolute
velocity (c). The velocity of the fluid element relative to the rotating impeller is known as
the relative velocity (w). The velocity of a given point on the impeller is called tangential
velocity or peripheral velocity(u). As stated earlier the absolute velocity of a fluid element
is obtained by the vector addition of the tangential velocity and the relative velocity of the
fluid element.

ck u k wk (4.1)

69
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 70

The magnitude and direction of tangential velocity of the impeller at any point can be
obtained if the speed of rotation of the impeller and the distance of the point from the
center of the impeller is known. Figure 4.1 is used to illustrate this concept. Equation 4.2
gives the magnitude of the tangential velocity.

k
uk

Figure 4.1 Tangential velocity at point k

u k Dk n (4.2)
where Dk is the diameter of the circle passing through point k

If the magnitude and direction of the velocity of the flow medium relative to the rotating
impeller is known the absolute velocity will be obtained by vector addition of the two. The
resulting triangle is known as the velocity triangle of the flow medium at point k.

wk
ck
k k
uk

Figure 4.2 The velocity triangle at point k

In centrifugal impeller calculations the most important points at which we have to calculate
the velocities are just before the fluid enters the blade channel (point 0) and just after it
leaves the blade channel (point 3). The velocities and flow angles at the inlet and outlet of
the blade channels are assigned the subscript 0 and 3.

Dimensions related to the geometry of the blade and tangential velocities at the inlet and
outlet are given subscripts 1 and 2 respectively. Therefore the velocity triangle of the flow
medium at the inlet of the blade channel may be represented as shown in Figure 4.3.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 71

w0

c0

u

Figure 4.3 The velocity triangle at the inlet of the blade channel

c0- The absolute velocity of the flow medium at the inlet of the blade channel
w0- The relative velocity of the flow medium at the inlet of the blade channel
u1- The tangential velocity of the impeller at the inlet of the blade channel
0- The angle between the tangential velocity and the relative velocity at the inlet of
the blade channel (also called flow angle at the inlet)
0- The angle between the absolute velocity and the tangential velocity at the inlet
of the blade
Similarly the velocity triangle of the flow medium at the exit of the blade channel may be
represented as in Figure 4.4.

w3
c3


u

Figure 4.4 The velocity triangle at the exit of the blade channel
Where
c3- The absolute velocity of the flow medium at the exit of the blade channel
w3- The relative velocity of the flow medium at the exit of the blade channel
u2- The tangential velocity of the impeller at the exit of the blade channel
3- The angle between relative velocity of the flow medium and tangential velocity
at the exit of the blade channel
3- The angle between the absolute velocity and the tangential velocity at the exit of
the blade
Various dimensions of the impeller are measured and represented as shown in Figure 4.5.
D1 and D2 Diameters of circles passing through the edges of the blades at the
inlet and exit respectively.
b1 and b2 Width of the blades at the inlet and exit.
1 and 2 The blade angles measured at the inlet and exit (See Figure 4.5)
respectively
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 72

b2

b1

D2
D1

Figure 4.5 Main dimensions of the blade

Note that the blade angle is measured by drawing two tangent lines: one tangent to the
blade profile and another tangent the circle at the tip of the blade. The line which is tangent
to the circle should be extended backwards and the angle is measured from this line in the
direction of rotation.

4.2 THE SPECIFIC WORK OF THE BLADE -Yblade

In turbomachines the active elements that transfer mechanical energy to the fluid are the
blades. They do so by transferring torque from the shaft to the fluid inside the blade
channel. The net torque transferred is the difference between the torques just before the
fluid enters the blade channel (Point 0) and just after it leaves the blade channel (Point 3).
The total power transferred by the blade can then be obtained by multiplying the total
torque by the speed of rotation of the impeller, . The specific work of the blade (Yblade) is
obtained by dividing this power by the mass flow rate of the flow medium.

Eulers Equation of Turbomachines

i. Centrifugal Impellers

Figure 4.6 The velocity triangles at point 0 and point 3

Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 73

Net Torque of the blade Rate of change of Rate of change of

l 2 l1
on the flow medium momentum at 3 Momentum at 0
d (m c3) d ( m c0)
T blade l2 (4.3)
dt
l1
dt
dm dm
c3 l 2 c0
dt
l1
dt
Tblade m
(c3 l 2 c0 l1)

But l2= R2 cos 3 and l1= R1 cos 0 (4.4)

Using (4.4) in (4.3)

T blade m (c3 R 2 cos 3 c0 R1 cos 3)
(4.5)
m (c3U R 2 c0U R 2)
Where c0u and c3u are the tangential components of the absolute velocity at the inlet and exit
respectively. The power delivered by the blade to the flow medium is
N blade Tblade m
Y blade (4.6)
In chapter 3 it was shown that the power delivered to a flow medium is the product of the
specific work and the mass flow rate. Hence,
Y blade m
m (c3U u 2 c0U u1)

