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Industrial FailuresDuetoOverheating
Water FailuresDuetoCorrosion
Treatment
BoilerWater
Systems Successful,reliableoperationofsteamgenerationequipmentrequirestheapplicationofthebestavailablemethodstopreventscaleand
corrosion.Whenequipmentfailuresdooccur,itisimportantthatthecauseoftheproblembecorrectlyidentifiedsothatpropercorrectivesteps
Chapter10 canbetakentopreventarecurrence.Anincorrectdiagnosisofafailurecanleadtoimpropercorrectivemeasuresthus,problemscontinue.
Boiler
Feedwater Therearetimeswhenthereasonsforfailuresareobscure.Intheseinstances,considerableinvestigationmayberequiredtouncoverthecauses.
Deaeration However,inmostcasestheproblemareadisplayscertainspecific,telltalesigns.Whenthesecharacteristicsareproperlyinterpreted,thecause
Chapter11 ofaproblemandtheremedybecomequiteevident.
Preboiler
AndBoiler DEAERATORCRACKING
Corrosion
Control Innumerousdeaerators,crackshavedevelopedatweldsandheataffectedzonesnearthewelds.Thecrackingmostcommonlyoccursatthe
Chapter12 headtoshellweldbelowthewaterlevelinthestoragecompartment.However,itmayalsooccurabovethewaterlevelandatlongitudinal
Boiler welds.Becausecrackscandeveloptothepointofequipmentfailure,theyrepresentapotentialsafetyhazardrequiringperiodicequipment
Deposits: inspectionand,whenwarranted,repairorreplacement.Wetfluorescentmagneticparticletestingisrecommendedforidentificationofcracks.
Occurence
Themechanismofmostdeaeratorcrackinghasbeenidentifiedasenvironmentallyassistedfatiguecracking.Althoughtheexactcausesarenot
AndControl
known,stepscanbetakentominimizethepotentialforcracking(e.g.,stressrelievingofweldsandminimizationofthermalandmechanical
Chapter13
stressduringoperation).Inaddition,waterchemistryshouldbedesignedtominimizecorrosion.
Boiler
Blowdown FEEDWATERLINEEROSION
Control
Chapter14 Highvelocitywaterandespeciallywater/steammixturescauseerosioninfeedwatersystems.Themostcommonlyencounterederosion
Boiler problemsoccuratthehairpinbendsinsteamingeconomizers.Here,themixtureofsteamandwaterthinstheelbows,leavingacharacteristic
System reversehorseshoeimprint.
Failures
Chapter15 Similarproblemscanbeencounteredinfeedwaterlineswherehighvelocitiescreatethefamiliarthinningpattern.Theseproblemscanoccur
Chemical evenatmoderateaverageflowvelocitieswhenasequenceofbendscausesasignificantincreaseinlocalvelocity.
CleaningOf
Steam Inordertomitigateerosionproblems,itishelpfultomaintainwaterchemistryconditionsthatformthemosttenaciousoxidelayer.However,
Generator theproblemscannotbecompletelyresolvedwithoutdesignoroperationalchanges.
Systems
Chapter16 ECONOMIZERTUBES
SteamPurity
Chapter17 Watertubeeconomizersareoftensubjecttotheseriousdamageofoxygenpitting(seeFigure141).Themostseveredamageoccursatthe
Measurement economizerinletand,whenpresent,atthetubeweldseams.Whereeconomizersareinstalled,effectivedeaeratingheateroperationis
OfSteam absolutelyessential.Theapplicationofafastactingoxygenscavenger,suchascatalyzedsodiumsulfite,alsohelpsprotectthisvitalpartofthe
Purity boiler.
Chapter18
Steam Whileoxygenpittingisthemostcommonformofwatersidecorrosionthatcauseseconomizertubefailures,causticsodahasoccasionally
Turbine accumulatedunderdepositsandcausedcausticgouging.Usually,thistypeofattackdevelopsinanareaofaneconomizerwheresteam
Deposition, generationistakingplacebeneathadepositandfreecausticsodaispresentinthefeedwater.Thebestsolutiontothisproblemisimproved
Erosion,and treatmentthatwilleliminatethedeposition.
Corrosion
Chapter19 Othercommoncausesofeconomizerfailureincludefatiguecrackingattherolledtubeendsandfiresidecorrosioncausedbythecondensation
Condensate ofacidfromtheboilerfluegas.
System
FAILURESDUETOOVERHEATING
Corrosion
Chapter20 Whentubefailuresoccurduetooverheatingandplasticflow(conditionscommonlyassociatedwithdeposits),thecauseisusuallyidentifiedby
Fireside thedepositswhichremain,asshowninFigure142.Anaccurateanalysisofthedepositsindicatesthesourceoftheproblemandthesteps
Preboiler neededforcorrection.Metallographicanalysesareuseful,attimes,inconfirmingwhetherashortorlongtermexposuretooverheating
Systems conditionsexistedpriortofailure.Suchanalysesarehelpfulalsowhenmetalqualityormanufacturingdefectsaresuspected,althoughthese
Chapter21 factorsaresignificantonlyinisolatedinstances.
Boiler
Fireside Whentubefailuresoccurduetooverheating,acarefulexaminationofthefailedtubesectionrevealswhetherthefailureisduetorapid
Depositand escalationintubewalltemperatureoralongterm,gradualbuildupofdeposit.Whenconditionscausearapidelevationinmetaltemperatureto

