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Kathy
Updated
10-May-2015
i
My A Level Maths Notes
These are my private class notes, and it is up to you, dear reader, to ensure the facts are correct. Although I have
done my best to proof read the notes, please use sensibly - check your facts.
These notes have been produced entirely on an RISC OS Iyonix computer, using Martin Wrthners TechWriter
for the typesetting and equations. Illustrations have been created in Martin Wrthners Artworks vector drawing
package.
See www.mw-software.com for further information.
Disclaimer
These are my class notes for C1 to C4 which my Dad has transcribed on to the computer for me, although he has
gone a bit OTT with them! My cousin has been studying the AQA syllabus, so some of the chapters have been
marked to show the differences. Although a lot of my hand written mistakes have been corrected - there may be
a few deliberate errors still in the script. If you find any, then please let us know so that we can correct them.
Kathy, Feb 2013
Module Navigation
Module C1 21
Module C2 187
Module C3 327
Module C4 495
ii ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
Contents
Preface xvi
Introduction xvi
Required Knowledge 19
Algebra Requirements 19
Studying for A Level 19
Meaning of Some Common Symbols 19
Sets of Numbers 19
Calculators in Exams 20
Exam Tips 20
Module C1 21
Core 1 Basic Info 21
C1 Contents 21
C1 Assumed Basic Knowledge 22
C1 Brief Syllabus 23
1 C1 Indices & Power Rules 25
1.1 The Power Rules - OK 25
2 C1 Surds 31
2.1 Intro to Surds 31
2.2 Handling Surds Basic Rules 32
2.3 Factorising Surds 32
2.4 Simplifying Surds 32
2.5 Multiplying Surd Expressions 33
2.6 Surds in Exponent Form 33
2.7 Rationalising Denominators (Division of Surds) 34
2.8 Geometrical Applications 35
2.9 The Difference of Two Squares 36
2.10 Topical Tips 36
2.11 Heinous Howlers 36
3 C1 Algebraic Fractions 37
3.1 Handling Algebra Questions 37
3.2 Simplifying Algebraic Fractions 37
3.3 Adding & Subtracting Algebraic Fractions 38
3.4 Multiplying & Dividing Algebraic Fractions 39
4 C1 Straight Line Graphs 41
4.1 Plotting Horizontal & Vertical Lines 41
4.2 Plotting Diagonal Lines 42
4.3 The Equation of a Straight Line 43
4.4 Plotting Any Straight Line on a Graph 44
4.5 Properties of a Straight Line 45
4.6 Decoding the Straight Line Equation 49
4.7 Plotting a Straight Line Directly from the Standard Form 50
4.8 Parallel Lines 50
4.9 Straight Line Summary 51
4.10 Topical Tips 52
iii
My A Level Maths Notes
iv ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
Contents
v
My A Level Maths Notes
vi ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
Contents
Module C2 187
Core 2 Basic Info 187
C2 Contents 187
C2 Assumed Basic Knowledge 188
C2 Brief Syllabus 189
22 C2 Algebraic Division 191
22.1 Algebraic Division Intro 191
22.2 Long Division by ax + b 191
22.3 Comparing Coefficients 192
23 C2 Remainder & Factor Theorem 193
23.1 Remainder Theorem 193
23.2 Factor Theorem 194
23.3 Topic Digest 196
24 C2 Sine & Cosine Rules 197
24.1 Introduction 197
24.2 Labelling Conventions & Properties 197
24.3 Sine & Cosine Revisited 197
24.4 Sine Rule 198
24.5 The Ambiguous Case (SSA) 200
24.6 Cosine Rule 201
24.7 Bearings 204
24.8 Area of a Triangle 205
24.9 Cosine & Sine Rules in Diagrams 207
24.10 Heinous Howlers 207
24.11 Digest 208
25 C2 Radians, Arcs, & Sectors 209
25.1 Definition of Radian 209
25.2 Common Angles 209
25.3 Length of an Arc 210
25.4 Area of Sector 210
25.5 Area of Segment 210
25.6 Length of a Chord 210
25.7 Radians, Arcs, & Sectors: Worked Examples 211
25.7 Radians, Arcs, & Sectors: Worked Examples 213
25.8 Topical Tips 216
25.9 Common Trig Values in Radians 216
25.10 Radians, Arcs, & Sectors Digest 216
26 C2 Logarithms 217
26.1 Basics Logs 217
26.2 Uses for Logs 218
26.3 Common Logs 218
26.4 Natural Logs 218
26.5 Log Rules - OK 219
26.6 Log Rules More Derivations 220
26.7 Change of Base 220
26.8 Solving Log & Exponential Problems 221
26.9 Worked Examples in Logs of the form 222
26.10 Worked Examples in Logs of the form 223
vii
My A Level Maths Notes
ix
My A Level Maths Notes
36 C2 Integration I 317
36.1 Intro: Reversing Differentiation 317
36.2 Integrating a Constant 317
36.3 Integrating Multiple Terms 318
36.4 Finding the Constant of Integration 318
36.5 The Definite Integral Integration with Limits 319
36.6 Area Under a Curve 320
36.7 Compound Areas 324
36.8 More Worked Examples 326
36.9 Topical Tips 326
Module C3 327
Core 3 Basic Info & C3 Contents 327
C3 Assumed Basic Knowledge 328
C3 Brief Syllabus 329
37 C3 Functions 331
37.1 Function Intro 331
37.2 Domains & Ranges 332
37.3 Mapping Relationships between the Domain & Range 334
37.4 Vertical Line Test for a Function 336
37.5 Inverse Functions 338
37.6 Procedure for finding the Inverse of a Function 339
37.7 Horizontal Line Test for an Inverse Function 341
37.8 Derivative Test for an Inverse Function 341
37.9 Graphing Inverse Functions 342
37.10 Compound or Composite Functions 343
37.11 The Domain of a Composite Function 346
37.12 Simple Decomposition of a Composite Function 352
37.13 Odd, Even & Periodic Functions 353
37.14 Worked Examples in Functions 354
37.15 Heinous Howlers 356
37.16 Function Notation 357
37.17 Functions Digest 358
38 C3 Modulus Function & Inequalities 359
38.1 The Modulus Function 359
38.2 Relationship with Absolute Values and Square Roots 360
38.3 Graphing y = f (x) 360
38.4 Graphing y = f (|x|) 362
38.5 Inequalities and the Modulus Function 363
38.6 Algebraic Properties 364
38.7 Solving Equations Involving the Modulus Function 364
38.8 Solving Modulus Equations Algebraically 365
38.9 Squares & Square Roots Involving the Modulus Function 367
38.10 Solving Modulus Equations by Graphing 370
38.11 Solving Modulus Equations by Critical Values 371
38.12 Gradients not Defined 372
38.13 Heinous Howlers 372
38.14 Modulus Function Digest 372
x ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
Contents
xi
My A Level Maths Notes
Module C4 495
Core 4 Basic Info & C4 Contents 495
C4 Brief Syllabus 496
C4 Assumed Basic Knowledge 497
57 C4 Differentiating Trig Functions 499
57.1 Defining other Trig Functions 499
57.2 Worked Trig Examples 501
57.3 Differentiation of Log Functions with Trig 507
58 C4 Integrating Trig Functions 509
58.1 Intro 509
58.2 Integrals of: sin x, cos x and sec2 x 509
58.3 Using Reverse Differentiation: 509
58.4 Integrals of tan x and cot x 511
58.5 Recognising the Opposite of the Chain Rule 512
58.6 Integrating with Trig Identities 513
58.7 Integrals of Type: cos ax cos bx, sin ax cos bx & sin ax sin bx 514
58.8 Integrals of the General Type: sinn A cosm A 516
58.9 Integrating EVEN powers of: sinn x & cosn x 517
58.10 Integrating ODD powers of: sinn x & cosn x 519
58.11 Integrals of Type: sec x, cosec x & cot x 520
58.12 Integrals of Type: tanmx secnx 521
58.13 Integrating Trig Functions - Worked Examples 524
58.14 Integrating Trig Functions Summary 527
58.15 Standard Trig Integrals (radians only) 528
59 C4 Integration by Inspection 529
59.1 Intro to Integration by Inspection 529
59.2 Method of Integration by Inspection 529
59.3 Integration by Inspection Quotients 529
59.4 Integration by Inspection Products 533
59.5 Integration by Inspection Digest 536
xiii
My A Level Maths Notes
xv
My A Level Maths Notes
Kathy
Aug 2012
xvii
My A Level Maths Notes
j Compared to GCSE, the difficulty of the work increases, with many new concepts introduced.
j The amount of work increases, and the time to do the work is limited.
j Currently, the AS exams account for 50% of the marks and these exams are easier than the A2 exams.
It is, therefore, imperative to get the highest mark possible in AS, to boost overall marks,
j There is no substitute for doing lots and lots and lots of practise papers.
Sets of Numbers
The open face letters (N Z Q R C)) are often used to define certain infinite sets of numbers.
Unfortunately, there is no universal definition for these number sets. Different authors have slight differences
between them. However, the following should suffice for A level studies.
N the set of natural numbers: {0, 1, 2, 3 } (Some authors include 0, and some do not).
Z the set of integers: {0, 1, 2, 3 }. All the whole numbers, including negatives numbers
and all the natural numbers. (From the German Zahlen, meaning numbers).
Z+ Used to denote positive whole numbers not including 0: {1, 2, 3 }
Q the set of rational numbers from the word ratio, includes any number that can be expressed
as a fraction with integers top and bottom, including recurring decimals. Q stands for quotient.
the irrational numbers any number that cant be expressed as a fraction, e.g. , 2, e
R the set of real numbers all the measurable numbers which includes integers, rational &
irrational numbers (i.e. all fractions & decimals everything on a number line).
C the set of complex numbers e.g. a + bi where i = 1 (imaginary number).
Irrational numbers, when expressed as a decimal, are never ending, non repeating decimal fractions. Any
irrational number that can be expressed exactly as a root term, such as 2, is called a surd.
19
My A Level Maths Notes
Natural Numbers N 0, 1, 2, 3
Integer Numbers Z , 3, 2, 1
Rational Numbers Q , , ,
Real Numbers R
(All numbers on the number line)
Complex Numbers C
Calculators in Exams
Check with exam board!
You cannot have a calculator that does symbolic algebra, nor can you have one that you have preprogrammed
with your own stuff.
For A-Level the Casio FX-991 ES calculator is a excellent choice, and one that has a solar cell too.
If you want a graphical one, then the Texas TI 83+ seems to be highly regarded, although I used an older Casio
one.
Consider the newer Casio versions with the latest natural data entry method, such as the Casio FX-9860G-II.
I prefer a Casio one, so that data entry is similar between the two Casio calculators.
Exam Tips
j Read the examiners reports into the previous exams. Very illuminating words of wisdom buried here.
j Write down formulae before substituting values.
j You should use a greater degree of accuracy for intermediate values than that asked for in the question.
Using intermediate values to two decimal places will not result in a correct final answer if asked to use
three decimal places.
j For geometrical transformations the word translation should be used rather than trans or shift etc.
j When finding areas under a curve, a negative result may be obtained. However, the area of a region is
a positive quantity and an integral may need to be interpreted accordingly.
j When asked to use the Factor Theorem, candidates are expected to make a statement such as
Therefore (x 2) is a factor of p(x) after showing that p(2) = 0.
j When asked to use the Remainder Theorem, no marks will be given for using long division.
20 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
Module C1
Core 1 Basic Info
Indices and surds; Polynomials; Coordinate geometry and graphs; Differentiation.
The C1 exam is 90 minutes long and normally consists of 10 question. The paper is worth 72 marks (75 AQA).
Grade 100% A B C
Raw marks 72 57 3 50 3 44 3
U MS % 100% 80% 70% 60%
The raw marks are converted to a unified marking scheme and the UMS boundary figures are the same for all
exams.
C1 Contents
Module C1 21
1 C1 Indices, Powers & Exponents Update v3 (May 15)* 25
2 C1 Surds Update v4 (Jan 13) 31
3 C1 Algebraic Fractions 37
4 C1 Straight Line Graphs Update v2 (Nov 14) 41
5 C1 Geometry of a Straight Line Update v2 (Nov 14) 53
6 C1 The Quadratic Function Update v1 (Nov 12) 61
7 C1 Factorising Quadratics Update v2 (May 15)* 63
8 C1 Completing the Square Update v2 (Nov 12) 79
9 C1 The Quadratic Formula Update v2 (Nov 12) 87
10 C1 The Discriminant Test Update v4 (Dec 14) 91
11 C1 Sketching Quadratics Update v2 (Mar 14) 97
12 C1 Further Quadratics Update v3 (May 15)* 101
13 C1 Simultaneous Equations 105
14 C1 Inequalities Update v2 (Oct 13) 107
15 C1 Standard Graphs I Update v2 (Jan 13) 113
16 C1 Graph Transformations Update v3 (May 15)* 129
17 C1 Circle Geometry Update v4 (Nov 14) 141
18 C1 Calculus 101 155
19 C1 Differentiation I Update v2 (May 2015) 157
20 C1 Practical Differentiation I Update v2 (May 2015) 167
Module C2 187
Module C3 327
Module C4 495
Plus other minor editorial alterations and corrections. * means latest items to be updated
21
My A Level Maths Notes
1 Basic Algebra
Difference of squares is always the sum times the difference:
2
a2 b = (a + b) (a b)
a2 b = (a + b)(a b)
2 Quadratic Equations
b b2 4ac
ax2 + bx + c = 0 has roots x =
2a
2
The Discriminant is b 4ac
y = mx + c
y y1 = m (x x1)
rise y y1
m = = 2
run x2 x1
m1 m2 = 1
y2 y1
Hence: y y1 = (x x1)
x2 x1
y y1 x x1 y y1 y y1
= or = 2
y2 y1 x2 x1 x x1 x2 x1
b
Area between curve and x-axis Ax = a
y dx (y 0) between x = a & x = b
22 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
Module C1
C1 Brief Syllabus
j understand rational indices (positive, negative & zero), use laws of indices with algebraic problems
1
j recognise the equivalence of surd and index notation (e.g. a = a 2 )
j use the properties of surds, including rationalising denominators of the form a + b
2 Polynomials
j find the length, gradient and mid-point of a line-segment, given the coordinates of the endpoints
j find the equation of a straight line
j understand the relationship between the gradients of parallel and perpendicular lines
j be able to use linear equations, of the forms y = mx + c, y y1 = m (x x1) , ax + by + c = 0
j understand that (x a)2 + (y b)2 = r2 represents the circle with centre (a, b) and radius r
j use algebraic methods to solve problems involving lines and circles, including the equation of a circle
in expanded form x2 + y2 + 2px + 2qy + r = 0. Know the angle in a semicircle is a right angle; the
perpendicular from the centre to a chord bisects the chord; the perpendicularity of radius and tangent
j understand graphs and associated algebraic equations, use graphical points of intersection to solve
equations, interpret geometrically the algebraic solution of equations (to include understanding of the
correspondence between a line being tangent to a curve and a repeated root of an equation)
j sketch curves with equations of the form:
j y = kxn, where n is a positive or negative integer and k is a constant
j y = k x, where k is a constant
j y = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, c are constants
j y = f (x) where f (x) is the product of at most 3 linear factors, not necessarily all distinct
j understand and use the relationships between the graphs of
y = f (x) , y = kf (x) , y = f (x) + a, y = f (x + a) , y = f (kx), where a and k are constants, and
express the transformations involved in terms of translations, reflections and stretches.
4 Differentiation
j understand the gradient of a curve at a point as the limit of the gradients of a suitable sequence of
chords (an informal understanding only is required, differentiation from first principles is not included)
j understand the ideas of a derived function and second order derivative, and use the standard notations
dy d 2y
f (x) , , f (x) ,
dx dx2
j use the derivative of xn (for any rational n), together with constant multiples, sums and differences
j apply differentiation to gradients, tangents and normals, rates of change, increasing and decreasing
functions, and the location of stationary points (must distinguish between max points and min points,
but identification of points of inflexion is not included)
23
24
Gradient of a Line
Factorising
Basic Differentiation Completing the Square
Gradient of a Curve Quadratic Functions Quadratic formula
Tangents & Normals C1 Module Discriminent
Differentiation
Max & Min Turning Points Sketching Quadratics
First & Second Derivatives
Cubic curves
Graph of y = a^x Sketching Curves
Reciprocal curves
Exponentials & Logs
Graph of y = log x
Intersection of two curves
18-May-2015
1 C1 Indices, Powers & Exponents
1.1 The Power Rules - OK
Recall that:
28 is read as 2 raised to the power of 8 or just 2 to the power of 8
where 2 is the base and 8 is the index, power or exponent.
Later on, in the C2 part of the syllabus, we will learn about exponential functions where the independent variable
x becomes the exponent.