Therefore
Y blade u2 c3u u1 c0u (4.7)
or
u 2 c3u u1 c0u
H blade (4.8)
g
Equations 4.7 and 4.8 are known as the Fundamental Equation of Turbo-machinery or
Euler's Equation of Turbo-machinery. Eulers equation is true for both axial and
centrifugal machines. In the following section the derivation for axial flow machines is
shown.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 74

ii. Axial Flow Impellers

In an axial flow impeller, fluid particles leave the impeller at the same radius at which they
enter. As the flow through the impellers is symmetrical to the axis, it is uniform on any
random section of a cylinder. Therefore it is more convenient to develop this cylinder on a
plane in order to study the action of the impeller. On such developments, vanes appear as a
cascade equally spaced at distance t= D/z referred to as pitch, where z is the number of
blades and D is the diameter of the cylindrical section.

stator (vanes)

B
t
rotor (blades)

Figure 4.7b Development of blades and guide

vanes .V- guide vanes , B-rotor blades.

Figure 4.7a Axial flow impeller

The various diameters relevant for design and analysis of axial flow impellers are the tip
diameter Do, the mean effective diameter Dm and the hub diameter Dh shown in
Figure 4.8.
Do
Dm
Dh

Figure 4.8 Diameters of an axial flow impeller

Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 75

The mean effective diameter divides the flow through the impeller into two equal parts.
The head and flow rate can be directly calculated using this diameter.

Dm D0
1 v 2
(4.9)
2
Where Dm = the mean effective diameter
D0 = the tip diameter
v=Hub diameter to tip diameter ratio

The velocity triangles at the inlet and exit of an axial flow impeller are different from the
corresponding velocity triangles of a centrifugal impeller. Since the flow area does not
change axially, the flow velocities com and c3m, of axial flow impellers is the same at the
inlet and exit of axial flow impellers (continuity equation), .i.e., cm1=cm2=cm. The same is
true for the tangential velocity. Therefore u1=u2=u.

w3 c3
cm
u

Rotation

u
cm
w0

Figure 4.9 Velocity triangles of an axial flow impeller

It is common to draw the velocity triangles at the inlet and exit together because it clearly
shows the fact that the tangential and flow velocities are equal at the inlet and exit of the
machine. Figure 4.10 shows such a diagram for an axial inlet flow (no pre-rotation).

w3 cm w 0
c3 cm
3
0
u
Figure 4.10 Inlet and exit velocity triangles drawn together
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 76

To obtain the Eulers equation for axial flow impellers consider the velocity triangles of an
axial flow impeller given by Figure 4.10. Since the flow velocities at the inlet and exit are
the same, the force exerted by the rotating blades on the fluid imparts only tangential
velocity to the fluid. Therefore, the force of the blade can be calculated from the rate of
change of momentum of the flow medium, considering only the change in the tangential
component of the absolute velocity.
Fblade m
(c3u c0u ) (4.10)
The power transferred by the blade to the flow medium, therefore is
N blade Tblde m
(c3u c0u ) r

N blade m
(c3u c0u )u (4.11)
It is obtained in chapter three that
N blade m
Yblade (4.12)
From (4.11) and (4.12)
Yblade u(c3u c0u ) (4.13a)

u ( c 3u c 0 u )
H blade (4.13b)
g
Equations 4.13a and 4.13b are The Eulers equations for axial flow impellers. The Eulers
equation enables to calculate the specific energy (head) of an impeller if the velocity
triangles at the inlet and exit of the blade channel can be determined.

4.3 THE CAPACITY Q

The capacity of an impeller can be calculated from the product of the flow area and the
meridian component of the absolute velocity, which is the velocity normal to the flow area.

For Centrifugal Impellers

For any given point k in the blade channel the volume flow rate can be calculated by the
formula:
Q' Dk bk ckm (4.14)
Hence at the entrance of the blade channels (just outside the channels)
Q' D1 b1 c0 m (4.15)
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 77

At the exist of the blade channels (just outside the channel)

Q' D3 b3 c3m (4.16)
Axial Flow Impellers

Q' D 2
0 D2h cm (4.17)
4

Q' D0 1 v cm
2 2
(4.18)
4
Where
v= Hub diameter to tip diameter ratio
D0= Tip diameter

4.4 THE VANE CONGRUENT FLOW

In the previous section we developed equations for calculating the head (specific energy)
and capacity of centrifugal and axial flow impellers. However, these equations cannot be
used directly to calculate the mentioned quantities because the velocities involved c0m, c3m,
c0U, c3U cannot be determined easily. It is known that the absolute velocity is the vector
sum of the tangential velocity and the relative velocity. The tangential velocity can be
easily determined at any point if the speed of rotation of the impeller and the diameter of
the circle passing through the point is known. However, neither the direction nor the
magnitude of the relative velocity of the flow medium can be determined easily.