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Corrosion 1600Forabove,plasticflowconditionsarereachedandaviolentruptureoccurs.Rupturescharacterizedbythin,sharpedgesareidentifiedas
Control "thinlipped"bursts(seeFigure143).
Chapter22
Coilend Violentburstsofthethinlippedvarietyoccurwhenwatercirculationinthetubeisinterruptedbyblockageorbycirculationfailurecausedby
Deposition lowwaterlevels.Insomesteamdrumdesigns,waterlevelisextremelycriticalbecausethebafflingmayisolateageneratingsectionofthe
and boilerwhenthesteamdrumwaterlevelfallsbelowacertainpoint.
Corrosion
Control Thinlippedburstsalsooccurinsuperheatertubeswhensteamflowisinsufficient,whendepositsrestrictflow,orwhentubesareblockedby
waterduetoarapidfiringrateduringboilerstartup.
ContactUs
Interruptionsinflowdonotalwaysresultinrapidfailure.Dependingonthemetaltemperaturereached,thetubecanbedamagedbycorrosive
orthinningmechanismsoveralongperiodoftimebeforebulgesorblistersoroutrightfailuresdevelop.Insuchinstances,ametallurgical
examinationinadditiontoanexaminationofthecontributingmechanicalfactorscanbehelpfulinidentifyingthesourceoftheproblem.

Alongtermscalingconditionwhichwillleadtoatubeleakisusuallyindicatedbyawrinkled,bulgedexternalsurfaceandafinalthicklipped
fissureoropening.Thisappearanceisindicativeoflongtermcreepfailurecreatedbyrepetitivescaleformation,causingoverheatingand
swellingofthetubesurfaceintheformofabulgeorblister.Thescale,insuchinstances,tendstocrackoffwatercontactsthemetalandcools
ituntilfurtherscalingrepeatstheprocess.Theironoxidecoatingontheexternalsurfacecracksduringtheprocess,givingrisetothe
characteristiclongitudinalcreepcracks.

FAILURESDUETOCORROSION

StressCorrosionCracking

Variouscorrosionmechanismscontributetoboilertubefailure.Stresscorrosionmayresultineitherintercrystallineortransgranularcracking
ofcarbonsteel.Itiscausedbyacombinationofmetalstressandthepresenceofacorrosive.Ametallurgicalexaminationofthefailedareais
requiredtoconfirmthespecifictypeofcracking.Oncethisisdetermined,propercorrectiveactioncanbetaken.

CausticEmbrittlement

Causticembrittlement,aspecificformofstresscorrosion,resultsintheintercrystallinecrackingofsteel.Intercrystallinecrackingresultsonly
whenallofthefollowingarepresent:specificconditionsofstress,amechanismforconcentrationsuchasleakage,andfreeNaOHintheboiler
water.Therefore,boilertubesusuallyfailfromcausticembrittlementatpointswheretubesarerolledintosheets,drums,orheaders.

Thepossibilityofembrittlementmaynotbeignoredevenwhentheboilerisofanallweldeddesign.Crackedweldsortubeendleakagecan
providethemechanismbywhichdrummetalmaybeadverselyaffected.Whenfreecausticispresent,embrittlementispossible.

Anembrittlementdetectormaybeusedtodeterminewhetherornotaboilerwaterhasembrittlingtendencies.Thedevice,illustratedinFigure
144,wasdevelopedbytheUnitedStatesBureauofMines.Ifboilerwaterpossessesembrittlingcharacteristics,stepsmustbetakentoprotect
theboilerfromembrittlementrelatedfailure.

Sodiumnitrateisthestandardtreatmentforinhibitingembrittlementinboilersoperatingatlowpressures.Theratiosofsodiumnitrateto
sodiumhydroxideintheboilerwaterrecommendedbytheBureauofMinesdependontheboileroperatingpressure.Theseratiosareas
follows:

Pressure,psi NaNO3/NaOHRatio

Upto250 0.20

Upto400 0.25

Upto1000 0.400.50

Theformulaforcalculatingthesodiumnitrate/sodiumhydroxideratiointheboilerwateris:

NaNO3 ppmnitrate(asNO3)

=
ppmMalkalinityppmphosphate
NaOH
(asCaCO3)(asPO43)

Atpressuresabove900psig,coordinatedphosphate/pHcontrolistheusualinternaltreatment.Whenproperlyadministered,thistreatment
methodprecludesthedevelopmentofhighconcentrationsofcaustic,eliminatingthepotentialforcausticembrittlement.

FatigueandCorrosionFatigue

Transgranularcrackingprimarilyduetocyclicstressisthemostcommonformofcrackingencounteredinindustrialboilers.Inorderto
determinethecauseofatransgranularfailure,itisnecessarytostudyboththedesignandtheoperatingconditionsoftheboiler.Straighttube,
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shellandtubewasteheatboilersfrequentlydeveloptubeandtubesheetfailuresduetotheimpositionofunequalstresses.Aprimarycauseof
thisistheunevendistributionofhotgasesacrossthefaceofthetubesheet.Thetubesinvolvedtendtocomeloose,creatingleakageproblems.
Evenwhenthetubesaresecurelywelded,imposedstressescancausetransversecrackingofthetubes.

Anydesignfeaturethatallowssteampocketstoformwithinaunitcancausecyclicoverheatingandquenching.Thiscanleadtotransverse
crackingoftubesand,occasionally,shells.Suchcrackingalwaysappearsintheareaofgreateststressandresultsincracksthatareprimarily
transgranular.