The Law of Indices should all be familiar from GCSE or equivalent. Recall:
am an = am + n Law
am
n
= am n Law
a
(am)
n
= amn Law
a0 = 1 Law
1
an = Law
an
1
n
a = an Law
() an
a n
(ab)m = ambm =
b bn
m 1 1
a n = (am)n = n
am (n 0) a mn = mn
a = m n
a (m 0, n 0)
( ab ) = ( ba ) ( ab )
n n 1 b
=
a
( a) ( n a)
2 n
= a = a
a0 = 1 a1 = a
25
My A Level Maths Notes
1.2 Examples
1 6x 65
Solve for x: = 69
36
6x 65
= 69 6x + 5 2 = 69
62
Compare indices x + 3 = 9 x = 6
5 (5 )
x 2 2y 0 x 4y 0
= 5 5 5 = 5
x + 4y = 0 (1)
1
35x 9y = 35x 32y = 32
9
5x + 2y = 2 (2)
4 1
Hence: x = and y =
9 9
H/tip to MJM for the correction
( ) ( ) ( )
3
MLT 2 LT 1 MT 2
Simplify: T 1
L2 L L
( MLT 2
L2
1
T) ( )
MT 2
L
T
M
LT
4 Solve for x: 2x + 1 4x + 2 = 8x + 3
x+2 x+3
Express as powers of 2 2 x + 1 ( 2 2) = ( 2 2)
2x + 1 22x + 4 = 23x + 9
2x + 1 (2x + 4) = 23x + 9
2x 3 = 23x + 9
Compare indices x 3 = 3x + 9
x = 3
5 Simplify
1 1 12 3
Ex 1 2x x = 2x x 2 = 2x = 2x 2 (usually left in top heavy form)
6 6 1
Ex 2 3 = 1 = 6x 3
x x3
1 1 5
Ex 3 2
= 5 = x 2
x x x2
( )
4
14 x
Ex 4 x 2x = x24x1 = 16 = 16
x
26 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
1 C1 Indices, Powers & Exponents
6 Evaluate
()
1
1 3 1 1
Ex 1 = 3 = (Cube root)
8 8 2
( )
1
13 1 3 1
Ex 2 (64) (Cube root)
64 4
()
12
1 1
Ex 3 42 2 (Square root)
4
34 1 1 1
Ex 4 16 (4-th root, cubed)
(16)
3
4 (2)3 8
( ) () ()
12 12 1
1 9 4 2 2
Ex 5 2
4 4 9 3
7 Solve
3
x 4 = 27
4
x = 273
x = 34 = 81
8 1 2
Solve: 5x 3 = x 3 + 4
2 1
x 3 5x 3 + 4 = 0
1 1
This is a quadratic in x 3 so let y = x 3
y2 5y + 4 = 0 (y 1) (y 4) = 0
y = 1 or 4
1
x 3 = 1 or 4
x = 13 or 43 1, 64
(2x) 10 (2x) + 16 = 0
2
Hence:
Let y = 2x y2 10y + 16 = 0
(y 2) (y 8) = 0
y = 2 or 8
2x = 2 or 8
2x = 21 or 23
x = 1 or 3
h/t SR
27
My A Level Maths Notes
10 Solve:
10p = 0.1
1
= = 101
10
p = 1
11 Solve:
x 5x
135 5 = 75
Solution:
Convert all numbers to prime factors:
135 = 33 5
2
75 = 3 5
(33 5) 5
x 5x 2
= 3 5
x 5x 2
33x 5 5 = 3 5
6x 2
33x 5 = 31 5
Compare indices for each base 3x = 1 & 6x = 2
1
x =
3
12 Solve:
27x + 2 = 92x 1
Solution:
x+2
(33) = (32)
2x 1
33x + 6 = 34x 2
3x + 6 = 4x 2
6 + 2 = 4x 3x
x = 8
13 Evaluate: 8 3
2
( 3 8)
2 2
(3) 83 = 22 = 4
( )
14 3x2y3z6
0
Simplify:
6y5
( )
0
3x2y3z6
= 1
6y5
28 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
1 C1 Indices, Powers & Exponents
15 Evaluate:
(27 )
1
1 1 3
3 + 252
Solution:
(27 )
1
1 1 3 1
3 + 25 2 (3 + 5) 3
1
= (8)3
= 2
16 Evaluate:
9
16 4.5= 16 2
( )
= 16 2
1 9
= (4)9
= 16 16 16 16 4
= 65536
( x + 4) + (1 4 x)
2
f (x) =
can be written as:
f (x) = ax + b
Solution:
( x + 4) + ( 1 4 x)
2
f (x) =
= (x + 8 x + 16) + (1 8 x + 16x)
= 17x + 17
18 Evaluate:
( )
12
3 3
3 + 4
16 8
Solution:
( ) ( )
12 12
3 3 9 9 9
3 + 4 = 7 Recall that: 7 7 +
16 8 16 16 16
= (
16 )
12
112 9
+
16
= (
16 )
12
121
= (
121 )
1
16 2
16
=
121
4
=
11
29
My A Level Maths Notes
19 Solve:
1
(49k4)2 = 63
Solution:
2
7k = 63
2 63
k = = 9
7
k = 3
20 Solve:
12
3 (x) 4 = 0
Solution:
3
= 4
x
3
= x
4
()
2
3
x =
4
9
=
16
21
Simplify: 4a2b (3ab )
1 2
2 4 0 3 4 3
4a2b 32a2b ab b
9 9
22 Solve for a:
64 2 = 2a
1
26.2 2 = 2a
13
2 2 = 2a
13
a =
2
23
Simplify: (6y5z3)
0
(6y5z3)
0
= 1
30 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
2 C1 Surds
2.1 Intro to Surds
A surd is any expression which contains a square or cube root, and which cannot be simplified to a rational
number, i.e. it is irrational.
Recall the set of real numbers includes rational & irrational numbers:
R the set of real numbers all the measurable numbers which includes integers and
the rational & irrational numbers (i.e. all fractions & decimals)
Q the set of rational numbers from the word ratio, includes any number that can be expressed
as a ratio or fraction with integers top and bottom, (this includes all terminating & recurring
decimals).
(Q stands for quotient)
NS the irrational numbers any number that cannot be expressed as a fraction, e.g. , 2
(includes the square root of any non square number, & the cube root of any non cube number)
(NS there is No Symbol for irrational numbers)
Irrational numbers, when expressed as a decimal, are never ending, non repeating decimal fractions with no
pattern. Any irrational number that can be expressed exactly as a root, such as 2, is called a surd.
It is often convenient to leave an answer in surd form because:
The word surd was often used as an alternative name for irrational, but it is now used for any root that is
irrational.
Some examples:
9 3 30 Integer
4 2
0666 Rational
9 3
3 3
13 13 2351334688 Irrational Surd
3
64 4 40 Integer
4
625 5 50 Integer
31
My A Level Maths Notes
( x)
2
x x = = x
Rearranging gives some useful results:
x
x =
x
1 x
=
x x
From the law of indices
Law 1 x y = xy
x x
Law 2 =
y y
Also
x = x2
a c + b c = (a + b) c
2.3.1 Example:
Simplify:
Ex 1 54 = 9 6 = 9 6 = 3 6
Ex 2 50 = 25 2 = 5 2
2.4.1 Example:
Simplify the following:
Ex 1 12 3 = 36 = 6
27 9 3 3 3
Ex 2 = = = 3
3 3 3
Ex 3 28 + 63 = 2 7 + 3 7 = 5 7
Ex 4 3
16 = 3
2 8 = 232
32 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
2 C1 Surds
2.5.1 Example:
Simplify (1 3) (2 + 4 3)
Solution:
(1 3) (2 + 4 3) = 2 + 4 3 2 3 4 3 3
= 2 + 2 3 4 3
= 10 + 2 3
E.g. x x
Ex 1 = 1
x x2
12
= x x
1
= x2
= x
1
x x2
Ex 2 =
x x
1
= x 2 x1
12 1
= x = 1
x2
1
=
x
33
My A Level Maths Notes
k
j A denominator of the form a
a
k
j A denominator of the form a b
a + b
k
j A denominator of the form a b
a b
The first case is the simplest and just requires multiplying top and bottom by the surd on the bottom:
2.7.1 Example:
7 7 3 7 3
Ex 1 = =
3 3 3 3
3 5 3 5 3 3 15
Ex 2 = = = 15
3 3 3 3
The second case has a denominator of the form a b, which requires you to multiplying top and bottom by
a b. So if the denominator has the form a + b, then multiply top and bottom by a b, which gives us a
denominator of the form a2 b.
The section on the differences of squares, below, will show why you do this. Obviously, if the denominator is
b c then multiply top and bottom by b + c.
2.7.2 Example:
1 1 3 + 2 3 + 2 3 + 2
Ex 1 = = =
3 2 3 2 3 + 2 9 2 7
2 2 2 2 3 + 5 2 6 + 2 10
Ex 2 = = = ( 6 + 10)
3 5 3 5 3 + 5 3 5
The third case has a denominator of the form a b, which requires you to multiplying top and bottom by
a b, which gives us a denominator of the form a b.
2.7.3 Example:
1 1 3 + 2 3 + 2
Ex 1 = = = 3 + 2
3 2 3 2 3 + 2 3 2
2 2 1 3 + 2 3 + 2
Ex 2 = = = = 3 + 2
12 8 2 3 2 2 3 2 3 + 2 3 2
34 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
2 C1 Surds
1 Find tan :
Solution:
3
tan =
3 + 5
3
3 3 5
tan = q
3 + 5 3 5
3 + 5
9 3 5 9 3 5
tan = =
9 5 4
2 Find:
x, cos , z, y y
4 3
q x
z
Solution:
Find x 42 = x2 + 32 16 = x2 + 9
x = 7
7
Find Cos Cos =
4
Find z z2 = 42 + y2
4 4 7
Cos = =
z z 4
16 16 7
z = =
7 7
( )
2
16 7 256
Find y y = 16 = 16
7 7
256 112 144 12
y = = =
7 7 7 7
12 7
y =
7
35
My A Level Maths Notes
2.9.1 Example:
1 A common trick question is to ask you to factorise something like: (a2 1).
Solution:
(a2 1) = (a2 12) = (a + 1) (a 1)
2 Simplify ( 5 + 2) ( 5 2)
Solution:
( 5 + 2 ) ( 5 2) = ( 5)
2
22
= 5 4 = 1
3 The difference of squares can be used to calculate numerical expressions such as:
Solution:
(252 15
2
) = (25 + 15) (25 15)
= 40 10 = 400
7 7 49 c
a + b a + b c
2
(a + b)2 a2 + b c
36 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
3 C1 Algebraic Fractions
3.1 Handling Algebra Questions
Two golden rules:
j If more than one term in the numerator (top line): put it in brackets
j Repeat for the denominator (bottom line)
j Factorise the top line
j Factorise the bottom line
j Cancel any common factors outside the brackets and any common brackets
Remember:
j B Brackets
j F Factorise
j C Cancel
3.2.1 Example:
1 x 3
2x 6
x 3 (B) (x 3) (F) (x 3) (C) (x
3) 1
=
2x 6 (2x 6) 2 (x 3) 2 (x
3) 2
2 2x 3
6x2 x 12
2x 3 (B) (2x 3) (F) (2x 3) (C) (2x
3)
6x2 x 12 (6x2 x 12) (2x 3) (3x + 4) (2x
3) (3x + 4)
1
=
(3x + 4)
3
3x2 8x + 4
6x2 7x + 2
3x2 8x + 4 (3x2 8x + 4) (x 2) (3x 2) (x 2)
=
6x 7x + 2
2 (6x 7x + 2)
2 (2x 1) (3x 2) (2x 1)
4 x 2
2 x
Watch out for the change of sign:
x 2 (x 2) (2 x)
= 1
2 x (2 x) (2 x)
37
My A Level Maths Notes
3.3.1 Example:
1 1 2
x 3
1 2 3 2x 3 2x
=
x 3 3x 3x 3x
2 3 6
x + 2 2x 1
Solution:
3 6 3 (2x 1) 6 (x + 2)
=
(x + 2) (2x 1) (x + 2) (2x 1) (x + 2) (2x 1)
3 (2x 1) 6 (x + 2)
=
(x + 2) (2x 1)
6x 3 6x + 12
=
(x + 2) (2x 1)
15
=
(x + 2) (2x 1)
3 31x 8 14
2x2 + 3x 2 x + 2
Solution:
(31x 8) 14 (31x 8) 14
=
(2x + 3x 2)
2 (x + 2) (x + 2) (2x 1) (x + 2)
(31x 8) 14 (2x 1)
=
(x + 2) (2x 1) (x + 2) (2x 1)
(31x 8) 14 (2x 1)
=
(x + 2) (2x 1)
31x 8 28x + 14
=
(x + 2) (2x 1)
(3x + 6)
=
(x + 2) (2x 1)
3 (x + 2)
=
(x + 2) (2x 1)
3
=
2x 1
38 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
3 C1 Algebraic Fractions
j Multiplication:
j Simplify if possible
top top
j Multiply out:
bottom bottom
j Simplify
j Division
a c a d
j Turn second fraction upside down: =
b d b c
j Follow multiplication rules above
3.4.1 Example:
1 2 x2 2x
x x 2
Solution:
2 x2 2x 2 x (x
2)
= = 2
x x 2 x (x
2)
2 x 2 x
2
x2 4x + 3 2x 7x + 3
Solution:
x 2 x (x 2) (2x2 7x + 3)
=
x2 4x + 3 2x2 7x + 3 (x2 4x + 3) x
(x 2) (x
3) (2x 1)
=
(x 1) (x
3) x
(x 2) (2x 1)
=
x (x 1)
3 x8 1
Express 3
in the form of xp xq
x
Solution:
x8 1
= x5 x3
x3
4
Show that 5 ( n2 (n 1) + 3n) is the same as 5n (n2 + 5)
Solution:
39
My A Level Maths Notes
40 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
4 C1 Straight Line Graphs
Co-ordinate geometry is the link between algebra and geometry. The co-ordinate system allows algebraic
expressions to be plotted on a graph and shown in pictorial form. Algebraic expressions which plot as straight
lines are called linear equations.
A line is the joining of two co-ordinates, thus creating a series of additional co-ordinates between the original
two points.
y
S (8, 10) 10
8
T (8, 6) 6
E (5, 4) F (0, 4) G (5, 4) H (10, 4)
4
U (8, 2) 2
x
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
-2
V (8,4) -4 Origin (0, 0)
-6
-8
-10
Notice that the horizontal line, with points E to H, all have the same y coordinate of 4.
The equation of the line is said to be:
y = 4
or, in general: y = a (where a = a number)
Similarly the vertical line, with points S to V, all have the same x coordinate of 8.
41
My A Level Maths Notes
For each equation, a simple table of values will show this. The results can be plotted as shown:
y = x y = x
x 6 0 6 x 6 0 6
y 6 0 6 y 6 0 6
y y
10 10
y = x
8 8
6 6
4 4
y=x
2 2
x x
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
-2 -2
-4 -4
-6 -6
-8 -8
-10 -10
In this case y has the same value as x, and produces a In this case, y has the same value as x, and produces
diagonal line which slopes upwards. another diagonal line, but sloping downwards.
42 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
4 C1 Straight Line Graphs
x = a where a is a number,
y = b where b is a number,
y = x
y = x
In fact, these are special cases of the more general equation of a straight line, which, by convention, is expressed
as:
y = mx + c where m & c are constants.
E.g. Rearrange the equation 4y 12x 8 = 0 to the standard form for a straight line.
Solution:
4y 12x 8 = 0 A non standard straight line equation
43
My A Level Maths Notes
y = 2x + 1
x 0 2 4
y 1 5 9
Notice how the values of x and y both increase in a linear sequence. As x increases by 2, y increases by 4. The
two variables are connected by the rule: The y coordinate is found by multiplying the x coordinate by 2 and
adding 1.
Plot the co-ordinates as shown:
y
10
R (4, 9)
8
6
Q (2, 5)
4
y intercept
2
P (0, 1)
x
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
2
4
y = 2x + 1
6
10
44 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
4 C1 Straight Line Graphs
By convention, the gradient is usually assigned the letter m (after the French word monter, meaning to climb).
Vertical rise
Slope or Gradient, m =
Horizontal run
Change in y values y y1
m = = 2
Change in x values x2 x1
where (x1, y1) are the co-ordinates of the first point and (x2, y2) are the co-ordinates of the second point.
m=5
The larger the number m, the steeper the line. =
m
Imagine walking left to right, the slope is uphill and is said to be positive.
m=0
A horizontal line has a slope of zero, m = 0.
m
m = 5
=
1
Walking (or falling) downhill, left to right, the slope is said to be negative.
m=0
The slope of a vertical line is not determined as the sum would involve division by zero, or it could be regarded
as infinite.
45
My A Level Maths Notes
y L (x2, y2)
10
Rise
8 (y2 y1)
K (x1, y1)
6
4 Run
(x2 x1)
2
x
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
-2
Positive Gradient
46 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
4 C1 Straight Line Graphs
Rise 4
(y2 y1) N (x2, y2)
2
x
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
-2
Run
(x2 x1)
Negative Gradient
47
My A Level Maths Notes
A gradient of 0.2 is often quoted as 1 in 5, meaning it rises (or falls) 1 metre in every 5 metres distance.
This can also be expressed as a percentage value, thus: 0.2 100 = 20%
y
8
Q (0, 6)
6
y = x + 6
y intercept point 4
x
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
-2
Intercept point of the y axis
48 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
4 C1 Straight Line Graphs
y = mx + c
slope, m y intercept, c
Notice that:
The relationship between gradient and the constant c can be seen below. The points S and T are convenient
points chosen to measure the rise and run of the graph.
y T (6, 10)
Slope, m = 8/4 = 2 10
y = 2x 2 6
Rise
(102)
4
S (2, 2)
2
x
-2 0 2 4 6 8
-2
y intercept Run
-4 (62)
Decoding the Straight Line Equation
49
My A Level Maths Notes
4.7.1 Example:
Plot the equation y = 3x + 2.
Solution:
From the equation the gradient is 3 and the y intercept is 2.
The gradient means that for every unit of x, y increases by 3. To improve the accuracy when drawing the
line, we can draw the gradient over (say) 3 units of x. In which case y increases by 9 etc.
y
12 T (3, 11)
10
8
Rise
y = 3x + 2 6 (9)
4
S (0, 2)
2
x
-2 0 2 4 6 8
-2
Run
-4 (3)
10 y
x
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
-2
Parallel lines have the same gradient - always
50 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
4 C1 Straight Line Graphs
6 y=4 6 x=8
2 2
x x
-2 0 2 6 10 -2 0 2 6 10
-2 -2
y y
10 10
6 6
2 y=0 2 x=0
x x
-2 0 2 6 10 -2 0 2 6 10
-2 -2
y y
10 10
6 6
x = 4
2 2
x x
-2 0 2 6 10 -2 0 2 6 10
-2 -2
y = 2
y y
10 10
6 6
y=x y = x
2 2
x x
-2 0 2 6 10 -2 0 2 6 10
-2 -2
y y
10 10
6 6
y=x+4 y = x + 4
2 2
x x
-2 0 2 6 10 -2 0 2 6 10
-2 -2
y y
10 10
6 6
y = 2x + 4 y = 2x + 4
2 2
x x
-2 0 2 6 10 -2 0 2 6 10
-2 -2
51
My A Level Maths Notes
52 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
5 C1 Geometry of a Straight Line
5.1 General Equations of a Straight Line
There are four general equations that may be used. Sometimes an exam question may ask for the answer to be
written in a certain way, e.g. ax + by = k .
y = mx + c
where m = gradient, and the graph cuts or intercepts the y-axis at c.
ax + by = k
Note: you cannot directly read the gradient & y-intercept from this equation, but you can if rearranged to give:
a k
y = x +
b b
Example One side of a parallelogram is given by L1, 2x + 3y + 5 = 0 and point P (3, 2) is one
vertex of the parallelogram. Find the equation of the other side in the form
ax + by + k = 0. (It can be established that Point P does not lie on L1)
Rearrange to find gradient of the given line: 3y = 2x 5
2
y = x 5
3
2
Gradient =
3
2
Equation of line through P y 2 = (x 3)
3
2
y = x + 4 2x + 3y 12 = 0
3
y y1 = m (x x1)
where m = gradient, and (x1, y1) are the co-ordinates of a given point on the line.
Example Find the equation of a line with gradient 2 which passes through the point (1, 7)
y 7 = 2 (x 1) y 7 = 2x 2
y = 2x + 5
The right hand alternative represents two gradients, so is perhaps easier to recall.
53
My A Level Maths Notes
It should be noted that any distance found will be the +ve square root.
5.2.1 Example:
Find the length of the line segment KL.
y L (x , y )
10 2 2
6
(y2y1)
4
x
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
-2
(x2x1)
K (x , y )
1 1
4 M
x
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
-2
K (x , y )
1 1
M = ( 0 +2 6 , 2 2+ 10 ) = (3, 4)
54 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
5 C1 Geometry of a Straight Line
Rise y y1 y y2
Gradient, m = = 2 = 1
Run x2 x1 x1 x2
This is equivalent to the amount of vertical rise for every 1 unit of horizontal run.
5.4.1 Example:
6
(y2y1)
4
x
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
-2
(x2x1)
K (x , y )
1 1
Rise 10 (2) 12
Gradient = = = = 2
Run 6 0 6
2 The ends of a line segment are P (s 2t, s 3t) and Q (s + 2t, s + 3t).
Find the length and gradient of the line segment, and the co-ordinates of the mid point.