This problem can be solved by first assuming that the blades perfectly guide the fluid so
that the direction of the relative velocity is the same as the direction of the blades and then
considering the deviation from this assumed flow separately. This ideal flow, which
assumes perfect guiding of the fluid by the blades, is known as vane congruent flow.
According to this assumption:
1. The relative path of a fluid element of the flow medium is congruent to the blade
course.
2. The impeller passages are completely filled with actively flowing fluid at all times
(no dead zone).
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 78

3. The velocities of the fluid elements at similar points along the flow lines are the
same.
By assuming vane congruent flow we analyze the velocity only inside the vane channel,
since the blades will guide the fluid only if it is inside the channel. Therefore we replace
the velocities just outside the blade channel ( 0 and 3) by the velocities just inside the
blade channel (1 and 2) in vane congruent flow. Figure 4.11 shows these points of interest.

2
1
0

Figure 4.11 Entrance and Exit of Blade Channels

Nomenclature
0: Point just outside, at the inlet of the blade channel
1: Point just inside, at the inlet of the blade channel
2: Point just inside, at the exit of the blade cannel
3: Point just outside, at the exit of the blade channel

With vane congruent flow assumption the velocity triangle at the inlet is constructed with
the flow angle the same as the inlet blade angle 1 as shown in Figure 4.12.

w
c1


U
Figure 4.12 Velocity triangle at the inlet of the vane channel (Vane congruent flow)

Figure 4.13 shows the velocity triangle at the exit of the blade channel with vane congruent
flow assumption. Note that the subscript 3 is replaced with 2 to indicate that the velocity
triangle is drawn with vane congruent flow assumption. The flow angles in vane congruent
flow 1 and 2 are the same as the blade angles due to the assumption of perfect guidance
of the flow stream by the blades.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 79

c2 w2
c2m
2 2
c2u

U2
Figure4.13 Velocity triangle at the exit of the vane channel (Vane Congruent)

4.4.1 Yblade, and Q when the Geometry and Speed of the Impeller are Given

a. Centrifugal Impellers
The specific work of the blade and the capacity calculated for a centrifugal impeller when it
runs at a given speed assuming vane congruent flow are represented by.
Yblade, = The specific energy of the blades for vane congruent flow assumption.
Q= The flow rate for vane congruent flow assumption.

The tangential velocity at the inlet of the blade channel,

u1 D1n
In most common cases the fluid is assumed to enter the blade channel without pre-rotation,
hence c0u=c1u=0. However, it should be noted that as the fluid approaches the blade channel
it comes in contact with the shaft and this tends to rotate the fluid with the wheel a little.
Therefore the above assumption is not exactly true, but makes the calculation far much
simpler without much loss in accuracy. In some special designs, a device is placed before
the blade channel to give the flow medium a certain pre-rotation before it enters the blade
channel. The reason will be discussed in coming sections.

When a certain pre-rotation is assumed it is given in a form known as pre-rotation factor r,

defined by Equation 4.19.
c0u
r 1 (4.19)
u1
In such cases
cou (1 r ) u1

For vane congruent flow

Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 80

c1u (1 r ) u1 (4.20)

c1 w1
c1m

c1u
u1

Figure 4.14 Velocity triangle at the inlet of the blade channel (Vane Congruent)

From the velocity triangle in Figure 4.14

c1m (u1 c1u ) tan 1 (4.21)

From (4.20) and (4.21)
c1m r u1 tan 1 (4.22)

Note that when there is no pre rotation r=1

Once c1m is obtained Equation 4.23 can be used to calculate Q with vane congruent flow
assumption.
Q' D1 b1 c1m (4.23)

D1, b1, 1 are obtained from the geometry of the impeller.

Exit of Blade Channel

u 2 D2 n
Q'
c2m
D2 b2
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 81

c2 w2
c2m
2
c2u
u2

Figure 4.15 Velocity triangle at the exit of the blade channel (Vane Congruent)

From figure 4.15

c2u u 2 c2m cot 2

Y blade, u 2 c2u u1c1u (4.24)

Example 4.1 Centrifugal Impellers

The dimensions of the impellers of a centrifugal pump rotating at 1450 rpm are given in
Figure 4.16 determine the volume flow rate and head of the impeller for vane congruent
flow.
i) Assuming radial inlet flow (i.e.) no pre-rotation
ii) With a pre-rotation of r=0.8

Figure 4.16 Geometry of impeller

Solution

1450
U 1 D1n = 0.172 =13.1 m/s
60

i) For no-pre rotation/ radial inlet flow

c1m u1 tan 1 13.1tan(19 ) 4.50 m/s

0

Q' D1 b1 c1m 0.172 0.032 4.5 0.077m3 / s 280 m3/hr

Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 82

At the exit
1450
u2 D2 n 0.328 24.9 m/s
60
Q' 0.0777
c2 m 3.77 m/s
D2b2 0.328 20

c2u u2 c2m cot 2 24.9 3.77 cot(230 ) 16.01 m/s

u 2 c2u u1c1u 24.9 16.0 13.1 0

H blade, 40.6 m
g 9.81

ii) For a pre-rotation factor of 0.8

1450
u1 D1n = 0.172 =13.1 m/s
60
c1m u1 r tan 1 13.1 0.8 tan(19 ) 3.60 m/s
0

Q' D1 b1 c1m 0.172 0.032 3.6 0.062m3 / s 224 m3/hr

c1u (1 r ) u1 (1 0.8) 13.1 2.61m/s

At the exit

1450
u2 D2 n 0.328 24.9 m/s
60
Q' 0.0622
c2 m 3.0m / s
D2 b2 0.328 20
c2u u2 c2m cot 2 24.9 3.0 cot(230 ) 17.8 m/s