SomeintercrystallinecrackingmaydevelopinthistypeoffailurewhetherornotfreeNaOHispresent.However,thepredominanttypeof
crackingisacrossthegrainstructureofthemetal.Becauseitismechanicallyinduced,thecrackingoccursirrespectiveofboilerwaterchemical
concentrations.Thecracksareoftenaccompaniedbyanumberofpitsadjacenttoorinlinewiththecrackinganotherspecificindicatorofthe
mechanicalstressesimposed.Anycorrosivespresentcontributetotheformationofthepits.Thenormalreactionbetweenironandwateris
sufficienttocausepittingatbreaksinthethinoxidefilmformedonfreshlyexposedsurfacesunderstress.

StressInducedCorrosion

Certainportionsoftheboilercanbeverysusceptibletocorrosionasaresultofstressfrommechanicalforcesappliedduringthemanufacturing
andfabricationprocesses.Damageiscommonlyvisibleinstressedcomponents,suchasrolledtubeends,threadedbolts,andcyclone
separators.However,corrosioncanalsooccuratweldattachmentsthroughouttheboiler(seeFigure145)andcanremainundetecteduntil
failureoccurs.Regularinspectionforevidenceofcorrosion,particularlyinthewindboxareaofKraftrecoveryboilers,isrecommended
becauseofthepotentialforanexplosioncausedbyatubeleak.

Thepotentialforstressinducedcorrosioncanbereducedifthefollowingfactorsareminimized:stressesdevelopedintheboilercomponents,
thenumberofthermalcycles,andthenumberofboilerchemicalcleanings.Inaddition,itisnecessarytomaintainproperwaterchemistry
controlduringoperationandtoprovideprotectionfromcorrosionduringshutdowns.

DissolvedOxygen

Dissolvedoxygencorrosionisaconstantthreattofeedwaterheater,economizer,andboilertubeintegrity.Asdepositcontroltreatmentmethods
haveimproved,theneedforeffectivecontrolofoxygenhasbecomeincreasinglyimportant.

Thefirstseriousemphasisonoxygencontrolbeganwhenphosphatebasedtreatmentswereintroducedtoreplacethesodaashtreatments
commonbeforethattime.Thedense,hardcalciumcarbonatescalewhichdevelopedwiththesodaashtreatmentsprotectedtubesanddrums
fromseriousoxygencorrosion.Withtheapplicationofphosphatetreatment,thetubeanddrumsurfaceswerecleaner.Therefore,moreofthe
surfaceareawasexposedtocorrosivesinthewater.Thisspurredtheuseofimprovedopenfeedwaterheaterstoremovemostoftheoxygen
priortotheentranceofwaterintotheboiler.Today,mostplantsareequippedwithefficientlyoperateddeaeratingheaters.Theuseofoxygen
scavengers,suchascatalyzedsodiumsulfite,hydrazine,andorganicscavengers,isalsostandardpractice.

Theuseofchelanttreatmentsanddemineralizedwaterhasimprovedthecleanlinessofboilerheattransfersurfacestosuchanextentthat
essentiallybaremetalconditionsarecommon.Onlyathin,protective,magneticoxidefilmremainsinsuchinstances.Asaresult,oxygen
controlhasbecomeevenmoreessentialtoday.Theuseofcatalyzedsulfite,whereapplicable,isastandardrecommendationinchelant
applications.

Thecontrolofdowntimecorrosionhasbecomeincreasinglyimportantinrecentyearstopreventorinhibitpittingfailures.Often,coldwater
thathasnotbeendeaeratedisusedforrapidcoolingorstartupofaboiler.Thisisariskyoperatingpractice,usuallychosenforeconomical
reasons.Severepittingcanoccurinsuchinstances,especiallyinboilersthathavebeenmaintainedinadepositfreecondition.Therefore,itis
usuallymoreeconomicaltomaintaincleanheattransfersurfacesandeliminatetheuseofcoldwatercontainingdissolvedoxygenduringcool
downandstartupperiods.Thispracticecanresultinfuelsavingsandimprovedboilerreliability.

ChelantCorrosion

Duringtheearlyyearsofchelantuse,nearlyallinternalboilercorrosionproblemswerelabeled"chelantcorrosion."However,othercorrosives
suchasoxygen,carbondioxide,caustic,acid,copperplating,andwaterarestillcommoncausesofboilercorrosion.Inaddition,mechanical
conditionsleadingtocausticembrittlement,filmboiling,andsteamblanketingareevenmoreprevalenttodaythanever,asaresultof
increasingheattransferratesandthemorecompactdesignofsteamgenerators.Chelantcorrosion,orchelantattack,hassomespecific
characteristics,anddevelopsonlyundercertainconditions.

Chelantcorrosionofboilermetaloccursonlywhenexcessconcentrationofthesodiumsaltismaintainedoveraperiodoftime.Theattackisof
adissolvingorthinningtypenotpittingandisconcentratedinareasofstresswithintheboiler.Itcausesthinningofrolledtubeends,threaded
members,baffleedges,andsimilarpartsofstressed,unrelievedareas.Normally,annealedtubesanddrumsurfacesarenotattacked.Whentube
thinningoccursinachelanttreatedboiler,evidenceofsteamblanketingand/orfilmboilingissometimespresent.Insuchinstances,failure
occursregardlessofthetypeofinternaltreatmentused.