Solution:
Q(s+2t, s+3t)
M
(y2y1)
x2 x1 = s + 2t (s 2t) = 4t
y2 y1 = s + 3t (s 3t) = 6t
Mid point M =
4t 6t
,
2 2 (
= (2t, 3t) )
55
My A Level Maths Notes
2 m m
m
1
1 1
1
O x
-2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
5.5.1 Example:
1 Find the equation of a straight line, parallel to 2x + 3y = 6, and which passes through the point
(2, 8).
Solution:
Since an equation of the form 2x + 3y = k is parallel to 2x + 3y = 6, the problem reduces to one
of finding the value of k, when x and y take on the values of the given point (2, 8).
2 2 + 3 8 = k
4 + 24 = k
k = 28
Equation of the required line is: 2x + 3y = 28
56 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
5 C1 Geometry of a Straight Line
m1 m2 = 1
Q
y
R
1
m S
m
P
1
O x
Q (x, y)
y
(y y1)
P (x1, y1)
(x x1)
O x
From the definition of the gradient we can derive the equation of a line that passes through a point P (x1, y1):
Rise y y1
m = =
Run x x1
y y1 = m (x x1)
This is the best equation to use for this type of question as it is more direct than using y = mx + c.
57
My A Level Maths Notes
5.7.1 Example:
1 Find the equation of the line which is perpendicular to 3x 4y + 8 = 0 and which passes though
the point P (7, 10).
Solution:
3x 4y + 8 = 0
3x + 8 3x
y = = + 2
4 4
3
Gradient =
4
4
Gradient of perpendicular line =
3
4
Equation of line thro P y 10 = (x 7)
3
3y 30 = 4x 28
4x + 3y 58 = 0
2 Prove that the triangle ABC is a right angled triangle. The co-ordinates of the triangle are given in
the diagram.
Solution:
To prove a right angle we need to examine the gradients of each side to see if they fit the formula
for perpendicular lines.
4 2 2 1
Gradient of AB = = =
8 (2) 10 5
8 4 4 2
Gradient of BC = = =
2 8 6 3
8 2 6 3
Gradient of AC = = =
2 (2) 4 2
2 3
Test for perpendicularity: mBC mAC = = 1
3 2
Sides AC & BC are perpendicular, therefore it is a right angled triangle.
58 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
5 C1 Geometry of a Straight Line
y
Find the co-ordinates of the intersection of the two lines, Q (2, 8)
point R, and hence or otherwise show that the triangle
PQR is a right angled isosceles triangle.
l2
O x
P (3, 4)
l1
R
Solution:
To find the co-ordinates of the intersection, set up a simultaneous equation:
12y 5x = 63 (1)
7y 12x = 90 (2)
Co-ordinates of R (9, 9)
To test if two lines are perpendicular to each other, find the gradients of each line.
yQ yR 8 (9) 17
Gradient of l1 = = =
xQ xR 2 (9) 7
yP yR 4 (9) 5
Gradient of l2 = = =
xP xR 3 (9) 12
yP yQ 4 8 12
Gradient of PQ = = =
xP xQ 3 (2) 5
From this, note that the gradients of l 2 PQ = 1
Therefore, the triangle is a right angled triangle.
59
My A Level Maths Notes
R (x, y)
y
Q (x2, y2)
(y y1)
(y2 y1)
P (x1, y1) q
(x2 x1) (x x1)
O x
Rise y y1
Gradient of PR = =
Run x x1
opposite Rise y y1
tan = == =
hypotenuse Run x x1
60 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
6 C1 The Quadratic Function
6.1 Intro to Polynomials
A Polynomial expression has the form:
anxn + an 1xn 1 + + a2x2 + a1x + a0
where a0, a1, a2 an are the terms coefficient, and n is a positive integer. Negative powers are not allowed in a
polynomial. The variable shown here is x, but it can be any other convenient letter.
The degree, or order, of the polynomial is given by the highest power of the variable, n.
In general, multiplying two linear expressions will give a second degree polynomial (a quadratic), and
multiplying a linear expression with a quadratic will give a third degree polynomial (a cubic).
A polynomial can be solved by setting the expression to zero. This is the same as asking what are the values of
x when the curve crosses the x-axis. The number of possible solutions or roots, matches the order of the
polynomial. A cubic function will have up to 3 roots, whilst a quadratic has up to 2 roots.
Think of this as solving a simultaneous equation of (say): y = ax2 + bx + c & y = 0
y y y
Line of Symmetry
y-intercept
2 Roots
O x O x O x
Coincident Roots No Real Roots
Vertex
Quadratic Features
61
My A Level Maths Notes
It is interesting to note the shape and way that a family of curves relates to each other.
y = x2
y = x2 + 2x y = x2 2x
y = x2 + 3x y = x2 3x
y = x2
y = x2 + 4x
y = x2 4x
From the standard form, and assuming that a = 1, there are three cases to deal with:
j b = 0 Hence: x2 c = 0
x2 = c x = c
j c = 0 Hence: x2 + bx = 0
x (x + b) = 0 x = 0 or x = b
j b 0, c 0 Hence: x2 + bx + c = 0
(x + s) (x + t) = 0 x = s or x = t
Note that: (s + t) = b; st = c
c is +ve when s & t have the same sign.
c is ve when s & t have opposite signs.
j Factorise them
j Solve them by:
j Factorising
j Completing the square
j Using the quadratic formula
j Sketch them either by completing the square, finding the factors, or knowing the relationship
between the equation and its various features.
j Understand the significance of the discriminant
j Recognise that some complex looking equations can be solved by reduction to a standard quadratic.
62 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
7 C1 Factorising Quadratics
7.1 Methods for Factorising
Factorising is the opposite of expanding the brackets of an expression.
The following methods can be used to factorise Quadratics:
j Manual factorisation, such as the diagonal sum method or pairing common factors. (Works provided
the roots are rational and b2 4ac is a perfect square see section on discriminants).
j Completing the square (always works - used to derive the Quadratic Formula, see later section)
j The Quadratic Formula (always works - but long winded)
j Graphing (only gives an approximate solution)
The key to successful factorisation is to recognise the different sorts of expressions that might be presented.
Most are listed below:
Tips are:
j Factorisation is made easier when the coefficients a & c are prime numbers
j If f (1) = 0 then (x 1) is a factor, i.e. x = 1 if all the coefficients add up to 0
63
My A Level Maths Notes
7.4.1 Example:
1 Solve:
(x + 3)2 = 16
Solution
(x + 3) = 4
x = 3 4
x = 1, or 7
2 Solve:
(3x 2)2 = 12
Solution
(3x 2) = 12
2 12
x =
3
2 + 2 3 2 2 3
x = or
3 3
7.5.1 Example:
1 Factorise: x2 1
(A favourite expression in exams, as it disguises the fact that it is the difference of squares).
Solution
x2 1 = (x + 1) (x 1)
2 Factorise: x4 36y2
(Another favourite expression in which you need to recognise that each term can be expressed as a
squared term).
Solution
x4 36y2 (x2) (6y)2
2
64 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
7 C1 Factorising Quadratics
7.6.1 Example:
7.7.1 Example:
Find the possible factors for 3x2 14x 5
Since c = 5 factors for c are 1 & 5 and for a = 3, factors for a are 1 & 3.
1 5 1 5 1 5
Possible solutions are: , , , 1, 5, ,
1 1 3 3 3 3
Actual factors are: (3x + 1) and (x 5)
Note, this only gives you a starter for 10 not the solution, and it only works for rational roots. However, it does
work for all polynomials.
An example with irrational roots is: x3 3 = 0 which has potential roots of 1 and 3, but the real roots are:
3
3 = 14422
Large values of a and c, can lead to a large number of potential solutions, so this method has its limits.
We find that for the standard quadratic: x2 + bx + c
x2 + bx + c = x + ( ) (x + )
Factors of c
and for the standard quadratic: ax2 + bx + c
Factors of a
ax2 + bx + c = ( x + )( x + )
Factors of c
65
My A Level Maths Notes
(x + s) (x + t) = x2 + (s + t) x + st
(x + s) (x t) = x2 + (s t) x st
(x s) (x + t) = x2 + (s + t) x st
(x s) (x t) = x2 (s + t) x + st
Notice how the product of the factors s and t combine to form the constant part of the quadratic, c, and the sum
or difference combine to form the x coordinate b.
The signs of the coefficients need to be handled with care:
(x + s) (x + t) x2 + bx + c
(x s) (x t) x2 bx c
(x s) (x t) x2 bx + c
Set up a small table to find the factors of c and to explore the sum and difference to make the coefficient of x:
7.8.1 Example:
1 Factorise: x2 + 8x + 12
Since the coefficient of x2 = 1, and signs of both the following terms are positive, then the form
of factors must be (x + ) (x + ).
c b
1 12
x2 + 8x + 12 = (x + 2) (x + 6)
2 6 2 + 6 = 8
3 4
2 Factorise: x2 x 12
Since the coefficient of x2 = 1, and signs of both the following terms are negative, then the form
of factors must be (x + ) (x ).
c b
1 12
x2 x 12 = (x + 3) (x 4)
2 6
3 4 3 4 = 1
3 Factorise: x2 8x + 16
Since the coefficient of x2 = 1, and sign of the x term is negative, and the constant term is
positive, then the form of factors must be (x ) (x ).
c b
1 16
2 8 x2 8x + 16 = (x 4) (x 4)
3 /
4 4 4 4 = 8
66 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
7 C1 Factorising Quadratics
Notice how the product of the factors s and t combine to form the constant part of the quadratic, c, and the sum
or difference combine with the coefficient a to form the x coefficient.
Set up a small table to find the factors of c and to explore the sum and difference to make up the coefficient of x.
One of the factors has to be multiplied by a as shown:
7.9.1.1 Example:
c b
s t s + at
1 10
3x2 + 11x + 10 = (3x + 5) (x + 6)
2 5 2 + (3 5) 11
5 2 5 + (3 2) = 11
10 1
c b
s t s at
1 18
5x2 21x + 18 = (5x 3) (x 6)
2 9
3 6
6 3 6 (3 5) = 21
3 Factorise: 5x2 + 7x 2
Step one is to rewrite the expression in such a way as to give a +ve x2 term: (5x2 7x + 2)
c b
s t s at
(5x2 7x + 2) = [ (5x 2) (x 1)]
1 2
2 1 2 5 = 7
5x2 + 7x 2 = (5x + 2) (x 1)
67
My A Level Maths Notes
x2 + bx + c = (x p) (x q)
= x2 (p + q) x + pq
Multiply by a : a (x2 + bx + c) = a (x2 (p + q) x + pq)
ab = a (p + q)
p + q = b
ac = apq
pq = c
( f
)
x + 3 = 0
a
and ( f
x + 4 = 0
a )
f3 f4
j Simplify the fractions a and a into their lowest forms
j Remove the fractional elements by multiplying each solution by a.
68 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
7 C1 Factorising Quadratics
7.9.3.1 Example:
1 Solve 2x2 5x 3 = 0
Solution:
Multiply 2 3 and reform the equation as x2 5x 6 = 0
Find the factor pairs for ac:
ac b
6
Two factors add up to 5: (1 6) = 5
1 6 1 6 = 5
2 3 This gives wrong soln!
Now: x2 5x 6 = (x + 1) (x 6) = 0
Hence: 2x2 5x 3 = x + ( )(
1
2
x
6
2
= 0)
Simplify: (x + 12 ) (x 3) = 0
1
Solutions are: x = and x = 3
2
Rearranging the solutions, the factorised equation is: (2x + 1) (x 3) = 0
After some practice it can be seen that you can multiply the factors with the fractional part by a to
give the final factors, neatly presented.
e.g. (x + 12 ) (x 3) = 0
2 (x + ) = 0
1
(2x + 1) = 0
2
2 Solve 3x2 3x 18 = 0
Solution:
Multiply 3 18 and find the factor pairs:
54 b
1 54
Two factors add up to 3: (6 9) = 3 2 27
3 18
+ 6 9 6 9 = 3
Hence: (x + 63 ) (x 93) = 0
Simplify: (x + 2) (x 3) = 0
Factors are: (x + 2) (x 3)
Note that the coefficients of x in the factorised expression are both 1. Look at the original equation
and you can see that all the terms could have been divided by 3 to give:
x2 x 6 = 0
69
My A Level Maths Notes
3 Solve 20x2 7x 6 = 0
Solution:
Multiply 20 6 and reform the equation as x2 7x 120 = 0
Find the factor pairs for ac:
ac b
120
1 120
2 60
Two factors add up to 7: (8 15) = 7 3 40
4 30
5 24
6 20
8 15 8 15 = 7
Hence: 20x2 7x 6 = x + ( 8
20 )(
x
15
20
= 0 )
Simplify: (x + 25) (x 34) = 0
2 3
Solutions are: x = and x =
5 4
Hence: 5x + 2 = 0 and 4x 3 = 0
(x + 208 ) (x 2015) = 0
20 (x +
20 )
8
= 0 20x + 8 = 0 5x + 2 = 0
20 (x
20 )
15
= 0 20x 15 = 0 4x 3 = 0
After lots of practise, a short cut presents itself. Using the simplified factors to illustrate this:
(x + 25) (x 34) = 0
Move the denominator of the fraction and make it the coefficient of the x term:
(x + 2 5)(x 3 4) = 0
(5x + 2) (4x 3) = 0
70 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
7 C1 Factorising Quadratics
4 A special case arises when there is only one root, (sometimes called a double root).
Factorise 4x2 + 12x + 9
Solution:
Multiply 4 9 and find the factor pairs:
36 b
1 36
2 18
Two factors add up to 12: (6 + 6) = 12 3 12
4 9
+ 6 + 6 6 + 6 = 12
9 4
Hence: (x + 64 )(x + 64 )
Simplify: (x + 23 )(x + 23 )
3 3
Solutions are: x = and x =
2 2
Factors are: (2x + 3) (2x + 3) = (2x + 3)2
5 Solve 3x2 3x 18 = 0
Solution:
Multiply 3 18 and find the factor pairs:
54 b
1 54
Two factors add up to 3: (6 9) = 3 2 27
3 18
+ 6 9 6 9 = 3
Hence: (x + 63 ) (x 93) = 0
Simplify: (x + 2) (x 3) = 0
Factors are: (x + 2) (x 3)
Note that the coefficients of x in the factorised expression are both 1. Look at the original equation
and you can see that all the terms could have been divided by 3 to give:
x2 x 6 = 0
71
My A Level Maths Notes
Solution:
Multiply 9 1 and find the factor pairs:
9 b
1 9
Two factors add up to 6: (3 3) = 6
2
3 3 3 3 = 6
7 For equations that have a ve x2 term, this method works best if the ve part is changed to +ve by
removing a common factor of 1:
Solve 6x2 + 5x 1 = 0
Solution:
6x2 + 5x 1 = 0 (1) (6x2 5x + 1) = 0
Hence: (x 26 )(x 63 ) = 0
(x 13 ) (x 12 ) = 0
1 1
Solution is: x = and x =
3 2
Factors are: (3x 1) (2x 1) = 0
(3x + 1) (2x 1) = 0
or (3x 1) (2x + 1) = 0
72 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
7 C1 Factorising Quadratics
Solution:
Multiply 7 6 and change the quadratic thus:
7x2 11x + 6 (1)
x2 11x + 42 (2)
Factorise Eq (2)
42
1 42
Two factors add up to 11: (3 14) = 11
2 21
3 14
Factors are: (x + 3) (x 14)
However, we want a 7x2 term, so factorise the 14 to 7 2:
72
(x + 3) (x 14 )
2
Move the factor 7, to the x term:
(7x + 3) (x 2)
Check that the x term coefficient is correct:
(7x + 3) (x 2)
3x
14x
11x
73
My A Level Maths Notes
7.9.4.2 Example:
A special case arises when there is only one root, (sometimes called a double root).
Factorise 4x2 + 12x + 9
Solution:
Multiply 4 9 and change the quadratic thus:
x2 + 12x + 36
Factorise as normal:
36
1 36
2 18
Two factors add up to 12: (6 + 6) = 12 3 12
4 9
+ 6 + 6
9 4
Factors are: (x + 6) (x + 6)
The roots are the same, so in assigning value for a, the two required factors have to be the same:
23 23
(x + 6 ) (x + 6 )
Move the factor 2, to both the x2 terms:
(2x + 3) (2x + 3)
6x
6x
12x
74 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
7 C1 Factorising Quadratics
Solution:
Multiply 10 6 and find the factors.
60
1 60
2 30
Two factors add up to 7: (5 12) = 7 3 20
4 15
5 12
6 10
(10x + p) (10x + q)
Since a = 10
10
p = 5 and q = 12
(10x + 5) (10x 12)
Substitute:
10
(10x + 5) (10x 12)
Rearrange:
5 2
Cancel: (2x + 1) (5x 6)
1 6
x = and x =
2 5
75
My A Level Maths Notes
7.9.6.1 Example:
Solution:
The factors of 5 are 51, and factors of 4 are 14, 22, 22
Use the cross product to form the x coefficient:
5x 2 (5x 2)
1x 2 (x 2)
10x 2x = 12x
12x
5x2 12x + 4 = (5x 2) (x 2)
Solution:
The factors of 8 are 81, 42 and factors of 3 are 13, 31, 3 1, 1 3
You need a separate table for each pair of a factors, and cross multiply with each pair of c factors
and stop when you find the b coefficient.
8x 3 1 3
1x 1 3 1
8x + 3x 24x + x ve
11x 25x not valid
4x 3 (4x + 3)
2x 1 (2x + 1)
4x + 6x = 10x
10x
8x2 + 10x + 3 = (4x + 3) (2x + 1)
76 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
7 C1 Factorising Quadratics
7.10.1 Example:
1 Factorise: st + 3t 5s 15
Solution:
st + 3t 5s 15
st 5s + 3t 15
s (t 5) + 3 (t 5)
(t 5) (s + 3)
2 Factorise: 3mn 6m n2 + 2n
Solution:
3mn 6m n2 + 2n
3m (n 2) (n2 2n)
3m (n 2) n (n 2)
(n 2) (3m n)
3 Factorise: 3x2 + 7x + 4
Solution:
The product of ac = 12. Factors of 12 that add up to 7 are 3 + 4.
3x2 + 7x + 4
3x2 + 3x + 4x + 4 Split the b term
77
My A Level Maths Notes
4 Factorise: 2y2 9y + 4
Solution:
The product of ac = 8. Factors of 8 that add up to 9 are 1 + 8.
2y2 9y + 4
2y2 y 8y + 4
y (2y 1) 4 (2y 1)
(y 4) (2y 1)
5 Factorise by grouping:
2x2 + 5x 3 = 2x2 + 6x x 3
= (2x2 + 6x) (x + 3)
= 2x (x + 3) 1 (x + 3)
= (2x 1) (x + 3)
6 Factorise by grouping:
5x2 12x + 4 = 5x2 10x 2x + 4
= (5x2 10x) (2x 4)
= 5x (x 2) 2 (x 2)
= (5x 2) (x 2)
78 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
8 C1 Completing the Square
8.1 General Form of a Quadratic
The general form of a quadratic is:
ax2 + bx + c
The object of completing the square is to put the quadratic into the square form:
a (x + p)2 + q
This is sometimes called the vertex format, for reasons which will become obvious later.