u2c2u u1c1u 24.9 17.79 13.1 2.61

H blade, 41.7 m
g 9.81
Example 4.2
The tip diameter of an axial flow fan is 0.3m and the hub to tip diameter ratio is 0.4. The
blade angles at the inlet and outlet are 180 and 250 respectively. If the impeller rotates at
1450 rpm what will be the flow rate and head for vane congruent flow and axial inlet flow
(no pre-rotation) assumption.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 83

Solution
D0=0.3m , v=0.4 ,1=180, 2=250, n=1450 rpm
Assumption no pre-rotation
The mean effective diameter

Dm 0.3 (1 0.4 ) / 2 0.0522

2 2 2

Dm 0.0522 0.228 m
The tangential velocity, u, at the mean effective diameter
1450
u 0.228 17.35 m/s
60
The velocity triangle at inlet

cm
180
U=17.35 m/s

cm 17.35 tan(180 ) 5.64 m/s

The capacity of the pump is

Q 5.64 0.32 1 0.42 / 4 0.3347 m3/s 1205 m3/hr

The velocity triangle at the exit is

cm=5.64
250
U=17.35 m/s

c2u 17.35 5.64 cot(25) 5.26 m/s

u (c2u c1u )
H blade,
g
Since there is no pre-rotation c1u=0. Therefore,
uc2u 17.35 5.26
H blade, 9.3 m
g 9.81
Therefore the vane congruent capacity and head of the impeller are 1205m3/hr and 9.3m
respectively.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 84

Remark
The radial flow impeller in Example 4.1 and Example 4.2 have similar dimensions and the
same speed of rotation but the capacity of the axial flow impeller (1206m3/hr) is far much
greater than the capacity of the radial flow impeller (280m3/hr). On the other hand the axial
flow impeller produces much less head (9.3m ) than the head (40.6m) of the radial flow
impeller (40.6 m). In general axial flow pumps are used for high flow rate and low head
application while centrifugal impellers are used for low flow rate and high head
applications.

Example 4.3
An axial flow compressors is used to compress air at 101.3 kPa and 288 K. The air enters
an axial- flow compressor stage with a velocity of 170.0 m/s. There are no inlet guide
vanes. The rotor stage has a tip diameter of 66.0 cm, a hub diameter of 45.7 cm and rotates
at 8000 rpm. The air enters the rotor and leaves the stator in the axial direction with no
change in velocity or radius. The air is turned through 15.00 as it passes through the rotor.
Assuming constant specific heats with k=1.40 and vane congruent flow.
(a) Draw the velocity diagrams
(b) Determine the shape of the rotor and stator
(c) Calculate the mass flow rate
(d) Calculate the ideal the pressure ratio , assuming Yblade=Yad

Solution
P1=101.3 kPa T1=288K M=28.9 kg/kmol
cm=170 m/s D0=66.0cm
Dh=45.7 m/s 2-1=150

(a) Velocity Diagrams

The hub diameter to tip diameter ratio
45.7
v 0.692
60
The effective mean diameter is
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 85

Dm D0
1 v 0.66
2
(1 0.692 2 )
0.567m
2 2
The tangential velocity at the mean effective diameter
u Dm n (0.567)(8000 / 60) 237.9 m/s

w1
cm
1
u

170
1 tan 1 35.6
0

237.9
At the exit
2 1 150 35.6 10 50.6 0
cm 170
c2u u 237.9 98.0 m/s
tan 2 tan(50.60 )

c2 w2
cm

2
c2U

u
Therefore the velocity diagrams drawn together

c1=cm w2
c2

2
1
Figure 4.28
Radial
flow
b) Direction of rotor and stator
impeller
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 86

direction of
rotation

c) Mass flow rate

Q cm
4

D02 1 v 2 170
4

(0.66 2 ) 1 0.692 2 30.3 m 3 /s

PM (101.3 103 )(28.9)

1.22 kg/m 3
RT (8314.3)(288)
Therefore
Q 1.23(30.3) 37.01 kg/s
m

c) Compression ratio
Yblade u(c2u c0u )
assuming axial inlet flow
Yblade u(c2u c0u ) uc2u 237.8(98.0) 23,291.0 J/kg

Yad 23,291.0 J/kg

RTS k PD 831.43(288) 1.4

k 1 / k

Yad 1 ( (1.4 1) / 1.4 1)

M k 1 PS 28.9 1.4 1

23291.6
0.286 1 1.0805
271162.8
1.33

4.5 DEVIATION OF ACTUAL FLOW FROM VANE CONGRUENT FLOW

It was shown that the vane congruent flow assumption leads to velocity triangles with the
flow angles 0 and 3 at the inlet and exit equal to the blade angles 1 and 2 respectively.
The actual flow however deviates significantly from the vane congruent flow unless the
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 87

fluid is perfectly guided in the direction of the blade. Nevertheless, perfect guidance of the
flow medium is only ideal since it would require non-viscous flow with infinitely thin
blades that are infinitely close to each other. These, however, cannot be made practical
since:
a. The strength of the material demands a certain thickness
b. If the vanes were infinitely close to each other, no flow would take place in
the vane channel.
c. Actual flows are never frictionless since an actual fluid will always have a
certain viscosity
The next section deals with the major effects of definite thickness of the blades, definite
number of blades and viscosity on the velocity triangle.