Pittingisoftenthoughttobearesultofchelantattack.However,pittingofcarbonsteelboilertubesisalmostalwaysduetothepresenceof
uncontrolledoxygenoracid.Infrequently,copperplating(usuallytheresultofanimproperacidcleaningoperation)mayleadtopitting
problems.

CausticAttack

Causticattack(orcausticcorrosion),asdifferentiatedfromcausticembrittlement,isencounteredinboilerswithdemineralizedwaterandmost
oftenoccursinphosphatetreatedboilerswheretubedepositsform,particularlyathighheatinputorpoorcirculationareas.Depositsofa
porousnatureallowboilerwatertopermeatethedeposits,causingacontinuousbuildupofboilerwatersolidsbetweenthemetalandthe
deposits.

Becausecausticsodadoesnotcrystallizeundersuchcircumstances,causticconcentrationinthetrappedliquidcanreach10,000ppmormore.
Complexcausticferriticcompoundsareformedwhenthecausticdissolvestheprotectivefilmofmagneticoxide.Waterincontactwithiron
attemptstorestoretheprotectivefilmofmagnetite(Fe3O4).Aslongasthehighcausticconcentrationsremain,thisdestructiveprocesscauses
acontinuouslossofmetal.

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Thethinningcausedbycausticattackassumesirregularpatternsandisoftenreferredtoascausticgouging(seeFigure146).Whendeposits
areremovedfromthetubesurfaceduringexamination,thecharacteristicgougesareveryevident,alongwiththewhitesaltsdepositwhich
usuallyoutlinestheedgesoftheoriginaldepositionarea.Thewhitishdepositissodiumcarbonate,theresidueofcausticsodareactingwith
carbondioxideintheair.

Inspectionsofboilerswithcausticattackoftenshowexcessiveaccumulationsofmagneticoxideinlowflowareasofdrumsandheaders.This
iscausedbytheflakingoff,duringoperation,ofdepositsunderwhichthecomplexcausticferriticmaterialhasformed.Whencontactedand
dilutedbyboilerwater,thisunstablecompleximmediatelyrevertstofreecausticandmagneticoxide.Thesuspendedandreleasedmagnetic
oxidemovestoandaccumulatesinlowfloworhighheatfluxareasoftheboiler.

Whilecausticattackissometimesreferredtoascausticpitting,theattackphysicallyappearsasirregulargougingorthinningandshouldnotbe
confusedwiththeconcentrated,localizedpitpenetrationrepresentativeofoxygenoracidattack.

SteamBlanketing

Anumberofconditionspermitstratifiedflowofsteamandwaterinagiventube,whichusuallyoccursinalowheatinputzoneoftheboiler.
Thisproblemisinfluencedbytheangleoftheaffectedtubes,alongwiththeactualloadmaintainedontheboiler.Stratificationoccurswhen,
foranyreason,velocityisnotsufficienttomaintainturbulenceorthoroughmixingofwaterandsteamduringpassagethroughthetubes.
Stratificationmostcommonlyoccursinslopedtubes(Figure147)locatedawayfromtheradiantheatzoneoftheboiler,whereheatinputis
lowandpositivecirculationinthetubesmaybelacking.

Examinationoftheaffectedtubesusuallyrevealsaprominentwaterlinewithgeneralthinninginthetopareaofthetubeorcrown.Inrare
instances,thebottomofthetubeisthinned.Whentheboilerwatercontainscaustic,highconcentrationsaccumulateandleadtocaustic
corrosionandgougingunderthedepositsthataccumulateatthewaterline.

Incertaininstances,stratificationmayoccurtogetherwithinputofheattothetoporcrownofthetube.Thiscreatesahighdegreeofsuperheat
inthesteamblanket.Directreactionofsteamwiththehotsteeldevelopsifthemetaltemperaturereaches750Forhigher.Corrosionofthe
steelwillproceedundersuchcircumstanceswhetherornotcausticispresent.Whenthereisdoubtabouttheexactcause,ametallographic
analysiswillshowifabnormaltemperatureexcursionscontributedtotheproblem.Depositsusuallyfoundundersuchcircumstancesare
composedprimarilyofmagneticironoxide(Fe3O4).Hydrogenisalsoformedasaresultofthereactionandisreleasedwiththesteam.

Asomewhatunusualproblemrelatedtocirculationandheatinputproblemshasbeenencounteredinrooftubes.Thesetubesareusually
designedtopickupheatonthebottomsideonly.Problemsgenerallydevelopwhenthetubessagorbreakawayfromtheroof,causing
exposureoftheentiresurfaceofthetubetothehotgases.Theoverheatingthatusuallydevelops,alongwiththeinternalpressure,causesa
gradualenlargementofthetube,sometimesquiteuniformly.Failureoccurswhentheexpandedtubecannolongerwithstandthecombined
effectsofthethermalstressandinternalpressure.

Superheatertubesoftenshowthesameswellingorenlargementeffect.Insuchinstances,steamflowhasbeenrestrictedforsomereason,
leadingtooverheatingandeventuallytofailure.

AcidicAttack

Acidattackofboilertubesanddrumsisusuallyintheformofgeneralthinningofallsurfaces.Thisresultsinavisuallyirregularsurface
appearance,asshowninFigure148.Smoothsurfacesappearatareasofflowwheretheattackhasbeenintensified.Insevereoccurrences,
othercomponents,suchasbaffling,nutsandbolts,andotherstressedareas,maybebadlydamagedordestroyed,leavingnodoubtastothe
sourceoftheproblem.