The advantage of changing the standard quadratic into this square form is that we have just one term in x. The x2
term has been eliminated.
In practice, when completing the square we need to set the leading coefficient, a, (of the x2 term) to 1.
e.g. 2x2 + 4x + 8 2 (x2 + 2x + 4)
Using this format it is easy to arrange an expression like x2 12x into a perfect square.
Thus:
x2 12x = x2 2 (6) x
= x2 2 (6) x + 62 Adding 62 makes a perf ect square
= {x2 2 (6) x + 62} 62 Subtract 62 to balance the equation
= (x 6)2 62
79
My A Level Maths Notes
( ba x + ac )
ax2 + bx + c = a x2 +
= a (x + ) ( ) +
b
2
b c
2
2a 2a a
= a (x + )
b b
2
c 2
+
2a 4a a 2
= a (x + )
2 2
b ab ac
+ 2
2a 4a a
= a (x + )
2 2
b b
+ c
2a 4a
= a (x + ) ( c)
2 2
b b
2a 4a
(
4a )
= a (x + )
2 2
b b 4ac
2a
Hence: p =
b
2a
& q = ( b2 4ac
4a )
8.4 Completing the Square
j Find the nearest perfect square by halving the coefficient of the x term, to give k
j Irrespective of whether the perfect square is (x + k)2 or (x k)2, subtract k2
j Add on the old + c term.
This works by taking the x2 + bx part of the quadratic and turning this into a perfect square, and to balance the
equation you have to subtract the value of k2
() ()
2 2
2 b 2 b
x + bx + c = x + bx + + c
2 2
() ( )
2 2
b b
But x2 + bx + = x +
2 2
+ bx + c = (x + ) ( )
2 2
2 b b
x + c
2 2
Assuming a = 1, we can write:
( ) ()
2 2
b b
x2 + bx + c = x + + c
2 2
bx + c = (x ) ( )
2 2
b b
x2 + c
2 2
80 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
8 C1 Completing the Square
8.4.1 Example:
Ex: 1 x2 8x + 7 (x 4)2 16 + 7
(x 4)2 9
( ) ( ) 12
2 2
5 5
Ex: 2 x2 + 5x 12 x +
2 2
(x + ) 18
2
5 1
2 4
( ) ( ) 12
2 2
1 1
Ex: 3 x2 x 12 x
2 2
(x ) 12
2
1 1
2 4
( ) (
) ( )
2 2
11 11 11
Ex: 4 2x2 11x 8 2 x2 x 4 = 2 x 4
2 4 4
2 (x )4 185
11 2
16
An alternative approach, which just factors out the coefficients of the terms in x:
Ex: 5 2x2 + 12x + 5 2 (x2 6x) + 5 = 2 [ (x 3)2 9] + 5
2 (x 3)2 + 18 + 5
2 (x 3)2 + 23
81
My A Level Maths Notes
One advantage of using the method is that x appears in the expression only once, unlike a standard quadratic
where it appears twice. Completing the square can be used on any quadratic, but for solving quadratics, simple
factorisation or the quadratic formula may be easier.
Solution:
x2 8x + 5 (x 4)2 11
(x 4)2 = 11
x 4 = 11
x = 4 11
Solution:
x2 + 2x + 3 (x + 1)2 1 + 3
(x + 1)2 + 2
Since (x + 1)2 will always be positive (as it is squared) then the LHS must be equal or greater than 2,
hence the expression is always positive.
82 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
8 C1 Completing the Square
( ) ()
2 2
b b
y = x + + c
2 2
()
2
b b
Turning point is when: x = y = + c
2 2
ax2 + bx + c = a x2 + ( )
b
a
x +
c
a
y = a (x + ) ( )
b b
2 2
c
+
2a 2a a
b
Turning point is when x =
2a
b
Substitute x = to find y
2a
( ) c
( )
2 2
b b ac
y = a 0 + a +
2a a 2a a
b2
y = a + c
4a2
b2
y = + c
4a
()
2
b
y = + c
2
b2
y = + c
4
83
My A Level Maths Notes
x2 4x + 7 (x 2)2 + 3 y
y = 3 y = (x 2)2 + 3
7
Vertex at (2, 3)
3 Vertex
The quadratic is symmetrical about the line x
O 2
x = 2
x2 2x + 7 1 (x2 + 2x 7) y y = (x + 1)2 + 8
x2 2x + 7 1 [ (x + 1)2 1 7] (1, 8)
x2 2x + 7 1 (x + 1)2 + 8
7
Max point of graph is when x = 1
1 x
y = +8
Vertex at (1, 8)
2 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x2 4x + 2 which is parallel to the x-axis.
Solution:
Since the tangent is parallel to the x-axis, we need to find the minimum by completing the square:
x2 4x + 2 = (x 2)2 22 + 2
= (x 2)2 2
min when x = 2
y = 2
The equation of the tangent to the curve, and parallel to the x-axis is y = 2
84 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
8 C1 Completing the Square
y = x2 + 8x
x x2 8x
x 8
4 4x k k = 16
y = (x + 4)2
x x2 4x
y = x2 + 8x + k
x 4
The nearest perfect square for x2 + 8x is (x + 4)2. From the diagram we can see that (x + 4)2 is larger than
x2 + 8x by an additional amount k. Thus:
x2 + 8x = (x + 4)2 k
= (x + 4)2 42
= (x + 4)2 16
Note how any similar quadratic such as: x2 + 8x + 7 can now be represented by:
x2 + 8x + 7 = (x + 4)2 16 + 7
= (x + 4)2 9
85
My A Level Maths Notes
( ) ()
2 2
b b
x2 + bx + c = x + + c
2 2
bx + c = (x ) ( )
2 2
b b
x2 + c
2 2
Axis of symmetry x = p
ax2 + bx + c = a x2 + x +
b c
a a
( ) ( ) c
2 2
b b
= a x + +
2a 2a a
( )
2
2 b b2
ax + bx + c = a x + + c
2a 4a
86 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
9 C1 The Quadratic Formula
9.1 Deriving the Quadratic Formula by Completing the Square
The Quadratic Formula is just another method of completing the square to solve a quadratic. A sledge hammer to
crack a nut. To derive the formula, complete the square for the general form of a quadratic:
ax2 + bx + c = 0
(
a x2 +
b
a
x +
c
a )
= 0
b c
x2 + x + = 0 Divide by a
a a
( ) ( ) + ac = 0
2 2
b b
x + Complete the square
2a 2a
(x + 2ab ) = ( 2ab ) ac
2 2
(x + 2ab ) = 4ab ac
2 2
4a 2 2
b2 4ac
=
4a2
b b2 4ac
x + = Take square roots
2a 4a2
b b2 4ac
x + =
2a 2a
b b2 4ac
x =
2a 2a
b b2 4ac
x =
2a
The roots of a quadratic are given by:
b b2 4ac
x =
2a
It follows that with a symbol in the formula there will be two solutions.
b + b2 4ac
Solution 1) x =
2a
b b2 4ac
Solution 2) x =
2a
Note also that:
ax2 + bx + c = a (x root 1) (x root 2)
ax2 + bx + c = a x ( b + b2 4ac
2a )(
x
b b2 4ac
2a )
87
My A Level Maths Notes
88 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
9 C1 The Quadratic Formula
3 Solve 5 8x x2 = 0
Solution:
First, rearrange to the correct format:
5 8x x2 = 0
x2 8x + 5 = 0
Let a = 1, b = 8, c = 5
b b2 4ac
x =
2a
8 (8)2 4 (1) 5
x = Watch the signs!
2
8 64 4 (1) 5
x =
2
8 64 + 20
x =
2
8 84
x =
2
x = 4 21
Alternative solution (completing the square):
x2 8x + 5 = 0
x2 + 8x 5 = 0
(x + 4)2 16 5 = 0
(x + 4)2 21 = 0
(x + 4)2 = 21
(x + 4) = 21
x = 4 21
4 1
Solve x + = 6
x
Solution:
First, rearrange to the correct format:
1
x + = 6
x
x
x2 + = 6x
x
x2 6x + 1 = 0
b b2 4ac
x =
2a
(6) 36 4 (1) (1)
x =
2
6 32 6 4 2
x = =
2 2
x = 3 2 2
89
My A Level Maths Notes
y = x2 4x + 7 y
(4)
Vertex is when x = = 2
2
y = 3
7
Vertex at (2, 3) 3 Vertex
The quadratic is symmetrical about the line O 2 x
x = 2
90 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
10 C1 The Discriminant Test
10.1 Assessing the Roots of a Quadratic
The roots of a quadratic are given by:
b b2 4ac
x =
2a
The expression b2 4ac is part of the quadratic formula and is known as the discriminant. It determines how
many solutions the equation has, or in other words, how many times does the graph cross the x-axis.
Very useful when sketching graphs, to test if the graph crosses the x-axis.
If the discriminant = 0
there is only one solution since:
+ 0 and 0
91
My A Level Maths Notes
10.4 Examples
1 The equation kx2 2x 7 = 0 has two real roots. What can you deduce about the value of k.
Solution:
2
b 4ac 0
4 (4k 7) 0
4 + 28k 0
28k 4
4
k
28
1
k
7
92 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
10 C1 The Discriminant Test
2 Find the set of values of k for which kx2 + x + k 1 = 0 has two distinct real roots.
Solution:
2
b 4ac > 0
1 (4 k (k 1)) > 0
1 (4k (k 1)) > 0
2
1 4k + 4k > 0
2
4k + 4k + 1 > 0
2
4k 4k 1 < 0 multiply by 1 (1)
(
4 k k
2
)
1
4
< 0 Complete the square
( ) 1
2
1 1
4 k < 0
2 4 4
( )
2
1 1
k < 0
2 2
Min point of curve is at: k = 1
2
4k2 4k 1 = 0
- 2 + 2
k
x
0.207x2 + x 0.207 1
3 Find the discriminant of the equation 3x2 4x + 2 = 0 and show that the equation is always positive.
Solution:
2
b 4ac = (4)2 (4 3 2)
= 16 24
= 8
Therefore the equation has no real roots and does not cross the x-axis. Since the coefficient of the x2 term
is positive, the curve is shaped, and so the equation is always positive.
93
My A Level Maths Notes
4 A line and curve intersect at two distinct points. The x-coordinate of the intersections can be found by the
equation:
x2 3kx + 7 k = 0
Find the values of k that satisfy this equation.
Solution:
2
b 4ac > 0
(3k)2 [4 1 (7 k)] > 0
2
9k 28 + 4k > 0
2
9k + 4k 28 > 0
Factors of 9 28 = 252 = 18 14
(k + 18 / 9) (k 14 / 9) > 0
(k + 2) (9k 14) > 0
14
k < 2, and k >
9
94 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
10 C1 The Discriminant Test
7 The equation (2k 6) x2 + 4x + (k 4) = 0 has real roots. Show that x2 7x + 10 0 and find
the values of k.
Solution:
2
b 4ac 0
(4)2 [4 (2k 6) (k 4)] 0
2
16 [4 (k 14k + 24)] 0
2
8k + 56k 80 0
2
k 7k 10 0 multiply by 1 & divide by 8 (reverse the inequality)
(k 5) (k 2) 0
2 k 5
E.g. Solve x2 8x + 20 = 0
Solution:
x2 8x + 20 = 0
b b2 4ac
x =
2a
(8) (8)2 4 20
x =
2
8 64 80 8 16
x = =
2 2
8 4 1
x =
2
x = 4 2i
In the example above, 4 2i is called a complex number, as it it made up of the imaginary number i, and two
real numbers 4, & 2.
In a complex number, such as: p + qi , the number p is called the real part and q the imaginary part.
95
My A Level Maths Notes
j If asked to find two distinct roots, or find two distinct points of intersection, then use: b2 4a > 0
j For questions wanting real roots, then use: b2 4a 0
j For equal roots use: b2 4a = 0
1) Questions will often ask you to show that an inequality is true. They try to disguise the question by giving
an inequality that is less than zero. Start with the basics above and you will find you will need to multiply
by 1, which changes the inequality around. (See last examples).
2) Note that if a line and curve with equal roots intersect at the roots, then the line must be a tangent to the
curve.
3) Recall that setting a quadratic ax2 + bx + c = 0 is really asking you to solve two simultaneous equations
of y = ax2 + bx + c and y = 0.
4)
5) The same logic applies if you are asked to find the intersection of y = ax2 + bx + c and the line
y = mx + c.
6)
7) Remember that the discriminant is the bit inside the square root!
96 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
11 C1 Sketching Quadratics
11.1 Basic Sketching Rules for any Polynomial Function
In order to sketch any graph you should know the following basic bits of information:
j The general shape of the graph according to the type of function, ( or /\ / shape)
j The orientation of the graph, ( or , /\ / or \ /\ shape)
j The roots of the function, i.e. where it crosses the x-axis (if at all)
j Where the function crosses the y-axis, i.e. where x = 0
j The co-ordinates of the turning points or vertex, (max or minimum values)
y y
y= x2 + 5x 6
y = x2 2x + 15
+ve x2 term
ve x2 term
x x
97
My A Level Maths Notes
O x
= (x + 2)2 10
Vertex Max/min
x-value y-value
Minimum value of the function occurs when (x + 2)2 = 0, which is when x = 2. The quadratic is
symmetrical about the line x = 2 and the vertex is at point (2, 10).
Note that for any other value of x then the (x + 2)2 term is positive, so confirming that x = 2 represents a
minimum.
y = (2)2 + 4 (2) 6 = 10
O x
(2, 10)
Min value when x = 2
Vertex
98 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
11 C1 Sketching Quadratics
This quadratic cannot be solved using basic factorisation so complete the square:
( ) ()
2 2
6 6
x2 + 6x 12 = x + 12
2 2
= (x + 3)2 9 12
= (x + 3)2 21
A min is formed at x = 3
(x + 3)2 = 21
x + 3 = 21
x = 3 + 21 = 158 (1.6 to 2 sf )
x = 3 21 = 758 (7.6 to 2 sf )
(7.6, 0) (1.6, 0)
O x
(12, 0)
99
My A Level Maths Notes
y
y = (x+2)(x+2)(x3) 10
5
(2, 0) (3, 0)
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 x
-5
-10
(0, 12)
-15
-20
10
y = (x + 2)(x 3)
5
-4 -2 2 4
x
-5
y = 2(x + 2)(x 3)
-10
-15
x4 9x2 + 18 = 0
8x
= x 3
x + 3
x2/3 x1/3 12 = 0
2 x + x 24 = 0
18 3
+ 3 = 0
x2 x
Solution:
Let u = x2
x4 9x2 + 18 u2 9u + 18 = 0
u2 9u + 18 = 0
(u 3) (u 6) = 0
u = 3 or u = 6
x2 = 3 or x2 = 6
x = 3 or x = 6
2 8x
Solve = x 3
x + 3
Solution:
8x
= x 3
x + 3
8x = (x 3) (x + 3)
8x = x2 9
x2 8x 9 = 0
(x 9) (x + 1) = 0
x = 9 or x = 1
101
My A Level Maths Notes
12
Solution:
Let u = x1/3
x2/3 = (x1/3)
2
N.B.
x2/3 x1/3 12 u2 u 12 = 0
u2 u 12 = 0
(u 4) (u + 3) = 0
u = 4 or u = 3
x1/3 = 4 or x1/3 = 3
x = 43 or (3)3
x = 64 or 27
The only solution is x = 64
4 y
Solve 2 x + x 24 = 0 y = x + 2x 24
24
Solution:
Let u2 = x
u = x
x + 2 x 24 = 0
u2 + 2u 24 = 0
(u + 6) (x 4) = 0
u = 6 or u = 4
However, values of x less than zero are not allowed because of the square root term, therefore, a
negative value of u is also not allowed.
x = u2 x = 16
Substitute back into the original equation to check:
16 + 2 4 24 = 0
( 2 x)
2
= (24 x)2
4x = (24 x)2
4x = 242 48x + x2
x2 52x + 242 = 0
(x 16) (x 36) = 0
x = 16 or 36
Substitute the values back into the original equation to test for a valid answer.
5 8x y
Solve = x 3
x + 3
3
1 9 x
y = 8x/(x+3) x + 3
Solution:
8x
= x 3
x + 3
8x = (x 3) (x + 3)
8x = x2 9
x2 8x 9 = 0
(x 9) (x + 1) = 0
x = 9 or x = 1
6 18 3
Solve 2
+ 3 = 0 y
x x
y = 18/x2 3/x 3
2 3 x
Solution:
Multiply by x2
18 3
2
+ 3 = 0
x x
18 + 3x 3x2 = 0
3x2 3x 18 = 0
x2 x 6 = 0
(x 3) (x + 2) = 0
x = 3 or x = 2
103
My A Level Maths Notes
7 1
Solve 8x3 + = 9
x3
Solution:
1
8x3 + = 9
x3
x3
8x3 x3 + = 9 x3
x3
8x6 + 1 = 9x3
8x6 + 9x3 + 1 = 0
Let u = x3
8u2 + 9u + 1 = 0
(8u + 1) (u + 1) = 0
1
u = or u = 1
8
1
x3 = or x3 = 1
8
1
x = 3
or x = 3
1
8
1
x = or x = 1
2
8 Given that y = x1/3 show that 2x1/3 + 4x1/3 = 9 can be written as 2y2 9y + 4 = 0
Solution:
1 4
2x 3 + 1 = 9 Rewrite equation
x3
4
2y + = 9 Substitute
y
2y2 + 4 = 9y
2y2 9y + 4 = 0 QED
Solve for x:
(2y 1) (y 4) = 0
1
y = or y = 4
2
1
but y = x3
1 1 1
x3 = or x3 = 4
2
1
Hence x = or x = 64
8
j Elimination method
j Substitution method
j Graphical method
At A level, simultaneous equations are extended to include solving a linear and a quadratic equation
simultaneously. The substitution method is the method of choice, although a sketch of the functions involved is
always helpful to ensure correct thinking & help visualise the problem.
With two linear simultaneous equations there can only be one solution at the intersection of the two lines,
however, with a linear and a quadratic equation there may be two, one or no solution available.
In a sense, solving a normal quadratic for its roots is the same as solving for two equations, the given quadratic
function and the linear equation of y = 0.
y y y
Two solutions
O x O O x
Line is tangent
to curve
Solutions for a linear and a quadratic equation
105
My A Level Maths Notes
For x = 2 y = 4 + 4 6 = 2
For x = 3 y = 9 6 6 = 3
x2 4x + 4 = 0
(x 2) (x 2) = 0
x = 2 y = 12 5 = 7
Only one solution, therefore tangent is at point (2, 7)
x2 6x + y2 = 0
(6, 0)
O x
14.3.1 Example: 1
1 3 5x
Solve: 8
4
3 5x 32
5x 35
x 7
2 Find the range of values for x that satisfy both the inequalities 7x 4 8x 8 and
3x > 4x 8.