4.5.1 Influence of Definite Thickness of Blades

The blades guide the fluid only as far as the fluid is inside the blade channel. However in
our calculations we want velocities just before and just after the blade channels. The
difference of the two is that the flow area inside the channels (vane congruent) is smaller
than the flow area outside the channels (actual) due to the thickness of the blades, as shown
in Figure 4.17. Accordingly the flow velocity according to vane congruent is greater than
the actual flow velocity.
3
2

Figure 4.17 Flow areas just outside blade channels

are larger than just inside

The flow area when the thickness of the blades is reduced is

A1= (D1- z1)

Applying the continuity equation for point 0 (outside) and 1 (inside) the channel,
Q = D1b1c0m= (D1- z1) c1m
Where Q is the total volume flow rate inside the blade channels
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 88

Therefore
D1
c1m c0 m z 1
(4.25)
D1

The width 1 is different from the thickness of the blade. The relationship between the
blade thickness and 1 is given below.

t1
1 1
1

Figure 4.18 Relationship between the blade thickness t and width

t1
1 (4.26)
sin 1
In similar manner for the discharge side
D2
c 2 m c3 m (4.27)
z 2
D2

and
t2
2 (4.28)
sin 2

D
The factor is called vane contraction factor
z
D

D1
= 1.1 to 1.2 for radial flow impellers 1.04 to 1.06 axial flow
z1
D1

impellers

D2
= 1.01 to 1.03 for both axial and radial flow impellers.
z 2
D2

Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 89

4.5.2 Influence of Definite Number of Blades

a. Influence of pressure difference along the two sides of a blade
For pressure to be transmitted from the blade to the flow medium the pressure along the
front side of the vanes should be greater than the backside. Otherwise since for every action
there is equal and opposite reaction the net force transmitted would be zero. While this
pressure difference at the two sides of the vanes is inevitable, at the end of the blade an
equalization of pressure takes place deviating the flow as shown in Figure 4.19.
nt
gure
con
2*

+
+
+
+
+

Figure 4.19 Pressure difference along the two sides of the vanes

As the number of blades increases the pressure will be distributed between the blades and
the pressure difference will reduce. Therefore the effect of pressure difference will reduce
with increasing number of blades.

b. Effect of Relative Circulation

The relative velocity distribution through an impeller channel is affected by the relative
circulation of the fluid due to the inertia effect of frictionless fluid particle. Due to their
inertia the particles retain their orientation in space and fail to turn with the impeller. This
results in circulation of the fluid relative to the impeller in a direction opposite to the
rotation of the impeller. The result is a component in the tangential direction opposite to c2u
at the discharge end and additive component in the direction of c1u at the inlet.
Relative
Circulation

4.20 Relative circulation in a blade channel

Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 90

Decrease in C2U due to

relative circulation

w2

C2U
U2

Figure 4.21 Effect of relative circulation on the velocity triangle at the exit

Since the outlet flow area D2b2 and the flow rate Q are not affected by relative circulation
the average meridian component of the absolute velocity cm is not also affected by it. The
effect of relative circulation is less for narrow (large number of vanes) and long vane
channels as well as for narrow impellers. Therefore the influence of relative circulation is
normally considered negligible at the inlet of the blade channel.

4.5.3 Effect of Viscosity

Due to the viscous nature of fluids a boundary layer is formed along the walls of the
channel. At the convex side of the vane near the outlet, the pressure gradient in the
boundary layer grows so high that separation of the flow takes place, causing dead zones.
nes
d zo
Dea

+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+

Figure 4.22 Dead zones

In areas of the dead zone, the free cross-section of the blade channel is reduced; therefore
the flow velocity inside the channel is increased. However, since there is no dead zone
outside the channel, the flow velocity returns to the case of no dead zone, as shown in
Figure 4.23, just outside the vane channel (at Point3).
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 91

Increase due
of u e
to dead zone n
t io le d e
c g n
du an zo
Re ow ad
lf de
Flow velocity to
at 3(no dead
zone)

U2
Figure 4.23 Effect of dead zone on the velocity triangle at the exit

4.5.4 The Velocity Triangles for the Actual Flow

The velocity triangle of the actual flow at the inlet can be determined using vane congruent
flow assumption and later considering the effect of definite thickness of blades using
Equation 4.25. The effect of definite number of blades on the velocity triangle at the inlet is
negligible. The actual and vane congruent velocity triangles at the inlet, hence, differ only
in the flow velocities, i.e. c1m c0m. The difference between the actual tangential
component of the absolute velocity (c1u) and tangential component of the absolute velocity
according to vane congruent flow (c0u) is negligible.