Severeinstancesofacidattackcanusuallybetracedtoeitheranunsatisfactoryacidcleaningoperationorprocesscontamination.Some
industrialplantsencounterperiodicreturnedcondensatecontamination,whicheliminatesboilerwateralkalinity.Occasionally,regeneration
acidfromanionexchangeprocessisdischargedaccidentallyintotheboilerfeedwatersystem.Coolingwatercontaminationofcondensatecan
depressboilerwaterpHandcauseseveredepositionandpittinginareasofhighheatflux.Damagecanbequitesevereifimmediatestepsare
nottakentoneutralizetheacid.

Inthecaseofindustrialprocesscontamination,itispossiblefororganiccontaminantstodecomposeunderboilertemperatureandpressureto
formorganicacids.Sugarisanexcellentexampleofanorganicwhich,whenreturnedinalargequantity,cancauserapidlossofboilerwater
alkalinityandreducepHoftheboilerwaterto4.3andlower.Mostsugarrefiningplantsmaintainstandbypumpingsystems,toaddcaustic
sodatoneutralizetheseacidsasquicklyaspossible.

CorrosionDuetoCopper

Pittingofboilerdrumsandtubebankshasbeenencounteredduetometalliccopperdeposits,formedduringacidcleaningprocedureswhichdo
notcompletelycompensatefortheamountofcopperoxidesintheoriginaldeposits.Dissolvedcoppermaybeplatedoutonfreshlycleaned
steelsurfaces,eventuallyestablishinganodiccorrosionareasandformingpitsverysimilarinformandappearancetothosecausedbyoxygen.

Insuchinstances,metalliccopperplatingisquiteevident.Inmostcases,itislocalizedincertaintubebanks,givingrisetorandompittingin
thoseparticularareas.Wheneverdepositsarefoundcontaininglargequantitiesofcopperoritsoxide,specialprecautionsarerequiredto
preventtheplatingoutofcopperduringcleaningoperations.

Copperdepositsandtemperaturesover1600Fcancauseliquidmetalembrittlement.Weldrepairofatubecontainingcopperdepositsleadsto
thefailureshowninFigure149.

HydrogenAttackorEmbrittlement

Sincearound1960,hydrogenattack,orembrittlement,hasbeenencounteredwithincreasingfrequencyinhighpressure,highpuritysystems.
Itisnotencounteredintheaverageindustrialplantbecausetheproblemusuallyoccursonlyinunitsoperatingatpressuresof1500psigor
higher.

Insystemsofthistype,thealkalinityoftheboilerwaterismaintainedatvaluesthatarequitelowcomparedtousualstandardsforlower
pressureoperation.Attheoperatingpressuresindicatedandwaterconditionsimposed,eithercoordinatedpH/phosphateortotalvolatile

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programsareused.Becausetheboilerwaterisrelativelyunbuffered,totalvolatileprogramsaremoreaffectedbycontaminantsthatmaylower
boilerwateralkalinityorpH.

WhencontaminantslowertheboilerwaterpHsufficiently,theacidattackofthesteelgenerateshydrogen.Ifthisoccursunderhard,adherent,
nonporoustubedeposits,thehydrogenpressurewithinthedepositcanbuilduptothepointatwhichthehydrogenpenetratesthesteeltubing.

Whenatomichydrogenpermeatesthemetalstructure,itreactswiththecarboncontenttoformmethane.Becausethemethanemoleculeistoo
largetodiffusethroughthesteel,excessivepressuredevelopswithinthemetalstructure,causingthemetaltorupturealongthecrystalline
boundarieswheremethanehasformed.Thecrackingthatdevelopsisprimarilyintercrystallineorintergranularinnature,themetallicarea
affectedbecomingdecarburizedintheprocess.Failureoccurswhentherupturedsectioncannolongerwithstandtheinternalpressure.
Rupturesareviolentandsudden,andcanbedisastrous(seeFigure1410).Failedsectionsoftubingarecrackedintheintergranularmodeand
decarburized,butusuallyretaintheoriginaldimensionsorthicknessofthetubingmaterial.

AlthoughtherearemanycausesoflowboilerwaterpH,itmostfrequentlyoccurswhenbrackishwaterisusedforcondensercooling.Small
quantitiesofmagnesiumchloride,inparticular,havecausedextremelylowpHexcursions,requiringveryclosesupervisionanddetectionof
verylowlevelsofcontaminationinthecondensate.

Tosummarize,hydrogenembrittlementoccursonlywhenahard,densescaleispresentonthetubesurfaces,permittinghydrogento
concentrateunderthedepositandpermeatethemetal.AcidiccontaminationorlowpHexcursionscommonlyproducetheconditionsfor
generationofhydrogen.Thistypeofattackmaydevelopveryquicklytherefore,constantsurveillanceofcondensatepurityisrequired.

Asindicated,hydrogenembrittlementusuallyoccursinhighpuritysystemsthatoperateat1500psigorhigher.Althoughitissometimes
confusedwithintergranularcreepcracking,thistypeoffailurecanbepositivelyidentifiedbythedistinctiveintergranularnatureofthe
crackinganddecarburizedconditionofthemetal.