7x 4 8x 8 (1)
3x > 4x 8 (2)
Evaluate (1) 7x 8x 4 8
x 4
x 4
Evaluate (2) x > 8 x < 8
+4 +8
107
My A Level Maths Notes
Note that if the quadratic has a positive x2 term and arranged to be < 0 or 0 then there is only one range or
interval for the solution. If the inequality is > 0 or 0 then there are two ranges for the solution.
If x2 < a2 then a < x < a x > a AND x < a
x
8 2 1
x
1 0.5
1
Answer : 1 < x <
2
j Rearrange for y = 0
j Factorise
j Critical values are where each factor = 0
j Arrange critical values in order (similar to a number line)
j Make table, marking positive and negative segments
14.6.1 Example:
Critical values: 3 0 4
Zones > x < 3 3 < x < 0 0 < x < 4 x > 4
x + +
x + 3 + + +
x 4 +
(x 1) (x + 2) (x + 8) + +
Answer: 3 x 0, x 4
2 Find the values of k for which kx2 + 3kx + 5 = 0 has two distinct roots.
Solution:
2
b 4ac > 0 (3k)2 4 k 5 > 0
2
9k 20k > 0 k (9k 20) > 0
20
Critical values are 0, and
9
20 20
Zones > k < 0 0 < k < k >
9 9
k + +
9k 20 +
k (9k 20) > 0 + +
109
My A Level Maths Notes
x
1 +7
2 A farmer has 90m of fencing and needs to construct a fence around a rectangular piece of ground,
that is bounded by a stone wall. With a width of w and length L, what is the range of values that L
can take if the area enclosed is a minimum of 1000m2.
Solution:
Area: Lw 1000
Length of fence: 2w + L = 90
w w
2w = 90 L
L
w = 45 L
2
(
L 45
L
2) 1000
L2
45L 1000 0
2
90L L2 2000 0
L2 90L + 2000 0 1
Critical values are:
(ii) x2 6x 16
x2 6x 16 0
(x 8) (x + 2) 0
x 8 x 2
2 x 8
Combining the two inequalities:
2 x < 4
x
2 10/9
aeqfal
111
My A Level Maths Notes
14.8.1 Example:
x 3
< 4
x + 5
x 3
(x + 5)2 < 4 (x + 5)2
x + 5
(x 3) (x + 5) < 4 (x + 5)2
(x 3) (x + 5) 4 (x + 5)2 < 0
(x + 5) [ (x 3) 4 (x + 5)] < 0
(x + 5) (x 3 4x 20) < 0
(x + 5) (3x 23) < 0
(x + 5) (3x + 23) > 0 1
2
x < 7 , x > 5
3
If x2 a2 then a x a
If x2 a2 then x a or x a
j All even-degree power functions (y = xeven) are classed as even functions, because the axis of line
symmetry is the y-axis i.e. they are symmetrical about the y-axis. Curves pass through the origin and
through the points (1, 1) and (1, 1)
j All odd-degree power functions (y = xodd) are classed as odd functions, because they have rotational
symmetrical about the origin. Curves pass through the origin and through the points (1, 1) and (1, 1)
j All even-degree polynomials behave like quadratics with the typical bucket shape, and all odd-degree
polynomials behave like cubics with a typical /\ / shape. As the power increases, so the shape of the
curve becomes steeper.
j The sign of the highest power determines the orientation of the graph:
j For even-degree power functions, a positive coefficient gives a (upright bucket) shape whilst a
negative coefficient gives a (empty bucket) shape.
j For odd-degree power functions, a positive coefficient gives the typical /\ / shape, whilst a
negative coefficient gives a \ /\ shape.
j Note the starting points of the curves on the LHS.
113
My A Level Maths Notes
Curves with a +ve coefficient pass through the origin and through the points (1, 1) and (1, 1). Assuming the
coefficient is 1 in this case.
y
y = x16 y = x4
2
y = x2
1
(1, 1) (1, 1)
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x
Curves with a ve coefficient pass through the origin and through the points (1, 1) and (1, 1)
y
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x
(1,1) 1 (1,1)
3
y = x2
4
6
y = x4
7
y = x16
Curves with a +ve coefficient pass through the origin and through the points (1, 1) and (1, 1).
Curves with a ve coefficient pass through the origin and through the points (1, 1) and (1, 1).
y y
10 10
y = x3
y = x5
y= x5
5 5
4 4
3
y = x3 3
2
y = x2 2
1
(1, 1) (1, 1) 1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x
(1, 1) 1 1 (1, 1)
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
y = x15 y = x15
y = x2
115
My A Level Maths Notes
y y
y = x2 x
y = x2
x
y y
y = x3
y = x3
y = x2 y = x2
x x
y y y = x2
y = x4 x
y = x4
y = x2
y y
y = x5
y = x5
y = x2 y = x2
x x
117
My A Level Maths Notes
j The overall shape of a general polynomial graph is determined by the highest power less one:
j A cubic function will take a shape with two turning points /\ /, a fifth order function will have 4
turning points /\ /\ / etc.
j A quartic function will take on a typical \ /\ / shape with 3 turning points and so on.
j Note that some of these turning points may be disguised as inflection points or coincident roots, see the
graph for y = x4 for example (more in C2)
y
20
15
10
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 x
-5
-10
y = (x+3)(x1)(x2) -15
-20
y
25
20
15
y = (x+3)(x1)(x2)(x5)
10
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-5
-10
-15
-20
y y
y = x
y = x
x x
y
y
40 40
30 30 y = x 2
y = x 1
20 20
10 10
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 x -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 x
-10 -10
-20 -20
-30 -30
-40 -40
119
My A Level Maths Notes
y y
y = ex y = ex
(0, 1)
(0, 1)
x x
y y
y = ln(x) y = ln(x)
x (1, 0) x
(1, 0)
y = ex
(0, 1)
(1, 0) x
y=x
y = ln(x)
y2 = x
121
My A Level Maths Notes
j A vertical asymptote
j A horizontal asymptote
j A slanting asymptote
j A hole in the function curve
For A-level purposes only the vertical & horizontal asymptotes probably need be considered, but you might as
well learn the whole story.
Example 1 3x + 2 14
f (x) = f (4) =
x 4 0
The function is undefined when (x 4) = 0 or when x = 4
We can see that as x 4 then the denominator becomes very small, and therefore f (x)
will becomes very large and so f (x) , as x 4.
This will give us a vertical asymptote at x = 4.
10
x=4
(x 4)
-10
Example 2 3x + 2 3x + 2
f (x) = =
2
x 9 (x 3) (x + 3)
11 7
f (3) = f (3) =
0 0
This function is undefined when (x2 9) = 0 or when x = 9 or x = 3
Factorising the denominator helps to visualise this.
This will give us a vertical asymptotes at x = 3 and x = 3.
10 3x + 2
y=
(x2 9)
Vertical Asymptote 5
x = 3
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
x
-5
Vertical Asymptote
x=3
-10
Example 3 3x + 2
f (x) = [Note: this is not the same as Ex 2!!]
x2 + 9
x2 + 9 = 0 and so x = 9 = 3 1
The denominator cannot be factorised as it has imaginary roots. As such, there are no
asymptotes.
3x + 2 y
y= 5
123
My A Level Maths Notes
j Put the top and bottom expressions in their standard unfactored form
j Test the function for very large values of x (i.e. x )
3x + 2 3x
f (x) = x f (x) = 3
x 4 x
Alternatively, divide all the terms by the highest order x in the denominator:
3x + 2 (3 + 2
) (3 + 0)
f (x) = = x
as x f (x) = 3
x 4 (1 4
x ) ( 1 0)
2 4
We can say that as x & 0 f (x) 3
x x
2 4
Similarly, as x & 0 f (x) 3
x x
So we have a horizontal asymptote at y = 3.
10
Horizontal Asymptote
y=3 5
x=4
(x 4)
-10
3x + 2 3x 3
f (x) = as x f (x) = = 0
x2 4 x2 x
Alternatively, divide all the terms by the highest order x in the denominator; x2
3x + 2 ( 3x + 2
x2 ) (0 + 0)
f (x) = 2 = As x f (x) = 0
x 4 (1 4
x2 ) ( 1 0)
3 2 4
We can say that as x ; 2 & 2 0 f (x) 0
x x x
3 2 4
Similarly, as x ; 2 & 2 0 f (x) 0
x x x
So we have a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.
Example 3 This example looks at an exponential function. Plotting is made easy once the asymptote
is found.
f (t) = 3 e05t
y
3
(0, 2) y = 3 e0.5t
1
5 x
125
My A Level Maths Notes
Example
3x3 + 2x 6
f (x) =
x2 4
Solution:
Since the degree of denominator is one less than the numerator, do a partial long division.
Division only has to be completed until the remainder is one degree less that the
denominator.
3x
x2 4 ) 3x3 + 0x2 + 2x 6 Divide 3x3 by x2 = 3x
3x3 + 0x2 12x Multiply (x2 4) by 3x
14x 6 Subtract
14x
x2 Dividing 14x by x2 gives a small term
Once the degree is small stop dividing
14x 6
f (x) = 3x
x2 4
When x f (x) 3x
3x3 + 2x 6 3x + 2x
x2
6
x2
f (x) = 2
= 4
x 4 1 x2
(3x + 0 0)
as x f (x) = 3x
( 1 0)
So we have a slant asymptote of y = 3x
30
-10
Vertical Asymptotes
x = 2 & x = 2
-20
-30
Example (3x + 2) (x + 3)
f (x) =
(x 4) (x + 3)
The function is undefined when (x 4) = 0 or when (x + 3) = 0.
Evaluating the function for these two values gives:
14 7 7 0 0
f (4) = f (3) = =
0 0 0
This will give us a vertical asymptote at x = 4, however there is no asymptote at
x = 3.
f (3) is undefined at that point, but values either side are unaffected, thus creating a hole.
(Note: most graphing apps will not show this).
y
(3x + 2)(x + 3)
y=
10
(x 4)(x + 3)
Horizontal Asymptote
y=3 5
127
My A Level Maths Notes
Other transformations include enlargements, rotations and shears, but these are not covered specifically.
Using the equation for a semicircle to illustrate the various transformations will give a good grounding on how to
apply them. The equation of a semicircle, radius 3, centred at (0, 0) is:
y = 9 x2
It is important to become familiar with function notation, as questions are often couched in these terms.
For example: The function f (x) maps to f (x) + 2. Describe the transformation. It is also important to learn the
correct phraseology of the answers required, (see later).
In function notation, our equation above can be written as:
f (x) = 9 x2
where f (x) represents the output of the function and x the input of the function.
Any changes to the input, represent changes that are with respect to the x-axis, whilst any changes that affect the
whole function represent changes that are with respect to the y-axis.
It is also useful to think of the function as:
f (x) = 9 (x)2
The addition of the brackets, reminds us that changes to the input must be applied as a substitution. Thus, if we
want to map f (x) to f (x + 2) then the function becomes:
f (x) = 9 (x + 2)2
( ) ( )
a
x 5
= 5 across; 4 down
y 4 B (6, 2)
129
My A Level Maths Notes
3 3
y = 9 (x)2
-3 0 3 x
y = cos x
( )
1 y = sin x
90
The vector is
0
y = f () maps to y = f ( + 90)
-180 -90 90 180 270
Hence cos = sin ( + 90) p/2 p 3p/2
-1
Translation of an exponential:
()
3
0 y=0.5x
This is represented by the vector and the
1
graph now passes through the point (0, 2), with (0, 2)
the asymptote now at y = 1. 2
y=0.5x + 1
(0, 1)
1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
(0, 1) (2, 1)
1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
131
My A Level Maths Notes
y = 9 (x)2
-3 0 3 x
1
Note the stretch extends in both the positive and
negative y directions.
360
90 180 270
p/2 p 3p/2
-1
-2
In the x axis, if k > 1, the scale factor will be < 1, if k < 1 the scale
factor will be > 1.
-3 0 3 x
Care must be taken when applying changes to the mapping. The next two examples show how the changes might
not be so obvious.
Map: f (x 4) to f [2 (x 4)] y
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
Note what happens in this case. Suppose we get the transformation wrong and apply the scaling incorrectly:
We map y = 9 (x 4)2 to y = 9 (2x 4)2 y
133
My A Level Maths Notes
-1
1 4
Map y = to y = 2
x 2 x y
4 1 1
Now y =
x2 1 x2
4 ( )
1x 2
2
y = x 2
i.e. map: f (x) to f (05x) y = (0.5x)2
20
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 x
-3 0 3 x
-3
y = 9 (x)2
In general, the function f (x) maps to f (x) by a reection of f (x) in the y-axis.
Map y = 9 (x 3)2 to
y
y = 9 (x 3)2 y = 9 (x 3)2 y = 9 (x 3)2
The graph is reflected in the y- 3
axis.
-3 0 3 x
This can be mapped to a circle, radius r, centred at the point (a, b), by a vector ()a
b
. The equation then becomes:
(x a)2 + (y b)2 = r2
135
My A Level Maths Notes
Looking at the order of calculation should give you a good idea of the order required.
Start by looking at the function f (x) first by replacing the x part and then work outwards. (A bit like doing
function of function sums really).
Rewrite as: y = 2 (x + 3)
Starting on the inside, x (x + 3) 2 (x + 3)
So the sequence is a reection in the y-axis, a horizontal translation of 3, and a vertical stretch
of scale factor 2.
1 Map y = x2 to y = x2 5x + 6
Solution:
Complete the square:
(
) ( ) +6
2 2
5 5
y = x2 5x + 6 = x
2 2
y = (x ) + 6 = (x )
2 2
5 25 5 25 24
+
2 4 2 4 4
y = (x )
2
5 1
2 4
(2, 2) y
y = f(x)
O x
(3, 1)
Solution:
y
(2, 4)
y =2 f(x)
(3, 1)
O x O x
(3, 2)
y = f(x)
(2, 2)
137
My A Level Maths Notes
This is a reflection in the y-axis, followed by a translation parallel to the y-axis of 10 units or vector
( )
0
10
y = f(x)
O x
(6, 2)
Solution:
This has to be tackled in two stages. Do the translation first then the stretch. Note how the points of
intersection with the x-axis remain unchanged after the stretch.
Stage 1: Translation Stage 2: Stretching
y
y = 2f(x + 6)
y
y = f(x + 6)
O x O x
(0, 2)
(0, 4)
3x 3x 4
3x 4 4
x = x
3 3
4
Therefore, this is a translation in the x direction of
3
i.e. Translation required is: ( )
4/3
0
8
A function has the equation of: y = x2 2x 15 and which is translated by the vector ( )
2
4
.
Solution:
The vector means the the curve has been translated by 2 units horizontally and 4 units vertically.
This means that we can replace x by (x + 2) and y by (y 4) .
y = x2 2x 15
(y 4) = (x + 2)2 2 (x + 2) 15
(y 4) = (x2 + 4x + 4) 2x 4 15
(y 4) = x2 + 2x 15
y = x2 + 2x 11
Alternative method by completing the square:
x2 2x 15 = (x 1)2 1 15
y = (x 1)2 16
Substitute for x & y (y 4) = (x + 2 1)2 16
y = (x + 1)2 12
y = x2 + 2x 11
139
My A Level Maths Notes
[Note: although this is in the C1 section, this chapter also includes topics more suited to C3. You will need to
refer back to this section then.]
y = a f(bx c) + k
Transformation Decode
y-axis f (x) f (x) + a Translate parallel to the y-axis, by a units, in the positive direction ()
0
a
x-axis f (x) f (x a) Translate parallel to the x-axis, by a units, in the positive direction ()
a
0
x2 + y2 = r2
(x a)2 + (y b)2 = r2
x2 + y2 2ax 2by + c = 0
Note that:
j the coefficients of x2 and y2 are equal to 1, all other terms are linear
j There is no xy term
j The coefficients of x = 2 x co-ordinate of the centre
j The coefficients of y = 2 y co-ordinate of the centre
141
My A Level Maths Notes
C(1, 2)
Solution:
Use pythag and the points given to find radius:
r2 = (4 1)2 + (2 (2))2
= 25
r = 5
Using the standard form: the equation of this circle is:
(x 1)2 + (y + 2)2 = 25
r = a2 + b2 c
= (2)2 + 32 (3)
= 16 = 4
Note:
An alternative and simpler method is to complete the square to put the equation into the standard
form of (x a)2 + (y b)2 = r2 (See later).
o o o
o
2y
180 = 2 90
18 0
by
0 18
xd
bc
Angles in the same segment are equal. Alternate Segment Theorem Opposite angles in a cyclic
(Triangles with a common chord as a Chord meets tangent, angle quadrilateral = 180
base) between them = angle in a + b = 180
alternate segment x + y = 180
U Q
S A
S
Q U symmetr
y
Line of
R o
R
P
T T B
Intersecting chords Tangents that meet at an external
RQ QS = UQ QT point (P) are equal in length
143
My A Level Maths Notes
y y y M
Q (x, y)
C C C
(a, b) (a, b) (a, b) N
o x o x o x
j A straight line may just touch the circle at one point, in which case it becomes a tangent to the circle
j A line can cut the circle in two places and part of the line will form a chord
j Option 3 is for the line to make no contact and miss the circle altogether, (see line MN in the diagram).
17.4.1 Example:
y2 4y + 4 = 0 (3)
2 2
If there is only one solution, then b 4ac = 0 and hence b = 4ac
(4)2 = 4 1 4
LHS 16 = 16 RHS
y2 4y + 4 = 0
(y 2) (y 2) = 0
y = 2 (coincident roots i.e. only 1 solution)
Hence, the line is a tangent to the circle.
k =
4
3
(1 + 169 ) x + (10 20 43) x + 25 = 0
2
25 2 50
x x + 25 = 0
9 3
50 9
25x2 x + 25 9 = 0
3
x2 6x + 9 = 0
(x 3) (x 3) = 0
x = 3
145
My A Level Maths Notes
17.5.1 Example:
1 Find the radius and the centre of the circle for the equation x2 + y2 6x 8y + 9 = 0
Solution:
Complete the square for both the x and y terms.
x2 6x + y2 8y + 9 = 0
(x 3)2 32 + (y 4)2 42 + 9 = 0
(x 3)2 + (y 4)2 9 16 + 9 = 0
(x 3)2 + (y 4)2 = 16
Centre of circle is (3, 4) , radius = 4
2 Find the radius and the centre of the circle for the equation 3x2 + 3y2 + 12x 24y + 12 = 0
Solution:
Divide through by 3 to ensure the coefficients of the squared terms are 1, then complete the square
for both the x and y terms.
3x2 + 3y2 + 12x 24y + 12 = 0
x2 + y2 + 4x 8y + 4 = 0
x2 + 4x + y2 8y + 4 = 0
(x + 2)2 22 + (y 4)2 42 + 4 = 0
(x + 2)2 + (y 4)2 4 16 + 4 = 0
(x + 2)2 + (y 4)2 = 16
Centre of circle is (2, 4) , radius = 4
3 Find the centre of the circle and value of k for the equation x2 + y2 6x k = 0 when the
radius is 5.