The velocity triangle of the actual flow at the exit is determined by considering the effect of
definite thickness of blades, definite number of blades and viscosity. The effect of definite
thickness of blades is taken care of by Equation 4.27. However, the effect of definite number
of blades and viscosity is discussed only qualitatively and it was established that the flow
angle 3 is smaller than the blade angle 2. However the actual value can be determined only
by empirical formula. There are two commonly used empirical formulas: Pfleiderer's
Formula (common in Europe) and Stodals formula commonly used in North America.

Pfleiderer's Formula
The difference between the specific energy according to vane congruent flow and the actual
is known as the slip power.
Slip power Y blade, Y blade P Y blade (4.29)

Where P is the slip power factor

Rearranging (4.29)

Y blade,
Y blade (4.30)
1 p
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 92

Equation 4.31 gives the slip power factor according to Pfleiderer

0 2
P k 1 2 r 2 (4.31)
60 ZS
Where
S=Static moment of the flow line (see figure 4.24)
k=a factor that depends on flow guidance system beyond the impeller
z= number of blades
Flow line

dx

r2
r
r1

Figure 4.24 Flow line

Table 4.1 Values of k

Guidance system beyond the impeller k
Guide Vane (Diffuser) 0.6
Volute Casing 0.65 to 0.85
Guide Ring 0.85 to 1
Guide vanes

Impeller

Figure 4.25 Guide vanes

Figure 4.26 Volute casing

Guide ring

Figure 4.27 Guide ring

Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 93

Calculation of S (Static moment of the flow line)

S rr12 rdx (4.32)

i. Radial flow impeller

dx=dr

r2
r
r1
dx=dr
1 2 2
S r1 rdr ( r 2 r 2)
r2
(4.33)
2
Using this equation in the equation for P

2k 2
0
1
P 1 (4.34)

z 60 1 r1 r 22

ii. Axial flow impeller

A B
e

r1

Figure 4.29 Axial flow impeller

S AB rdx r AB dx r e (4.35)

Using (4.35) into (4.31) and rearranging, with r2=r

k 2
0

P 1 r (4.36)
ze 60

iii. Mixed flow impeller

For mixed flow impeller S can be calculated by dividing the line AB into n-equal lengths,
then
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 94

n
S x r i (4.37)
i 1

Therefore for mixed flow impellers P can be calculated by

02 r 22
P k 1 n
(4.38)
60 zx r i
i 1

Stoadal's Empirical Formula

Stodals empirical formula is mainly used in North America. It is simpler than the
Pfleiderer's Formula but in good agreement with practice.
c3U sin( 2)
1 (4.39)
c2U z
z= Number of Blades

Example 4.4
A centrifugal pump has an impeller rotating at 2000 rpm. The dimensions of the impeller
are given below. Determine the capacity- Q and head- Hblade for the pump. Assume radial
inlet flow.
D1=160mm D2=350mm
b1=36mm b2=28mm
1=180 2=250
t1=4mm t2=6mm
z=5 (Number of blades)
Use
i) Stodals Formula
ii) Pfleiderer's Formula assuming volute casing (k=0.70)

Solution
2000
u1 D1n 0.16 16.76 m/s
60
c1m u1 tan(1 ) 16.76 tan(180 ) 5.44 m/s
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 95

t1 4
1 12.94 mm
sin( 1 ) sin(18 0 )
D1 160
f v1 1.15
z 1 5 12.94
D1 160

c1m 5.44
c0 m 4.74 m/s
f v1 1.15

Q' D1b1c0m 0.16 0.036 4.74 0.0858 m 3 /s 309 m 3 /hr

Exit Velocity
D1b1 0.16 0.036
c3 m c0 m 4.74 2.79 m/s
D2 b2 0.35 0.028

t2 6
1 14.20 mm
sin( 2 ) sin(25 0 )
D2 350
f v2 1.07
z 2 5 14.20
D2 350

c2m c3m f v 2 2.79 1.07 2.98 m/s

2000
u 2 D2 n 0.350 36.65m / s
60
c2u u 2 c2m cot( 2) 36.65 2.98 cot(25) 30.26 m/s

i) Using Stodals Equation

sin( 2) sin(25)
c3u c2u 1 30.261 22.22 m/s
z 5
u 2 c3u 36.65 22.23
H blade 83.0 m
g 9.81
iii) Using Pfleiderer's Equation
For centrifugal (radial flow) impellers

2k 2 2 0.70 25
0
1 1
P 1 1 0.501
z 60 1 r1 r 22
5 60 1 (0.16 / 0.35) 2

u 2 c 2u 36.65 30.26
H blade 75.3 m
(1 p) g (1 0.501)9.81
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 96

Vane congruent
u 2 c2u 36.65 30.26
H blade, 113.0 m
g 9.81

Q D1b1c1m 0.16 0.036 5.44 0.0985 m 3 /s 354.6 m 3 /hr

'

Remark
Even though Stodals equation is simpler usually Pfleiderer's Equation is commonly taken
as more accurate. Note that there is a significant difference between the vane congruent
head, Hblade,=113m, and capacity Q =354.6m3/hr and the actual head Hblade=75.3m and
capacity Q=309m3/hr.