Surveysofunitsoperatingatthesepressuresandundertheseconditionshavegenerallyindicatedthattheapplicationofacoordinated
pH/phosphatecontrolwilllessenthepossibilityofhydrogenembrittlement.Thisisdueprimarilytotheimprovedbufferingoftheboilerwater
withphosphatepresent.

SuperheaterTubes

Superheatertubefailuresarecausedbyanumberofconditions,bothmechanicalandchemical.Inanyinstanceofsuperheatertubefailure,
analysisofthedepositsfoundisanimportantfactorinsolvingtheproblem.Magneticoxidedepositsatthepointoffailureareadirect
indicationofoxidationofthetubemetal(seeFigure1411).Thisoxidationoccursduringoverheatingwheremetaltemperaturesexceedthe
designtemperatureandthesteelentersintoadirectreactionwiththesteamtoformmagneticironoxidewithhydrogenrelease.Whenthe
depositsfoundintheareaoffailureareprimarilyironoxide,itmaybenecessarytoexploreanumberofoperatingconditionsinorderto
determinetheinitialcause.

Oxidationmayoccuriftheflowofsteamthroughthetubesisrestrictedoriftheheatinputisexcessive,permittingoverheating.Inthecaseof
insufficientsteamflow,therestrictionmaybeduetoconditionsprevalentduringthetransitionperiodsofboilerstartuporshutdown.This
occursifadequateprecautionshavenotbeentakentoprotectthesuperheaterduringthetransitionperiods.Atnotimeshouldgastemperatures
exceed900Fintheareaofthesuperheateruntiltheboilerisuptooperatingpressureandallsuperheatertubesareclearofanywaterwhich
mayhaveaccumulatedduringthedowntime.Overheatingconditionsmaydevelopduringtimesoflowloadoperationwhenadequate
distributionofsaturatedsteamacrossthetubebankattheinletheaderhasnotbeenachieved.

Solublesaltdepositsmayformatasuperheatertubeinletasaresultofexcessiveentrainmentofboilerwatersolidswiththesteam.Thiscan
resultinrestrictedflow.However,overheatinganddirectoxidationfailuresmayoccurinareasdistinctlyremovedfromtheblockage,suchas
thebottomloopsorthehottestareasofthesuperheatertubes.

Insomecases,thereisaverycleardelineationbetweenoxidationproductsinthehotareaandsolublesaltsdepositsattheinlet.However,in
mostoccurrences,ahighpercentageofsodiumsaltdepositsisfoundinthehotareasalongwiththeoxidationproducts.Thereislittledoubtin
suchinstancesthatboilerwatercarryoverhascontributedtotheproblem.

Periodicoverheatingofsuperheaters,causedbyinsufficientcontroloffireboxtemperaturesduringstartupandshutdownperiods,usually
resultsinthicklippedfissuresandblisteringwithalltheevidenceofcreepfailure.Asinthecaseofwatertubes,asuperheatertubewillfail
rapidly(oftenviolently)whenflowisblockedforashortperiodoftimeandtubetemperatureescalatesrapidlytoplasticflowtemperatures.
Determinationofwhetherafailureisduetoalongorshorttermsituationdependsessentiallyonthesamegeneralcharacteristicsthatapplyto
watertubeexamination.

Oxygenpittingofsuperheatertubes,particularlyinthependantlooparea,israthercommonandoccursduringdowntime.Itiscausedbythe
exposureofwaterintheseareastooxygenintheair.

Itisessentialthatthemanufacturer'sinstructionsbefollowedrigidlytopreventoverheatingproblemsduringstartuporshutdownandto
preventoxygencorrosionduringdowntime.

Whensolublesaltsdepositsarefoundinsuperheatertubes,steampurityisofparamountconcern.IthasbeentheexperienceofBetz
Laboratories,afterconductingthousandsofsteampuritystudiesovermanyyears,thatsolublesaltsdepositsinsuperheaterscanbeexpected,
withattendantproblems,wheneversteamsolidsexceed300ppb.Therefore,whensolublesaltsdepositsarefound,athoroughinvestigationof
steampurity(andreasonsforpoorpurity)isnecessary.

BoilerDesignProblems

Certainbasicdesignflawscancontributetotubefailures.Problemswhichoccurasaresultofadesignflawmaybeintensifiedbytheboiler
waterchemistry.Theboilerwateroftencontainselementsthatbecomecorrosivewhenconcentratedfarbeyondnormalvaluesasaresultof
designproblems.

Manyindustrialboilers,forexample,aretreatedinsuchamannerthatlowconcentrationsofcausticsodaarepresentintheboilerwater.The
causticcanbecomecorrosivetosteelwhentheboilerwaterisallowedtoconcentratetoabnormallyhighvaluesasaresultofpoordesign.Even
intheabsenceofcaustic,conditionswhichpermitstratificationorsteamblanketingandlocalizedelevationofmetaltemperaturesinexcessof
750Fallowdirectoxidationorcorrosionofthesteelincontactwithwaterorsteam.Thiscauseslossofmetalandeventualruptureofthetube.

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Rooftubes,nosearchtubes,andconvectionpasstubeswithslopesoflessthan30degreesfromthehorizontalaremoresubjecttodeposition
andstratificationproblemsandtubefailuresthanverticaltubes.Wheneverchelantispresentinboilerwater,thesodiumsaltsof
ethylenediaminetetraaceticacid(EDTA),inparticular,aredestroyedathightemperature,leavingaresidueofcausticsoda.Thecausticsoda
residuefromthechelantisusuallyaninsignificantadditivetowhatevercausticmaybepresentnormally.