Solution:
Complete the square for both the x and y terms.
x2 6x + y2 k = 0
(x 3)2 32 + (y 0)2 k = 0
(x 3)2 9 + y2 k = 0
(x 3)2 + y2 = 9 + k
2
But radius: r2 = 9 + k = 5
k = 25 9 = 16
Centre of circle is (3, 0) , k = 16
17.6.1 Example:
Solution:
Substituting (5, 5) into the given equation:
LHS = 25 + 25 30 20 = 0 = RHS
P (5, 5) does lie on the circle
To find gradient of the tangent, first find the gradient of a line from P to the centre. Therefore, find
the co-ordinates of the centre.
Match the given equation with the standard form:
x2 + y2 2ax 2by + c = 0
x2 + y2 6x 4y = 0
2a = 6 a = 3
2b = 4 b = 2
Centre = (3, 2)
147
My A Level Maths Notes
Sketch a diagram! A
B(8, 2)
Solution:
Match the given equation with the standard form:
x2 + y2 2ax 2by + c = 0
x2 + y2 4x 8y 5 = 0
2a = 4 a = 2
2b = 8 b = 4
Centre = (2, 4)
r = a2 + b2 c
r = (2)2 + 42 (5)
r = 25
r = 5
Using pythag:
BC2 = AC2 + AB2 (1)
but BC2 = (2 8)2 + (4 2)2 = 36 + 4 = 40
AB2 = 40 r2 = 40 25 = 15
AB = 15
Length of tangent = 15
i.e. AP = BP C
A
P
17.7.1 Example:
1
A circle (x + 2)2 + (y 3)2 = 36 has a line
drawn from its centre to a point P (4, 8). y P(4, 8)
A
What is the length of the line CP and the length
of the tangent from P to the circle?
o x
Solution:
The length of the line CP can be found from Pythagoras.
From the co-ordinates of the points C & P, the differences in x and y positions are used thus:
CP2 = (xp xc)2 + (yp yc)2
= (4 (2))2 + (8 3)2
2
= 62 + 5
CP = 61
149
My A Level Maths Notes
Solution:
The length of the line CP can be found from Pythagoras.
From the co-ordinates of the points C & P, the differences in x and y positions are used thus:
CP2 = (xp xc)2 + (yp yc)2
2
= (5 (1)) + (8 4)2
= 62 + 42 = 52
CP = 52
17.8.1 Example:
1 A circle has the equation (x + 3)2 + (y 5)2 = 52. Show that point P (1, 2) lies on the circle and
calculate whether point Q (1, 2) is inside or outside the circle.
Solution:
For point P (1, 2), evaluate the LHS and compare with RHS:
Given (x + 3)2 + (y 5)2 = 25
(1 + 3)2 + (2 5)2
(4)2 + (3)2
16 + 9
LHS 25 = 25 RHS
Point Q (1, 2)
(1 + 3)2 + (2 5)2
(2)2 + (3)2
4 + 9
LHS 13 < 25 RHS
151
My A Level Maths Notes
2 A circle has the equation (x 5)2 + (y + 2)2 = 52. Establish if the line y = 2x meets the circle
in any way or lies outside the circle.
Solution:
If the line and the circle meet there should be a solution if y = 2x is substituted into the equation
of the circle:
Given (x 5)2 + (y + 2)2 = 25
and y = 2x
3 Find the coordinates of the points where the circle (x 5)2 + (y 3)2 = 90 crosses the x-axis.
Solution:
If the line and the circle meet there should be a solution when y = 0 is substituted into the
equation of the circle:
Given (x 5)2 + (y 3)2 = 90
and y = 0
(x 5)2 + (0 3)2 = 90
(x 5)2 + 9 = 90
(x 5)2 = 81
(x 5) = 81
x = 5 81
x = 5 9
x = 4 and x = 14
1 A circle has centre, C (7, 13), radius 13, with the equation:
(x 7)2 + (y 13)2 = 132
A point P, lies on the circle at (2,1). Another point Q also lies on the circle and the length of the
chord PQ is 10. What is the shortest distance from the centre C, to the chord PQ.
Prove point M (4, 10) is inside the circle.
Solution:
The point Q can take one of two positions, both
will give the correct solution. y
S Q
o P(2, 1) x
Using pythag on the triangle CSQ we have:
2
CS2 + 5 = 132
2
CS2 = 132 5 = 144
CS = 144
Shortest distance from C to PQ = 12
If point M is inside the circle, then the distance CM must be less that the original radius.
Using pythag: CM2 = 32 + 32 = 54
CM = 7348
153
My A Level Maths Notes
x2 + y2 = r2 (0, 0) r
where c = a2 + b2 r2
155
My A Level Maths Notes
look at it is this: to integrate a gradient function in order to get back to the original function, you need a add up
all the gradients defined by the gradient function. To do that, take a bacon slicer and slice the gradient function
up into incredible small slices and sum the slices together. In doing so, you end up with the area under the curve.
Remember, when integrating a function, you need to think of that function as a gradient function.
Differentiation is a major branch of maths that explores the way in which functions change with respect to a
given variable, such as time. In particular, it is concerned with the rate at which a function changes at any given
point. In practise, this means measuring the gradient of the curve at that given point and this has been defined as
the gradient of the tangent at that point.
To find this gradient, we derive a special Gradient function that will give the gradient at any point on the curve.
This is process is called differentiation.
Differentiation also allows us to find any local maximum or minimum values in a function, which has many
practical uses in engineering etc.
y
y = f(x)
Q
f(x2)
d
or
f(x2) f(x1)
Ch
P q R
f(x1)
x2 x1
x
x1 x2
The average gradient of a curve or function between two points is given by the gradient of the chord connecting
those points. As illustrated, the chord PQ represents the average gradient for the interval x1 to x2.
rise QR f (x2) f (x1)
Gradient = = =
run PR x2 x1
QR
Note also that: tan =
PR
The gradient represents the rate of change of the function.
We can see this by looking at the units of the gradient. If the y-axis represents, say, distance and the x-axis
represents time, then the units of the gradient would be distance / time, which we call speed .
So far so good, but we really need the rate of change at a given point, say P, not between two points. The
average gradient of the chord PQ is only an approximation to the actual gradient at P, but this can be improved if
we move point Q closer to point P. As Q moves along the curve towards P, moving from Q1, Q2, Q3, etc. the
chord will rotate about P to reach a limiting position when Q reaches P. At this limiting position the line is
considered to be tangent at P and represents the gradient at P. See the illustration below/over.
157
My A Level Maths Notes
Q1
Q2
rd
ho
C
Q3
P
Tangent at P
Gradient of a Function at P
19.2 Limits
The concept of limits is absolutely fundamental to calculus and many other branches of maths. The idea is
simple enough: we ask what happens to a function when a variable approaches a particular value.
If the variable is x and it approaches, (or tends towards), the value k, we write x k. Beware, this is not the
same as saying that x = k , as the function might not be defined at k. We have to sneak up on the solution:-)
As x k, we can find the value that our function approaches, and this is called the limit L of the function.
This can be expressed using the following notation:
19.2.1 Example:
x2 1
Find the limit of the function f (x) = as x approaches 1, at point P(1, 1).
x 1
Solution:
Note that f (1) is not defined, (the denominator would be 0 in this case).
lim
x1
( x2 1
x 1 )
= 2
f (x)
Q (x + dx, y + dy)
f (x + dx)
dy = f (x + dx) f(x)
(x, y) P
f (x)
dx
x x + dx x
Starting with the average rate of change as before, and using an interval from x to x + x, where x is a very
small increment. The value of our function f (x) will range from f (x) to f (x + x).
rise change in y y
Gradient = = =
run change in x x
y f (x + x) f (x) f (x + x) f (x)
= = =
x (x + x) x x
Now let x 0. In other words, let the interval shrink to a point, at P:
f (x + x) f (x)
Gradient = lim
x 0 x
y + y y
= lim Substitute for coordinates of x & y
x 0 x + x x
y
= lim
x 0 x
dy
This limit function is shortened and written as: or (x)
dx
dy f (x + x) f (x) y
Thus: = (x) = lim = lim
dx x 0 x x 0 x
This is called the gradient function, the first derivative or the differential coefficient of y with respect to x.
19.3.1 Example:
An example of differentiating from first principles:
If f (x) = 2x2 + 3x + 4
then f (x + x) = 2 (x + x)2 + 3 (x + x) + 4
y = f (x + x) f (x)
= 2 (x + x)2 + 3 (x + x) + 4 (2x2 + 3x + 4)
= (4x + 3) x + 2 (x2)
y (4x + 3) x + 2 (x2)
= = 4x + 3 + 2 (x)
x x
dy y
As x 0 then: = lim = 4x + 3
dx x 0 x
Hence 4x + 3 is the limiting value as x approaches zero, and is called the differential of f (x).
159
My A Level Maths Notes
y = xn
(x + h)n Q
(x + h)n (x)n
(x)n P
O x
x x+h
change in y (x + h)n xn
Gradient of PQ = =
change in x h
Use the binomial theorem to expand (x + h)n
( xn + nxn 1h + n(n 1) n 2 2
2 x h + + hn) xn
=
h
nx n1
h + n(n 1) n 2 2
2 x h + + hn
=
h
n (n 1) n 2 n1
= nxn 1 + x h + + h
2
Now let h 0. In other words, let the interval h shrink to a point, at P and chord PQ tends to the tangent at P:
n (n 1) n 2
= lim nxn 1 + x h + + h
dy n1
Gradient at P =
dx h0
2
= nxn 1 + 0 + + 0
dy
= nxn 1
dx
Hence, the general term for the gradient function of xn is nxn 1, which applies for all real numbers of n.
dy
y = xn = nxn 1
dx
For an equation in the function form f (x) = then the gradient function is written f (x).
dy d
It should be understood that is not a fraction, but is rather an operator on y.
dx dx
d (y) d
Perhaps or (y) would be a better way to write the gradient function.
dx dx
Later on, in C3, we will see that :
dy 1
= dx
dx dy
161
My A Level Maths Notes
19.8.1 Example:
Before differentiating a function it must be put into the form axn + bxn 1 + c
Two typical examples are listed below:
1
2 x + 3
Write the expression in the form axp + bxq
x
2 x + 3 2 x 3
= +
x x x
= 2xx1 + 3x1
= 2x + 3x1
2 (3 4 x)2
Write the expression in the form axp + bxq + c
x
( 3 4 x) 2
(3 4 x) ( 3 4 x) 9 24 x + 16x
= =
x x x
9 24 x 16x
= + +
x x x
= 9x 24 + 16x
3 Differentiate the equation y = x6 2x4 + 3x2 4x + 5 and find the gradient at the point (1, 3).
y = x6 2x4 + 3x2 4x + 5
dy
= 6x5 8x3 + 6x 4
dx
When x = 1
dy
|
dx x = 1
= 6 8 + 6 4 = 0
4 Differentiate the equation y = 2x4 x and find the gradient at the point (1, 2).
y = 2x4 x = 2x4x0.5 = 2x4.5
dy
= 9x3.5
dx
When x = 1
dy
|
dx x = 1
= 9
5 2
Differentiate the equation y = 3
x
2 1
y = 3 = 2x 3
x
dy 2 4 2 2 2
= x 3 = 4 = =
dx 3 3x 3 3 x3
1
( )4
3 ( x)4
3
B
ve slope, speed decreasing
Time t
19.9.1 Example:
1 An inert body is fired from a catapult, at time t = 0, and moves such that the height above sea
level, y m, at t secs, is given by:
15
y = t 16t 2 + 56t + 3
5
dy
a) Find and the rate of change of height w.r.t time when t = 1
dt
b) When t = 2, determine if the height is increasing or decreasing.
Solution:
dy
= t 4 32t + 56
dt
dy
When t = 1 = 1 32 + 56 = 25 m / sec
dt
dy
When t = 2 = 24 64 + 56 = 8 m / sec
dt
Since the differential is positive the height must be increasing.
163
My A Level Maths Notes
We can then use this second derivative to classify parts of the curve, (see later). Do not confuse the notation as a
squared term. It simply means the function has been differentiated twice. This is the conventional way of writing
the 2nd, 3rd, or more orders of differential.
19.10.1 Example:
dy 1 1
= 15x4 x 2
dx 2
d 2y 1 3
2
= 60x3 + x 2
dx 4
q
o x
In this following example, the function has increasing and decreasing parts to the curve and the values of x must
be stated when describing these parts. Note that at the change over from an increasing to a decreasing function
and visa versa, the gradient is momentarily zero. These points are called stationary points more later.
x
dy / >0
dx
Increasing
(+ve gradient)
Decreasing
(ve gradient) dy / >0
dx
Increasing dy / <0
dx
(+ve gradient)
Increasing and Decreasing Function
To find the values of x for which the function is either increasing and decreasing, differentiate the function and
set the gradient function to > 0, or < 0 accordingly. Then solve the inequality. It is instructive to see the both the
function and gradient function plotted on the same graph, as in the first example below.
165
My A Level Maths Notes
19.11.1 Example:
y = x3 3x2 + 4
O (2, 0) x
dy/ = 3x2 6x
dx
3 Find the values of x for which the function f (x) = x3 + 3x2 9x + 6 is decreasing.
Solution:
f (x) = x3 + 3x2 9x + 6
f (x) = 3x2 + 6x 9
For an decreasing function, f (x) must be < 0.
3x2 + 6x 9 < 0
3 (x2 + 2x 3) < 0
3 (x + 3) (x 1) < 0
3 < x < 1
m1 . m2 = 1
20.1.1 Example:
1 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 2x2 3x + 4 at the point (2, 6):
Solution:
dy
= 4x 3
dx
dy
At (2, 6) x = 2, = 8 3 = 5
dx
Equation of tangent:
y 6 = 5 (x 2)
y = 5x + 4
167
My A Level Maths Notes
2 Show that there are 2 points on the curve y = x2 (x 2) at which the gradient is 2, and find the
equations of the tangent at these points.
Solution:
y = x2 (x 2)
= x3 2x2
dy
= 3x2 4x
dx
dy
Now: = 2
dx
3x2 4x = 2
3x2 4x 2 = 0
4 16 4 3 (2)
x =
6
4 2 10 2 10
x = =
6 3
there are 2 points at which the gradient is 2 etc.
3 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = (x 2) (x + 6) at the points where the curve
cuts the x-axis, and find the co-ordinates of the point where the tangents intersect.
Solution:
Function cuts the x-axis at (2, 0) and (6, 0)
y = (x 2) (x + 6) x2 + 4x 12
dy
= 2x + 4
dx
4 Find the equation of the tangents to the curve y = 2x3 5x which are parallel to the line
y = x + 2.
Solution:
Gradient of tangents have the same gradients as the line
y
y = x + 2 which has a gradient of 1.
Therefore, find the points on the curve where the
gradients are 1.
dy
dx = 6x 5 = 1
2 (1, 3) y=x+2
y=2x35x
6x2 = 6 x2 = 1
x
x = 1
5 Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = 2x x3 at the point where x = 1. Find the co-
ordinates of the points at which this normal meets the curve again.
Solution:
At the point where x = 1, y = 1.
dy
= 2 3x2
dx
dy
At (1, 1) = 2 3 (1)2 = 1
dx
gradient of normal = 1
Equation of normal: y + 1 = 1 (x + 1)
y = x
Solve for x & y in (1) & (2):
y = x (1)
y = 2x x3 (2)
Substitution into (2) x = 2x x3
x3 2x + x = 0
x (x2 1) = 0
x (1 + x) (1 x) = 0
x = 0, 1, and 1
Normal meets curve at (1, 1) (given) and also (0, 0) & (1, 1)
169
My A Level Maths Notes
j Turning Points are points where a graph changes direction and the gradient changes sign, they can be
either a maximum or a minimum point, (see point A & C on diagram below)
j A Point of Inflection changes its sense of direction, but the gradient does not change sign,
(see point B & D on diagram below, known as a saddle point if the gradient is zero).
Note that the concavity of the curve also changes.
j At all these points, the tangent is horizontal and the gradient of the tangent is 0
dy
j To find a turning point, let dx = 0 or (x) = 0
j Curves can have more than one max or min point, hence these may be named as a Local max or min.
N.B. a point of inflection may have a gradient other than zero, but then it would not be a stationary point:-)
Maximum (local) y
Saddle Points
Non stationary E
Inflection Point A C
Point of inflection
Point of inflection (Rising)
(Falling)
x
D
Minimum (local)
1 Find the co-ordinates for the two stationary points of the equation y = x3 + 3x2 + 4:
Solution
Differentiating to find dy / dx:
dy
= 3x2 + 6x = x (3x + 6)
dx
Stationary point exists when gradient = 0
dy
= x (3x + 6) = 0
dx
x = 0 & x = 2
Now solve original equation for y, using the values of x just found:
For: x = 0 y = 4
For: x = 2 y = 8 + 12 + 4 = 8
dy/ =0 dy/ =0
dx dx
+
dy/ dy/ >0 dy/
dx is +ve
+ dy/
dx is ve
dx <0 dx
+
dy/
& decreasing + & decreasing
(getting more ve)
dy/ dx is +ve
dx is ve
& increasing
+
& increasing
dy/
dx >0
+ dy/
dx <0
From the diagram, moving from left to right, with From the diagram, moving from left to right, with
dy dy
x increasing, dx is negative, but increasing. x increasing, dx is positive, but decreasing.
The gradient becomes 0 at the local minimum, then The gradient decreases to 0 at the local maximum, then
becomes positive. becomes negative.
x increasing x increasing
The gradient of the curve leading to point A is positive, Similarly, the gradient leading to point B is negative,
decreases to 0, and then increases again, but remains decreases to 0, then becomes negative again, but
positive as x increases. remains negative as x increases.
dy
The tangent crosses the curve at the inflection point, and is parallel with the x axis, hence dx = 0.
d 2y
The second derivative is also 0: = 0
dx2
d 3y
At a point of inflection, the 3rd derivative: 0.
dx3
171
My A Level Maths Notes
Inflection Point
dy d 2y
In this case, dx 0, but 2 = 0 A
dx
dy y
dx = 4x 0 when x = 0
3
d 2y
= 12x2 0 when x = 0
dx2
y = x4
(Note: a similar graph is produced when y = xn and n is
even and 4). 0 x
d 2y
When 2 = 0, we have either a maximum, a minimum or some other arrangement. So the 2nd derivative test
dx
does not always reveal the solution and the third method should be used.
20.5.2.2 Example:
3x (4 x) = 0
x = 0 and 4
d 2y
= 12 6x
dx2
when x = 4
d 2y
|
dx2 x = 4
= 12 24 = 12 is negative
when x = 0
d 2y
|
dx2 x = 0
= 12 0 = 12 is positive
2 Find the co-ordinates for the turning points of y = x3 3x2 + 4 and identify the max and min
points.