==========================MID EXAM==============================

4.6 HEAD LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY IN CENTRIFUGAL MACHINES

In chapter 3 it was mentioned that not all the energy transferred from a fluid machine to the
flow medium appears as useful. Some part of the transferred energy appears as loss. For
design, operation and maintenance of fluid machines it is necessary to understand the
source of the losses and determine their values.

We need to understand losses because then we know which factors affect the losses or
efficiency of the machines and take precaution. We also need to estimate the loss because
the drive of the fluid machine should supply sufficient energy to cover both the useful
energy and the losses. During maintenance, it is necessary to check for the efficiency of
the fluid machines regularly and if the efficiency drops in unexpected way the engineer has
to know the reason for the drop to make appropriate decision. Knowledge of the losses also
helps us during operation because we then know how to run the machine efficiently so that
the cost of running the machine will be as small as possible.

4.6.1 Losses in Turbomachines Machines

The losses in centrifugal machines are classified into internal and external losses.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 97

I. Internal losses: - Losses which occur in the inner passage of the machine
and are directly connected to the impeller and the flow medium. The
internal losses add heat to the flow medium. The internal losses include:
a) Hydraulic loss /Zh
b) Disc friction loss /Zr
c) Return flow loss / Za
d) Leakage loss / Q

II. External Losses: - External Losses are loses which appear outside the inner
passage of the machine. The external losses include losses due to friction in
the bearings, sealing and due to fluid friction over outside rotating surfaces
(coupling disc surface) of the machine. Unlike internal losses external losses
do not add heat to the flow medium.

I. Internal Losses
a. Hydraulic Loss Zh J/kg
The hydraulic loss is a specific energy loss that the flow medium encounters due to fluid
friction, separation, etc. while passing through the main flow passage from inlet to
discharge flange of the machine. The blade has to transfer a specific energy Zh, in addition
to the useful specific energy Y.

The total energy transferred from the blade to the flow medium taking the hydraulic loss in
to account can be written as:
Yblade = Y + Zh (4.40)

b. Disc friction loss Zr

The surfaces of the impeller that do not form the main flow passage (outer surface of front
and back shroud) are also surrounded by the flow medium. While the impeller rotates,
friction is generated between the outer surfaces of the shrouds and the surrounding fluid.
The power needed to overcome this friction can be written as:
Nr = QZr (4.41)
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 98

Zr Specific energy loss due to disk friction related to the total flow rate Q.

Determination of the Disc Friction Loss

dF

r dr
B

e
Figure 4.30 Resistance acting on the two sides of a rotating disc

u 2
dF dA
2
Where
F=Frictional Force
= Friction coefficient
= Density
A= Area exposed to friction
u=r (4.42)
Resistance on the two ring surfaces of the disc becomes
r
2

dF 2 (2rdr ) 2 2 r 3 dr (4.43)
2
The torque due to the resistance of the two ring surfaces is
dT r.dF 2 2 r 4 dr (4.44)
Integrating both sides of the above equation, we get the total torque due to friction on both
sides of the disc, neglecting shaft diameter
5
( D / 2)
T 2 2 (4.45)
5
The disc has a thickness 'e', the torque due to the friction at the outer cylindrical surfaces
has to be added. This torque is:

D
2
D D D
T' F' 2 e
2 22 2 2
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 99

4
D
T ' 2 e (4.46)
2
Therefore the total torque acting on the disc is
Ttotal = T+T'
4
D D
T total e
2
(4.47)
5 2
The power loss due to disc friction now, can be calculated by the following formula
Nr = Ttotal = constant. 3 D4 (D + 5e) (4.48)
Where the constant factor is a function of the Reynolds number, the roughness of the disc
surfaces and the distance, B, between the disc and the casing.

Radial flow rotor:

Common value for most designs D + 5e 1.1 hence Nr can be written as
u5
N r const. D const.u D const
3 5 3 2

2
N r k n D2 [N r] W
3 5
(4.49)
k 0.027 for commomn Re number and roughness
Axial flow Impellers
The power loss due to disc friction for axial flow impellers can be obtained from the
following formula

N r k n D0 [N r] W
3 5
(4.50)
k=0.0095 for common Reynolds number

c. Return flow loss Za

A return flow of already energy-loaded medium may be noted in axial flow. This type of
loss is especially significant when axial flow machines are operated at a much lower
capacity than the design capacity.

Thus the power loss can be written as

Na = QZa (4.51)
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 100

Za : Specific energy loss due to return flow, related to the total flow Q
There is no suitable method to estimate the return flow loss. However, it can be assumed
negligible for all practical applications except for axial flow machines operating at much
lower flow rate than the design flow rate.

d. Leakage loss Q m3 /s or (loss of volume or mass flow)

Due to leakage through the clearance between the casing and the impeller, the volume Q
passing the pressure flange of the machine differs from the volume passing through the
impeller vane channels.