Afrequentcontributortowasteheatboilerproblemsistheunevendistributionofgasesacrosstheinlettubesatthehotend.Thiscauses
unequalstressesanddistortionandleadstomechanicalstressandfatigueproblems.

Theuseofhorizontalhairpintubeconfigurationswithinadequateforcedcirculationofwaterthroughthetubesoftenpermitsstratificationof
steamandwater.Thisoftenleadstosteamblanketingorcausticcorrosionproblems.

ProceduresforBoilerTubeFailureAnalysis

Attimes,thecauseofafailurecannotbereadilydetermined,makingitdifficulttodeterminetheappropriatecorrectiveaction.Adetailed
examinationofthefailureandassociatedoperatingdataisusuallyhelpfulinidentifyingthemechanismoffailuresothatcorrectiveactionmay
betaken.

Properinvestigativeproceduresareneededforaccuratemetallurgicalanalysesofboilertubes.Dependingonthespecificcase,macroscopic
examinationcombinedwithchemicalanalysisandmicroscopicanalysisofthemetalmaybeneededtoassesstheprimaryfailure
mechanism(s).Whenafailedtubesectionisremovedfromaboiler,caremustbetakentopreventcontaminationofdepositsanddamagetothe
failedzones.Also,thetubeshouldbeproperlylabeledwithitslocationandorientation.

Thefirststepinthelabinvestigationisathoroughvisualexamination.Boththefiresideandthewatersidesurfacesshouldbeinspectedfor
failureorindicationsofimminentfailure.Photographicdocumentationoftheasreceivedconditionoftubingcanbeusedinthecorrelationand
interpretationofdataobtainedduringtheinvestigation.Particularattentionshouldbepaidtocolorandtextureofdeposits,fracturesurface
locationandmorphology,andmetalsurfacecontour.Astereomicroscopeallowsdetailedexaminationunderlowpowermagnification.

Dimensionalanalysisofafailedtubeisimportant.Calipersandpointmicrometersarevaluabletoolsthatallowquantitativeassessmentof
failurecharacteristicssuchasbulging,wallthinningatarupturelip,andcorrosiondamage.Theextentofductileexpansionand/oroxide
formationcanprovidecluestowarddeterminingtheprimaryfailuremechanism.Externalwallthinningfromfiresideerosionorcorrosion
mechanismscanresultintuberuptureswhichoftenmimictheappearanceofoverheatingdamage.Inthosecases,dimensionalanalysisof
adjacentareascanhelptodeterminewhetherornotsignificantexternalwallthinningoccurredpriortofailure.Aphotographofatubecross
sectiontakenimmediatelyadjacenttoafailuresitecanassistindimensionalanalysisandprovideclearcutdocumentation.

Theextent,orientation,andfrequencyoftubesurfacecrackingcanbehelpfulinpinpointingafailuremechanism.Whileoverheatingdamage
typicallycauseslongitudinalcracks,fatiguedamagecommonlyresultsincracksthatruntransversetothetubeaxis.Inparticular,zones
adjacenttoweldedsupportsshouldbeexaminedcloselyforcracks.Nondestructivetesting(e.g.,magneticparticleordyepenetrantinspection)
maybenecessarytoidentifyandassesstheextentofcracking.

Whenproperwaterchemistryguidelinesaremaintained,thewatersidesurfacesofboilertubesarecoatedwithathinprotectivelayerofblack
magnetite.Excessivewatersidedepositioncanleadtohigherthandesignmetaltemperaturesandeventualtubefailure.Quantitativeanalysisof
theinternaltubesurfacecommonlyinvolvesdeterminationofthedepositweightdensity(DWD)valueanddepositthickness.Interpretationof
thesevaluescandefinetheroleofinternaldepositsinafailuremechanism.DWDvaluesarealsousedtodeterminewhetherornotchemical
cleaningofboilertubingisrequired.Inaddition,thetubesurfacemaybethoroughlycleanedbymeansofglassbeadblastingduringDWD
testing.Thisfacilitatesaccurateassessmentofwatersideorfiresidecorrosiondamage(e.g.,pitting,gouging)thatmaybehiddenbydeposits.

Thepresenceofunusualdepositionpatternsonawatersidesurfacecanbeanindicationthatnonoptimalcirculationpatternsexistinaboiler
tube.Forexample,longitudinaltrackingofdepositsinahorizontalrooftubemayindicatesteamblanketingconditions.Steamblanketing,
whichresultswhenconditionspermitstratifiedflowofsteamandwaterinagiventube,canleadtoacceleratedcorrosiondamage(e.g.,wall
thinningand/orgouging)andtubefailure.

Whenexcessiveinternaldepositsarepresentinatube,accuratechemicalanalysescanbeusedtodeterminethesourceoftheproblemandthe
stepsnecessaryforcorrection.Wheneverpossible,itisadvisabletocollecta"bulk"composition,byscrapingandcrimpingthetubeand
collectingacrosssectionofthedepositforchemicalanalysis.Typically,alossonignition(LOI)valueisalsodeterminedforthewaterside
deposit.TheLOIvalue,whichrepresentstheweightlossobtainedafterthedepositisheatedinafurnace,canbeusedtodiagnose
contaminationofthewatersidedepositbyorganicmaterial.