Solution:
y = x3 3x2 + 4
dy
= 3x2 6x
dx
Let 3x2 6x = 0
3x (x 2) = 0
x = 0 and 2
When x = 0, y = 4
When x = 2, y = 0
173
My A Level Maths Notes
20.5.3.1 Example:
Find the co-ordinates of the stationary points of the function y = 2x3 + 3x2 72x + 5
Solution:
dy
= 6x2 + 6x 72
dx
Let: 6x2 + 6x 72 = 0
6 x2 + x 12 = 0
(x + 4) (x 3) = 0
x = 4, or 3
Examine the gradients either side of the solutions:
Use values of x = 4 1, and 3 1
dy
If x = 5, = 150 30 72 = 48 i.e. positive
dx
dy
If x = 3, = 54 18 72 = 36 i.e. negative
dx
dy
If x = 2, = 24 + 18 72 = 30 i.e. negative
dx
dy
If x = 4, = 96 + 24 72 = 48 i.e. positive
dx
5 (4) 3 2 (3) 4
dy dy
+ +
dx dx
Solution:
dy 1 1
= 6x 2 9x 2 = 0 At the stationary point
dx
1 12
6x 2 9x = 0
1 12
6x 2 = 9x
6x = 9
9 3
x = =
6 2
2 Find the second derivative of f(x) and deduce that the curve has no maximum points. Find the co-
ordinates of the stationary point.
3x3 + 4 x
f (x) = x > 0
x
Solution:
3x3 4 x 1
y = + = 3x2 + 4x 2
x x
dy 3
= 6x 2x 2
dx
d 2y 25 3
2
= 6 + 3x = 6 + 5
dx x2
Since x > 0 then the second derivative will always be positive, hence curve is a minimum.
To find the co-ordinates of the turning point:
dy 3
= 6x 2x 2 = 0
dx
23
6x = 2x
5 1 5 1
x2 = or x2 =
3 3
() ()
2
5 1 1 5 1 2
log x = log
2 x = = 5
= 0644
3 3 3
5 1
log x = log
2 3
2 1
log x = log = 01908
5 3
x = 0644
y = 623
175
My A Level Maths Notes
20.7.1 Example:
1 A rectangular piece of ground is to be fenced off with 100m of fencing, where one side of the area
is bounded by a wall currently in place. What is the maximum area that can be fenced in?
Solution:
Method of attack:
a) What is max/min (area in this case)
b) Find a formula for this (one variable) x x
2 A cuboid has a square base, side x cm. The volume of the cuboid is 27 cm3.
Given that the surface area A = 2x2 + 108x1 find the value of x for the minimum surface area.
A = 2x2 + 108x1
dA
= 4x 108x2
dx
dA
For min/max = 4x 108x2 = 0
dx
108
4x = 2
x
4x3 = 108
x3 = 27 ( d 2A
dx 2
= 4 + 216x3 )
x = 3 ( 4 + 216 33 +ve a min)
Minimum surface area is when the cuboid is a cube with all sides equal to x.
177
My A Level Maths Notes
3 A piece of wire, length 4m, is cut into 2 pieces (not necessarily equal), and each piece is bent into a
square. How should this be done to have:
a) the smallest total area from both squares?
b) the largest total area from both squares?
Solution:
Draw a sketch! x
x
x
1 x
4x 1 x
Area = ( ) (
1 2
4
x + 1 x
1 2
4 )
=
1 2
16 ( 1
)(
x + 1 x 1 x
4
1
4 )
1 2 1 1 1 2
= x + 1 x x + x
16 4 4 16
2 2 1
= x x + 1
16 2
1 2 1
= x x + 1
8 2
dy 1 1
= x
dx 4 2
1 1
Let x = 0 (for max/min)
4 2
1 1
x =
4 2
x = 2
d 2y 1
Now 2
= i.e. positive, a minimum
dx 4
4 A hollow cone of radius 5cm and height 12 cm, is placed on a table. What is the largest cylinder
that can be hidden underneath it?
Solution:
Recall that:
5 : 12 = r : x
12
x = r
5
12
Height of cylinder = 12 r
5
r (10 3r) = 0
10
r = 0 or r = 0 means no cylinder - reject soln
3
= ( ) (12 8) =
2
10 100
4
3 9
400
=
9
179
My A Level Maths Notes
Solution:
Need to find a formula for the volume in terms of a, so that this can be differentiated to show the
change of volume w.r.t to a. Need to also find h in terms of a.
Using the perimeter to relate volume and a:
P = 2a + b = 72
b = 72 2a
1
Area of base = a a
2
h =
b
16
= (
72 2a
16 )
1
Volume = a2h = a2
2
1
2 (
72 2a
16 )
1 2
= a (72 2a)
32
72 2 2 3
= a a
32 32
9 1 3
V = a2 a
4 16
dV 18 3 2
= a a
dr 4 16
dV 9 3 2
For max = a a = 0
dr 2 16
72 3 2
= a a = 0 (Common denominator)
16 16
= a (72 3a) = 0
a = 0 or 24
d 2V 72 6
2
= a (test for max/min)
da 16 16
d 2V 72 144 72
For a = 24 2
= = i.e. ve result hence a maximum
dr 16 16 16
Maximum volume when a = 24 cm
b = 72 48 = 24
24 1
h = = 1
16 2
Solution:
Need to find a formula for the volume and surface area in terms of h & r. Then eliminate one of the
variables to give a function that can be differentiated.
Surface area: A = 2r2 + 2rh (1)
181
My A Level Maths Notes
7 A piece of cardboard 9m 24m is cut out to make a box. What is the value of z for the optimum
volume.
Solution:
Write an equation for volume in terms of
Zm
z:
Area of base of box =
9m
(24 2z) (9 2z)
24m
z2 11z + 18 = 0 divide by 12
(x 2) (x 9) = 0
x = 2 or x = 9
When x = 9; (9 2z) (9 18) 9 Hence x = 9 is invalid.
d 2V
= 24z 132
dz2
d 2V
If z = 2; = 48 132 = 84 Hence a maximum volume
dz2
EAFQLA
dy d 2y
If = 0 and < 0 then the point is a maximum
dx dx2
dy d 2y
If = 0 and > 0 then the point is a minimum
dx dx2
dy d 2y
If = 0 and = 0 then the point is either a maximum, minimum,
dx dx2
a point of inflection or some other arrangement
am an = am + n Law
am
= am n Law
an
(am)
n
= amn Law
a0 = 1 Law
1
an = Law
an
1
n
a = an Law
(ab)m = ambm
()
n
a an
=
b bn
1
a n = (am)n =
m
n
am (n 0)
1
a mn = mn
a = m n
a (m 0, n 0)
() ()
n n
a b
=
b a
( ab ) = ba
1
( a) ( n a)
2 n
= a = a
a0 = 1 a1 = a
183
My A Level Maths Notes
( x)
2
x x = = x
Rearranging gives some useful results:
x
x =
x
1 x
=
x x
From the law of indices
Law 1 x y = xy
x x
Law 2 =
y y
Also
x = x2
a c + b c = (a + b) c
y = mx + c
y y1 = m (x x1)
rise y y1
m = = 2
run x2 x1
m1 m2 = 1
y2 y1
Hence: y y1 = (x x1)
x2 x1
y y1 x x1 y y1 y y1
= or = 2
y2 y1 x2 x1 x x1 x2 x1
b b2 4ac
ax2 + bx + c = 0 has roots x =
2a
2
The Discriminant is b 4ac
21.6 Inequalities
185
My A Level Maths Notes
y-axis f (x) f (x) + a Translate parallel to the y-axis, by a units, in the positive direction () 0
a
x-axis f (x) f (x a) Translate parallel to the x-axis, by a units, in the positive direction () a
0
b
Area between curve and x-axis Ax = a
y dx (y 0) between x = a & x = b
The C2 exam is 1 hour 30 minutes long and is in two sections, and worth 72 marks (75 AQA).
Section A (36 marks) 5 7 short questions worth at most 8 marks each.
Section B (36 marks) 2 questions worth about 18 marks each.
Grade 100% A B C
Raw marks 72 60 2 53 3 46 2
U MS % 100% 80% 70% 60%
The raw marks are converted to a unified marking scheme and the UMS boundary figures are the same for all
exams.
C2 Contents
Module C1 21
Module C2 187
Module C3 327
Module C4 495
Plus other minor editorial alterations and corrections. * means latest items to be updated
187
My A Level Maths Notes
1 Algebra
Remainder when a polynomial f (x) is divided by (x a) is f (a)
2 Progressions
U n = a + (n 1) d AP
n
Sn = [ 2a + (n 1) d] AP
2
U n = arn 1 GP
a (1 rn)
Sn = GP
(1 r)
a
S = if | r | < 1 GP
(1 r)
3 Trig
a b c sin
= = and tan
sin A sin B sin C cos
2
a2 = b + c2 2bc cos A
cos2 + sin2 1 and 1 + tan2 sec2
cot 2 + 1 cosec2
Area of = ab sin C
radians = 180
Arc length of a circle, L = r
Area of a sector of a circle, A = r2
b
Area between curve and y-axis Ay = a
x dy (x 0) between y = a & y = b
5 Logs
ab = c b = loga c
C2 Brief Syllabus
2 Trigonometry
j use the sine and cosine rules in the solution of triangles (excluding the ambiguous case of the sine rule)
j use the area formula = ab sin C
j understand the definition of a radian, and use the relationship between degrees and radians
j use the formulae s = r and A = r2 for the arc length and sector area of a circle
j relate the periodicity and symmetries of the sine, cosine and tangent functions to their graphs
sin
j use the identities tan and cos2 + sin2 1
cos
j use the exact values of the sine, cosine and tangent of 30, 45, 60 e.g. cos 30 = 3
j find all the solutions, within a specified interval, of the equations
sin (kx) = c, cos (kx) = c, tan (kx) = c, and of equations (for example, a quadratic in cos x).
j understand the idea of a sequence of terms, and use definitions such as un = n2 and relations such as
un + 1 = 2un to calculate successive terms and deduce simple properties
j understand and use notation
j recognise arithmetic and geometric progressions
j use the formulae for the n-th term and for the sum of the first n terms to solve problems involving
arithmetic or geometric progressions (including the formula of the first n for the sum of natural
numbers)
j use the condition | r | < 1 for convergence of a geometric series, and the formula for the sum to
infinity of a convergent geometric series
j use the expansion of (a + b)n where n is a positive integer, including the recognition and use of the
notations ()
n
r
and n! (finding a general term is not included).
4 Integration
j understand indefinite integration as the reverse process of differentiation, and integrate xn (for any
rational n except 1), together with constant multiples, sums and differences
j solve problems involving the evaluation of a constant of integration, (e.g. to find the equation of the
dy
curve through (2, 1) for which dx = 3x + 2)
j evaluate definite integrals
j use integration to find the area of a region bounded by a curve and lines parallel to the coordinate axes,
or between two curves or between a line and a curve
j use the trapezium rule to estimate the area under a curve, and use sketch graphs, in simple cases, to
determine whether the trapezium rule gives an over-estimate or an under-estimate.
189
My A Level Maths Notes
A linear polynomial divided by a linear polynomial; result: Quotient is a constant, Remainder is a constant.
6x 1
6x 1 A (2x + 1) + R
2x + 1
A quadratic polynomial divided by a linear polynomial; result: Quotient is linear, Remainder is a constant.
x2 + 6x 1
x2 + 6x 1 (Ax + B) (2x + 1) + R
2x + 1
A cubic polynomial divided by a linear polynomial; result: Quotient is a quadratic, Remainder is a constant.
x3 + x2 + 6x 1
x3 + x2 + 6x 1 (Ax2 + Bx + C) (2x + 1) + R
2x + 1
22.2.1 Example:
2x2 + x 1
x 2 ) 2x3 3x2 3x + 7 Divide 2x3 by x = 2x2
2x3 4x2 Multiply x 2 by 2x2
x2 3x + 7 Subtract & divide x2 by x = x
x2 2x Multiply x 2 by x
x + 7 Subtract & divide x by x = 1
x + 2 Multiply x 2 by 1
5 Subtract to give the remainder
191
My A Level Maths Notes
2x2 + 3x 3
x + 1 ) 2x3 + 5x2 + 0x 3 Divide 2x3 by x = 2x2
(2x3 + 2x2) Multiply x + 1 by 2x2
3x2 + 0x 3 Subtract & divide x2 by x = 3x
(3x2 + 3x) Multiply x + 1 by 3x
3x 3 Subtract & divide 3x by x = 3
(3x 3) Multiply x + 1 by 3
0 Subtract to give the remainder
Comparing coefficients, starting with the constant term, which is usually the easiest to find:
constant term : 6 = 3c c = 2
x term : 19 = 5c + 3b 19 10 = 3b b = 3
x2 term : 18 = 5b + 3a 18 15 = 3a a = 1
x3 term : 5 = 5a a = 1 confirms value of a
= 8
193
My A Level Maths Notes
23.2.1 Example:
2 If f (x) = x3 5x2 2x + 24, show that (x 4) is a factor and find the other two linear factors.
Solution:
If (x 4) is a factor then f (4) = 0
f (4) = 43 5 42 8 + 24
= 64 80 8 + 24
= 0
The function f (x) can now be written:
x3 5x2 2x + 24 (x 4) (x2 + bx + c)
Compare constants: 24 = 4c
c = 6
Compare x terms: 2 = c 4b
2 = 6 4b
b = 1
x3 5x 2x + 24 (x 4) (x2 + x 6)
f (x) = (x 4) (x 3) (x + 2)
Show that (x 3) & (x + 2) are factors of f (x)
f (3) = 27 45 6 + 24 = 0 (x 3) is a factor.
f (2) = 8 20 + 4 + 24 = 0 (x + 2) is a factor.
f (x) = (x 4) (x 3) (x + 2)
3 If f (x) = 2x3 + x2 + bx c, and that (x 1) & (x + 1) are factors, find the values of b & c, and
the remaining factor.
Solution:
As (x 1) is a factor then f (1) = 0
f (1) = 2 + 1 + b c = 0
b = c 3 (1)
As (x + 1) is a factor then f (1) = 0
f (1) = 2 + 1 b c = 0
b = c 1 (2)
c 3 = c 1 combine (1) & (2)
c = 1
b = 2 substitute in (2)
function is: f (x) = 2x3 + x2 2x 1 (3)
Since (x 1) & (x + 1) are factors, let the 3rd factor be (2x + t)
f (x) = (x 1) (x + 1) (2x + t) (4)
Compare constants from (3) and (4):
1 = 1 1 t
t = 1
Hence: f (x) = (x 1) (x + 1) (2x + 1)
4 If f (x) = 2x3 ax2 bx + 4, and that when f (x) is divided by (x 2) the remainder is 2 &
when f (x) is divided by (x + 1) the remainder is 5. Find the values of a & b.
Solution:
For (x 2) then the remainder is f (2) = 2
f (2) = 2 8 4a 2b + 4 = 2
= 16 4a 2b + 4 = 2
4a 2b = 2 4 16 = 18
2a + b = 9 (1)
For (x + 1) then the remainder is f (1) = 5
f (1) = 2 a + b + 4 = 5
a + b = 5 4 + 2
b = 3 + a (2)
2a + (3 + a) = 9 combine (1) & (2)
3a + 6 = 9
a = 2
b = 3 + 2 = 5 substitute in (2)
f (x) = 2x3 2x2 5x + 4 QED
195
My A Level Maths Notes
()
j For a polynomial P (x), if P ba = 0 then (ax b) is a factor of P (x)
j A polynomial P (x) divided by (ax b) has a factor of P ba ()
j Sine Rule
j 2 sides + 1 opposite angle (SSA)
j 2 angles + 1 side (AAS or ASA)
j Cosine Rule
j 3 sides (SSS)
j 2 sides + 1 included angle (SAS)
i.e. a is opposite A b a
b is opposite B
c is opposite C
Recall that:
A A
1 R
sin q R sin q
q q
B cos q C B R cos q C
197
My A Level Maths Notes
Case 1 Case 2
C C
b a b
h
h a
A B A c
D c B D
a
=
b b sin A = a sin B
sin A sin B a c
a c Similarly: =
Similarly: = sin A sin C
sin A sin C
24.4.2 Example:
100
b = 31cm
a
29
A B
c
Solution:
We have 1 side and 2 angles (ASA), therefore use the sine rule:
a 31 c
= =
sin 51 sin 29 sin 100
31 sin 51
a =
sin 29
a = 4969 cm (2dp)
31 c
=
sin 29 sin 100
31 sin 100
c =
sin 29
= 6297 cm (2dp)
199
My A Level Maths Notes
b
The triangle B1CB2 forms an isosceles triangle.
a a
A c B1 B2
Another way to look at this problem, is to recognise that if the unknown angle is opposite the longest side then
there will be two possible solutions, (except if the unknown angle is a right angle).
24.5.1 Example:
If A = 20, a = 13 cm, b = 32 cm find the two triangles formed.
C C
b = 32 a = 13
b = 32 a = 13
20 20
A c B1 A c B2
Solution:
To find the angles B1 & B2
sin A sin B
=
a b
b sin A 32
sin B = = sin 20
a 13
= 24615 0342 = 08419
B = sin1 08419
B2 = 5734 (2 dp)
B1 = 180 5734 = 12266 (2 dp)
Case 1 Case 2
C C
b a b a
h h
A x B x c
D cx D A B
c
201
My A Level Maths Notes
24.6.2 Example:
60 75
B 300km C 300km D
Solution:
To find the shortest distance between point A and the line BD, draw a line from A to BD,
perpendicular to BD Label as point R (see sketch below). Then find the length of AB, for which
you need the angle BAC. Then it is a matter of using the definition of a sine angle to work out the
length of the perpendicular line.
BAC = 180 (60 + 75) = 45
To find AB, have AAS which needs the sine rule:
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
300 c
=
sin 45 sin 75
300 sin 75
c =
sin 45
c = 28828 km
Draw a line from A to BD at point R
opposite AR
sin 60 = =
hypotenuse c
AR = c sin 60 = 28828 sin 60
= 24966 km
Look at the triangle ABD and calculate AD from the cosine rule (SAS)
2 2
b = a2 + d 2ad cos B
= 288282 + 6002 2 28828 600 cos 60
2
b = 27013735
b = 51974 km
A
60
B R 600km D
oecfrl
Solution:
To find the length BD, we have AAS, therefore use the sine rule:
20 c
=
sin 45 sin 58
20 sin 58
c =
sin 45
c = 2398
To find BAD use the cosine rule (SSS)
b12 + d 12 a2
cos A =
2b1 d 1
252 + 122 23982
=
2 25 12
= 0323
A = cos1 (0323)
= 7114
oecfrl
203
My A Level Maths Notes
24.7 Bearings
Bearing problems are a favourite topic. You need to be familiar with the rules for angles and parallel lines. Also
note that compass bearings are measured clockwise from North.
24.7.1 Example:
Solution:
ABC can be split into two parts, and from the rules for parallel lines & angles on a straight line:
ABC = 35 + 90 = 95
As we now have two sides and an included angle (SAS), we use the cosine rule.