Q Q

Q' Q' Flow through vane

casing

Channel
Q Flow through discharge
end
Q Leakage

Figure 4.31 Relationship between leakage, discharge

and flow in the blade channel
Q' = Q+Q (4.52)
Q: Total leakage
Q': The volume flow through the vane channel is
Q: the flow at the discharge flange
Estimation
i. Incompressible Medium
P L c2 c
2
1.5 (4.53)
De 2 2
Rearranging the above equation we get

1 2P
c (4.54)
L
1.5
De
The equivalent diameter De is given by
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 101

Crosssectional Area Db
De 4 4 (4.55)
Wetted Perimeter 2D

De 2b (4.56)
Replacing 2b for De in (4.56) we get

1 2P
c (4.57)
L
1.5
2b
The pressure at the suction eye and discharge end of the impeller can be approximated by
=0.04
Finally the leakage loss through the clearance can be calculated by
Q= cA= c(Dcb) (4.58)
The volumetric efficiency can be calculated by
Q
V (4.59)
Q Q
ii. Compressible Medium
For compressible medium labyrinth seal or strip seal are commonly used. Even clearance
seal is not effective in such cases because if in case the rotating impeller comes in contact
with the stationary casing because of the small heat capacity of gasses they cannot remove
the generated heat quickly and the impeller can be damaged. But in strip seal the contact
area (in case if they contact each other) is small and the heat generated will not be that
large to damage the impeller, in addition the seal can be easily replaced.

b' b
(Effective width) (Geometric width)

Figure 4.32 Geometric width and effective width of a strip

The following equation may be used if the change in the density of the leakage is not too
big.

2P
Q A (4.60)

Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 102

Where

(4.61)
z
b'
0.7 to 0.8 (4.62)
b
The width b of the clearance should be as small as possible. Determination of b according
to the following empirical formula avoids contact between the rotating and stationary part
of the seal.
D(mm)
b(mm) 0.6 0.1(mm) (4.63)
1000
The above relation can also be used for even clearance seals also.

Internal Losses
Taking all the internal losses into consideration the power transferred from the rotor to the
flow medium is defined as an internal power.

Internal Power
Ni = (Q +Q) Y blade + Nr + Na = QYi (4.64)

Where Yi : the internal specific work

N i Q
Yi 1 Zr Za (4.65)
Q Q blade
Y

III. External Losses

External Losses are loses which appear outside the inner passage of the machine. Unlike
internal losses external losses do not add heat to the flow medium.

All external losses due to friction in the bearings, sealing and due to fluid friction at outside
rotating surfaces (coupling disc surface) of the machine can be counted together as external
power loss.
Zm J/kg
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 103

The power needed by auxiliary equipment which are required for the functioning of the
fluid machine (i.e., oil pump for bearing lubrication, speed regulator, etc.,) which are
mostly driven directly by the shaft of the fluid machine may also be included in the
external losses. The coupling power (brake power), which considers all internal and
external losses, is given by the equation:

Nb.p = Ni + Nm = (Q + Q) . Yblade + Nr + Na + Nm (4.66)

The following diagram shows the change of the specific energy as it is transferred from the
shaft (coupling) to the flow medium.
External
-Disc friction loss loss
-Return flow loss
-Hydraulic
loss
Yi Y coup
Y Y blade

Figure 4.33 Relationship between losses and transferred energy at different levels

4.6.2 Efficiency
Definition
energy output
Efficiency (4.67)
energy input
Different types of efficiencies considering the different types of losses discussed earlier.

a) Hydraulic Efficiency
The hydraulic efficiency considers all hydraulic losses Zh. It depends very much upon the
design and production quality of the flow passage.

Y Y
h (4.68)
Y blade Y Zh
For pumps of above average performance the hydraulic efficiency can be approximated by
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 104

0.071
h 1 0.25
(4.69)
Q
[Q]= m3/s
b) Volumetric Efficiency
The volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of the flow at the discharge end of the
machine to the total flow in the blade channel (the sum of leakage and flow at the discharge
end).
Q
V (4.70)
Q Q
To calculate the leakage flow, Q the details of the individual pump design must be
known. An approximate prediction of v at the design point can be obtained from a graph.

c) Internal efficiency
The internal efficiency considers all internal losses including the hydraulic loss.

N QY
i (4.71)
Ni Ni
In compression process where Yvel and Ygeo can be neglected the internal efficiency can be
calculated by the following formula:

T ad T 'D T S H ad H 'D H S
i (4.72)
T T D T S H HD HS

d) Mechanical Efficiency:
The mechanical efficiency considers all the external losses.

Ni Yi
m (4.73)
N coup Y i Zm
e) Overall efficiency
The overall efficiency includes all internal and external losses. This efficiency is related to
the fluid machine and does not consider the loss in the driving mechanism, motor.
Chapter 4 Theory of Turbomachines 105

QY QY
N i i m (4.74)
N coup Ni N coup