Inmanycases,chemicalanalysisofadepositfromaspecificareaisdesired.Scanningelectronmicroscopeenergydispersivespectroscopy
(SEMEDS)isaversatiletechniquethatallowsinorganicchemicalanalysisonamicroscopicscale.SEMEDSanalysesareshowninFigures
1412and1413.Forexample,SEMEDScanbeusefulinthefollowingdeterminations:

differencesindepositcompositionbetweencorrodedandnoncorrodedareasonatubesurface
theextenttowhichunderdepositconcentrationofboilersaltsonheattransfersurfacesispromotingcorrosiondamage
elementaldifferencesbetweenvisuallydifferenttubesurfacedeposits

InorganicanalysesthroughSEMEDScanalsobeperformedongroundandpolishedcrosssectionsofatubecoveredwiththicklayersof
watersidedeposit.Thistestingiscalledelementalmappingandisparticularlyvaluablewhenthedepositsaremultilayered.Similartothe
examinationofringsonatree,crosssectionalanalysisofboilerdepositscanidentifyperiodswhentherehavebeenupsetsinwaterchemistry,
andtherebyprovidesdatatohelpdetermineexactlyhowandwhendepositsformed.Withelementalmapping,thespatialdistributionof
elementsinadepositcrosssectionisrepresentedbycolorcodeddotmaps.Separateelementsofinterestcanberepresentedbyindividual
maps,orselectedcombinationsofelementscanberepresentedoncompositemaps.

Ascanningelectronmicroscope(SEM)canalsobeutilizedtoanalyzethetopographyofsurfacedepositsand/ormorphologyoffracture
surfaces.Fractographyisparticularlyhelpfulinclassifyingafailuremode.Forexample,microscopicfeaturesofafracturesurfacecanreveal
whetherthesteelfailedinabrittleorductilemanner,whethercrackspropagatedthroughgrainsoralonggrainboundaries,andwhetherornot
fatigue(cyclicstress)wastheprimarycauseoffailure.Inaddition,SEMEDStestingcanbeusedtoidentifytheinvolvementofaspecificion
orcompoundinafailuremechanism,throughacombinationoffracturesurfaceanalysisandchemicalanalysis.

Mostwaterbearingtubesusedinboilerconstructionarefabricatedfromlowcarbonsteel.However,steambearing(superheaterandreheater)
tubesarecommonlyfabricatedfromlowalloysteelcontainingdifferinglevelsofchromiumandmolybdenum.Chromiumandmolybdenum

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increasetheoxidationandcreepresistanceofthesteel.Foraccurateassessmentofmetaloverheating,itisimportanttohaveaportionofthe
tubeanalyzedforalloychemistry.Alloyanalysiscanalsoconfirmthatthetubingiswithinspecifications.Inisolatedinstances,initial
installationofthewrongalloytypeortuberepairsusingthewronggradeofsteelcanoccur.Inthesecases,chemicalanalysisofthesteelcanbe
usedtodeterminethecauseofprematurefailure.

Attimes,itisnecessarytoestimatethemechanicalpropertiesofboilercomponents.Mostoften,thisinvolveshardnessmeasurement,which
canbeusedtoestimatethetensilestrengthofthesteel.Thisisparticularlyusefulindocumentingthedeteriorationofmechanicalproperties
thatoccursduringmetaloverheating.Usually,aRockwellhardnesstesterisusedhowever,itissometimesadvantageoustousea
microhardnesstester.Forexample,microhardnessmeasurementscanbeusedtoobtainahardnessprofileacrossaweldedzonetoassessthe
potentialforbrittlecrackingintheheataffectedzoneofaweld.

Microstructuralanalysisofametalcomponentisprobablythemostimportanttoolinconductingafailureanalysisinvestigation.Thistesting,
calledmetallography,isusefulindeterminingthefollowing:

whetheratubefailedfromshorttermorlongtermoverheatingdamage
whethercracksinitiatedonawatersideorfiresidesurface
whethercrackswerecausedbycreepdamage,corrosionfatigue,orstresscorrosioncracking(SCC)
whethertubefailureresultedfromhydrogendamageorinternalcorrosiongouging

Propersampleorientationandpreparationarecriticalaspectsofmicrostructuralanalysis.Theorientationofthesectioningisdeterminedbythe
specificfailurecharacteristicsofthecase.Aftercarefulselection,metalspecimensarecutwithapowerhacksaworanabrasivecutoffwheel
andmountedinamoldwithresinorplastic.Aftermounting,thesamplesaresubjectedtoaseriesofgrindingandpolishingsteps.Thegoalis
toobtainaflat,scratchfreesurfaceofmetalinthezoneofinterest.Afterprocessing,asuitableetchantisappliedtothepolishedmetalsurface
torevealmicrostructuralconstituents(grainboundaries,distributionandmorphologyofironcarbides,etc.)

Metallographicanalysisofthemounted,polished,andetchedsectionsofmetalisperformedwithareflectiveopticalmicroscope(Figure14
14).Thisisfollowedbyacomparisonofmicrostructuresobservedinvariousareasofatubesectionforexample,theheatedsideversusthe
unheatedsideofawaterwalltube.Becausethemicrostructureontheunheatedsideoftenreflectstheasmanufacturedconditionofthesteel,
comparisonwiththemicrostructureinafailedregioncanprovidevaluableinsightintothedegreeandextentoflocalizeddeterioration(Figure
1415).

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(Chapter15ChemicalCleaningOfSteam
(Chapter13BoilerBlowdownControl)
GeneratorSystems)

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