2
b = a2 + c2 2ac cos B
2 2
b = 372 + 25 2 37 25 cos 95
2
b = 1994 1850 (00872)
2
b = 1994 + 161238
b = 2155238
b = 46424
Now find the bearing required, by finding BCA
sin B sin C
=
b c
sin 95 sin C
=
46424 25
sin 95
sin C = 25
46424
= 05365
C = sin1 (05365) = 3244
Bearing from C to A = 360 (60 + 3244) = 26755
oecfrl
1
Area = base perpendicular height B
2
1
A = bh
2
c
a ht
b
A base C
1 1
Area = ac sin B = ab sin C
2 2
where the angle is always the included angle.
There are other formulae for the area of a triangle, such as:
a b
From the sine rule: =
sin A sin B
b sin A
a =
sin B
1
Substitute into the area formula: Area = ab sin C
2
Area = (
1 b sin A
2 sin B )
b sin C
205
My A Level Maths Notes
24.8.1 Example:
1
From the given sketch, find the area of the
Not to scale A
triangle. Dimensions in cm.
80
c = 12.5 b
B C
a = 14.5
Solution:
1 1 1
Area = bc sin A = ac sin B = ab sin C
2 2 2
We have been given a, & c, so we need sin B, to find the area.
1
Area = ac sin B
2
Using the sine rules to find angle C, then angle B.
sin A b sin B sin C
= =
ab b cb
c sin A
sin C =
a
C = sin1 (c sin A
a ) = sin1 (12.5 sin 80
14.5 )
B = 180 80 sin1 (12.5 sin 80
14.5 )
= 100 581 = 419
1 1
Area = ac sin B = 14.5 12.5 sin 419
2 2
= 5810 cm2
Sine Rule
ASA AAS
Know the formulae for the sine rule and area of a triangle - they are not in the exam formulae book.
207
My A Level Maths Notes
24.11 Digest
Use the cosine rule whenever you have:
j Cosine Rule
j 2 sides and the included angle (SAS) to find the unknown side
j All 3 sides (SSS) to find the unknown angle
j Sine Rule
j 2 angles + 1 side (AAS or ASA) to find the unknown side
j 2 sides + 1 opposite angle (SSA) to find the unknown angle
j Note: if the unknown angle is opposite the longer of the two sides, then there are two possible
angles (the ambiguous case), right angles excepted.
a b c
= = side unknown - use this version
sin A sin B sin C
sin A sin B sin C
= = angle unknown - use this version
a b c
( i.e. put the unknown bit on top)
Recall that sin x = k always has two solutions for angles between 0 and 180.
x = sin1k
and x = 180 sin1k
Area of a triangle (SAS):
1
Area = ab sin C
2
1
Area = ac sin B
2
1
Area = bc sin A
2
180 = rad
90 = rad
2
1 = rad
180
One radian (1c or 1 rad) = 57296 (3dp)
Since a radian is defined by the ratio of two lengths, it
has no units.
A circle can be divided up into 6.3 radians (approx). 1c 1c
1c
1c
To convert from degrees to radians: rads
180 1c
1c
( )
180
To convert from radians to degrees:
2p
2 p
3
3
3p
p
4
4
5p
p
6 6
0
p
2p
7p
11p
6
6
5p
7p
4 4
4p
5p
3 3p
3
2
209
My A Level Maths Notes
r2 r
A = r2 = ( in degrees)
360 360
r
A = area of sector area of triangle
q
A = 12 r2 12 r2 sin ( in radians)
r
A = 12 r2 ( sin ) ( in radians)
Solution:
The perimeter of the shaded area is made up of the arc AB, plus the chord AB.
Convert angle to radians:
7
= 140 = radians
180 9
Arc length is:
7
L = r = 9
9
= 7
Chord length:
AB = 2r sin
2
= 18 sin (
7
9
1
2 )
7
= 18 sin = 1691
18
=
81 7
2 9 ( sin
7
9 )
81
= 1800
2
= 7293
= 729 3 sf
oecfrl h/t Fritz K
211
My A Level Maths Notes
9 C
B
A 9
Solution:
The shaded area is found by finding the area of the rhombus BCDF and subtracting the area of the
sector BDF.
Area of the rhombus BCDF:
BCD = 60 = radians
3
Area of rhombus = 2 Area of triangle BCD
A = 2 ( 12 BC CD sin 3 )
81 3
= 92 sin = 7015
3 2
1
Area of the sector BDF: AC = FD2 = FD2
2 3 6
81 27
= 92 = =
6 6 2
81 3 27
Area of the shaded region: AS =
2 2
2774 cm2
oecfrl
12
A B
Solution:
The shaded area is found by finding the area of the two sectors ABC & ADC and subtracting the
area of the rhombus ABCD.
Area of the rhombus ABCD:
Area of rhombus = 2 Area of triangle ABD
A = 2 ( 12 AB AD sin 3 ) = AB AD sin 3
144 3
= 122 sin
= = 72 3 12471
3 2
1 2
Area of the sector ABC: AC = DB2 = DB2
2 3 3
144
= 144 = = 48
3 3
r t
Radius: AC & CB = r
ACB =
P
Lines AP & BP are tangent to the circle. CC
r t
Solution:
The shaded area is found by finding the area of the kite ACBP, and subtracting the area of the
sector ABC.
Area of the kite ACBP:
Area of kite = 2 Area of triangle ACP
A = 2 ( 12 AC AP) = AC AP = rt
t
but: tan = t = r tan
2 r 2
A = r2 tan
2
1 2
Area of the sector ABC: AC = r
2
1
Area of the shaded area: AS = r2 tan r 2
2 2
= r2 (
tan
2
2)
213
My A Level Maths Notes
Solution:
The sector area is given by A = 1 r 2
2
1 27
A = 92 =
2 3 2
r
9 cm
r
Sin APD =
PC
but: PC = 9 r
r
Sin =
6 9 r
1 r
=
2 9 r
Hence: r = 3
Radius: OA = z cm & AB = x cm
3
BOC = = O
2
z=4 z
A
x
B
Solution:
The shaded area is found by finding the area of the sector OBC, and subtracting the area of the
sector OAD.
Area of the sector OBC:
1 2
Area of the sector OBC: AOBC = r
2
1
= (z + x)2
2
1 2
Area of the sector OAD: AOAD = r
2
1
= (z)2
2
1 1
Area of the hatched area: Ah = (z + x)2 (z)2
2 2
1 3 1 3
= (z + x)2 (z)2
2 2 2 2
=
3
[ (z + x)2 (z)2]
4
= [ z + 2xz + x2 z2]
3 2
4
=
3
[ 2xz + x2 ]
4
But z = 4 =
3
[ 8x + x2 ]
4
215
My A Level Maths Notes
sin 0 1 1 3 1 0 1 0
2 2 2
cos 1 3 1 1 0 1 0 1
2 2 2
tan 0 1 1 3 AT 0 AT 0
3
( )
180
To convert from radians to degrees:
The logarithm of a number, N, is the exponent or power to which a base number must be raised to produce that
number.
Thus: 8 = 23 (base 2) 16 = 42 (base 4) 3 = 9 (base 9)
log2 8 = 3 log4 16 = 2 log9 3 =
In simpler terms, what we are really asking is the question How many times do we have to multiply the base
number by itself to get our number N. The logarithm tells you what the exponent, power or index is.
In algebraic terms, for positive values of N and b, we have:
x
If: N = b then logb N = x (true if b > 0; b 1; N > 0)
The constant b is the base and the exponent, x, is the logarithm, index or power.
The Logarithm,
Exponent or Index
A Number
N = bx logb N = x
Base
where b > 0
b =/ 0
N = bx N>0
logb N = x
The Log Definition: remember this relationship.
Note that:
1
as: b = b then logb b = 1
0
and: b = 1 then logb 1 = 0 (The log of 1, to any base, is zero)
if logb x = logb y then x = y
Note the restriction that the base, b, has to be a positive number and greater that zero. You cant evaluate an
equation like y = (3)x for all values of x.
217
My A Level Maths Notes
By defn: ax = M loga M = x
By defn: ay = N loga N = y
By defn: ax = M loga M = x
By defn: ay = N loga N = y
M ax
Power Law = y = a(x y)
N a
loga( )
M
N
= x y
log ( ) = log N
1
a a
N
log ( ) = log ( )
M N
Similarly: a a
N M
3rd Rule Power Rule
By defn: ax = M loga M = x
Mr = (ax) = arx
r
Power Law
loga (M)r = rx
= r loga M QED
From this last rule we see that:
1 1
loga n M = loga (M)n = loga M
n
1
loga n M = loga M
n
219
My A Level Maths Notes
loga M + loga
N
1
= loga M loga N = loga
M
N ( ) (2)
Assume M = N
loga N + loga N = 2 loga N = loga (N)2
In general: rloga M = loga (M)r (3)
Equating indices
Note that in the same way as 58x = 54 then 8x = 4, similarly if log 8n = log 4 then 8n = 4
logb N
loga N = (4)
logb a
By defn: ay = N loga N = y
Restate: N = ay
Take logs both sides: logb N = logb ay
= y logb a
logb N
y =
logb a
logb N
Substitute for y: loga N =
logb a
Special case
logb b 1
Substitute N = b loga b = =
logb a logb a
26.7.1 Example:
2 Use a factor to change bases by choosing a base and number that reduce to 1 for the denominator.
Find a factor to convert base 6 logs to base 10.
log610 log610
= = 1285
log1010 1
hence log6 N = 1285 log10 N
221
My A Level Maths Notes
x = 24
1 1
x = 4
=
2 16
log2 ( 2x2x+ 1 ) = 3
( 2x2x+ 1 ) = 2 3
2x + 1 = 8 2x
16x 2x = 1
14x = 1
1
x =
14
log5 (4 x) 2log5 x = 1
log5 (4 x) log5 x2 = 1 Important do this step & put back the x index
log5 ( 4 x x ) = 1
2
( 4 x x ) = 5
2
1
4 x = 5x2
5x2 + x 4 = 0
(5x 4) (x + 1) = 0
4
x = x = 1
5
Now substitute values back into the original function to test for validity.
With x = 1, it can be seen that the term 2log5 x becomes 2log5 (1) which is not valid.
N.B. The ve value of x is not the problem, the issue is that when substituted in the log term ve or
zero logs are not allowed.
2
( )x
A curve has the equation y = 12 . A point Q, on the line has a value of y = 16 .
log 3
Show that the x-co-ordinate of Q has the form: 1 + log 2
()
x
1 1
At point Q: y = =
6 2
1 1
= x
6 2
6 = 2x
Take logs log 6 = log 2x
= x log 2
log 6
x =
log 2
log (2 3) log 2 + log 3
x = =
log 2 log 2
log 3
x = 1 +
log 2
3 Given that: y = 5 103x, show that x = p log10 (qy), and state the values of p and q.
Solution:
y = 5 103x
y
= 103x
5
log ()
y
5
= 3x
1
x = log
3
y
5()
1 1
p = q =
3 5
oecfrl
223
My A Level Maths Notes
162x + 1 = 22x 1
2x + 1
( 2 2) = 22x 1
24x + 2 = 22x 1
4x + 2 = 2x 1
2x = 3
3
x =
2
These results are very useful in solving log problems by eliminating either N or x. The examples below will help
clarify things.
225
My A Level Maths Notes
26.11.3 Example:
1 Take ex and take logs to base e. From the log rules we have:
ln ex = x ln e
but: ln e = 1 ln ex = x
In general:
y = ex ln y = x
y = eln y
ya = (eln y) = ea ln y
a
3log ()
x
y
= 2 + log (10x3y)
Solution:
Begin by expanding the logs to separate out the x & y terms.
3 (log x log y) = 2 + log 10 + 3log x + log y
3log x 3log y = 2 + log 10 + 3log x + log y
3log y = 2 + 1 + log y
4log y = 3
3
log y =
4
34
y = 10
y = 1778 oecfrl
2 Evaluate:
y = log510 + log575 + log52 log512
Solution:
3 Solve 10p = 01
Solution Method 1 (Convert to log form):
10 p = 01
p = log10 01
p = 1
Solution Method 2 (Take logs both sides):
10 p = 01
log10 p = log 01
p log10 = log 01
but: log10 10 = 1
p 1 = log 01
p = 1
227
My A Level Maths Notes
4 Simplify:
log 1 log 16
log 1 log 2
Solution:
log 1 log 16 0 log 16
= since 1 = 100
log 1 log 2 0 log 2
log (2 8)
=
log 2
log 2 + log 8 log 8
= = 1 +
log 2 log 2
= 1 + 3
= 4
3 (3x) 14 (3x) 5 = 0
2
6 Given that 2 log n log (8n 24) = log 2, show that n2 16n + 48 = 0
Solution:
2 log n log (8n 24) = log 2
log n2 log (8n 24) = log 2
n2
log = log 2
(8n 24)
n2
= 2 (One to one property)
(8n 24)
n2 16n + 48 = 0
EAFQLA
8 Find the roots of the equation: 2 log2 (2x + 3) + log2 (x) 3 log2 (2x) = 1
Solution:
To ensure both sides are in terms of logs, recognise that 1 = log2 2
Hence: 2 log2 (2x + 3) + log2 (x) 3 log2 (2x) = log2 2
(2x + 3)2 x
log2 = log2 2
(2x)3
Combining logs and using the 1 to 1 property, we can drop the logs to give:
(2x + 3)2
= 2
8x2
(2x + 3)2 = 16x2
4x2 + 12x + 9 = 16x2
12x2 + 12x + 9 = 0 Divide thro' by (3)
4x2 4x 3 = 0
(2x + 1) (2x 3) = 0
1 3
x = or x =
2 2
Now substitute values back into the original function to test for validity.
With x = , it can be seen that the term log2 x becomes log2 () which is not valid.
3
x = is the only valid solution.
2
229
My A Level Maths Notes
9 A curve has the equation y = 3 log10x log10 8. Point P lies on the curve. P has the co-ordinates:
P = (3, log10 [ 27
8 ])
The point Q (6, q) also lies on the curve, show that the gradient of PQ is log10 2
Solution:
63 216
At x = 6 y = log log = log 27
8 8
y1 y1 log 27 log ( 27
8) log 27 (log 27 log 8)
gradient = = =
x1 x2 6 3 3
log 8 1
= = log 8 3 = log 2
3
log (076)
Hence: x (Note the change in the inequality sign)
log (05776)
x 05
y = 0.5776 x
1
0.76
2 1 0 0.5 1 2 3 x
The trap for young players here is that you will forget to take into account the ve numbers and
give a solution of:
log (076)
x c
log (05776)
j log (x + y) is not the same as log x + log y. Study the above table and youll find that theres nothing
you can do to split up log (x + y) or log (x y).
log (x)
()
j log (y) is not the same as log xy . When you divide two logs to the same base, you are in fact using the
log (x)
change-of-base formula backwards. Note that log (y) = logy (x), NOT log xy ! ()
j (log x) (log y) is not the same as log (xy). Theres really not much you can do with the product of two
logs when they have the same base.
1 ln (y + 2) = ln (4x 5) + ln 3
You cannot just remove all the lns so: (y + 2) (4x 5) + 3 c
To solve, put the RHS into the form of a single log first:
ln (y + 2) = ln [ 3 (4x 5)] b
(y + 2) = 3 (4x 5)
2 ln (y + 2) = 2 ln x
You cannot just remove all the lns so: (y + 2) 2x c
To solve, put the RHS into the form of a single log first:
ln (y + 2) = ln x2 b
(y + 2) = x2
3 ln (y + 2) = x2 + 3x
2
You cannot convert to exponential form this way: (y + 2) ex + e3x c
2 + 3x
To solve, raise e to the whole of the RHS : (y + 2) = ex b
231
My A Level Maths Notes
b0 = 1 logb 1 = 0
b1 = b logb b = 1
am
an
= a(m n) loga ( MN ) = log M log N
a a Rule
log ( ) = log N
1 1
= a(n) a a
an N
(am)n = a(mn) loga Mn = n loga M Rule
1 1
n
m = mn loga n M = loga M
n
1 ( mn ) 1
(am) n = a loga M n = 1n loga M
logb N
loga N = Change of Base
logb a
1
loga b = Change of Base
logb a
a
b
=
a ()
b 1
ln
a
b
= ln
b
a
alogam = m
Note:
logb 1 = 0
233
My A Level Maths Notes
7 7
y=ex y=ex
6 6
y = bx y = bx
5 5
4 4
y=2x 3 3
y=2x
2 2
1 1
2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 x 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 x
Properties of Exponential graphs:
For y = bx
x + y +
x y 0
For y = bx
x + y 0
x y +
For +ve values of b < 1, similar graphs are drawn, but these represent decay curves. Note how the curves get
steeper as b gets smaller. A negative value of x will produce reflected images in the y-axis (not shown).
y = 0.2x
y y = bx
y = 0.5x 4 0<b<1
y = 0.8x 2
0.5
0.2
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 x
()
x
1 1 x
e.g. y = 2x = x
= = 05
2 2
( ) ()
x x
2 1 1 x
y = 02x = = = = 5
10 5 5x
Note that the scales on the these exponential graphs are different.
27.4.1 Example:
Map y = ex to y = ex + 2.
y
()
y = ex + 2
0 7
y = f(x) + 2
The translation vector is
2 6
5
Note the asymptote drawn has moved to y = 2
y = ex
4
y = f(x)
~~~~~~ 3
2
Map y = ex to y = ex
1
235
My A Level Maths Notes
3 y = log1 x y = log2 x
y = ln x
2
y = log3 x
1
y = log10 x
0 x
1 2 e3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
-1
y = logb x
-2 b>0
y = log0.5 x
-3
-4
y=x
y = ex 1
1 x
y = ln(x)
1 Two curves intersect at a point P. Curve A is given by y = ax, a > 1, and curve B is
y = 5bx, 0 < b < 1. Show that the equation for the x-coordinate at point P is x = log a 1 log b
5 5
Solution:
x
5b = ax
x
log55 + log5 b = log5 ax
1 + xlog5 b = xlog5 a
xlog5 a xlog5 b = 1
x (log5 a log5 b) = 1
1
x =
log5 a log5 b
oecfrl
237
My A Level Maths Notes
( ) = 1b
x
1
a
log ( ) = log
x
1 1
a b
x (log 1 log a) = log 1 log b
but log 1 = 0
x log a = log b
log b
x =
log a
log 2
If a = 4 & b = 8 show that x = 1 +
log 4
log 8
x =
log 4
log (4 2) log 4 + log 2
x = =
log 4 log 4
log 2
x = 1 +
log 4
oecfrl
j Each number in the sequence is called a term, and is usually separated by a comma.
j Terms next to each other are referred to as adjacent terms or consecutive terms.
j Each term is related to the previous term either by a termtoterm rule or a positiontoterm rule,
or sometimes both.
j Every term in the sequence has a term or pattern number to show its position in the sequence. The n-th
term is a general expression which means the value of a term at any position in the sequence.
j Note that the symbol means that the sequence continues on and on and :-)
j Sequences can be infinite, e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
or finite, e.g. 2, 5, 8, 10, 16 , 25 (where, in this example, 25 is the last term in the sequence).
j A sequence can be defined in two ways:
j as a recurrence relationship, that depends on the preceding term or
j as an algebraic relationship that gives the n-th term directly.
j Sequences can be either:
j Divergent
j Convergent
j Periodic
28.1.2 Example:
Term position 1st 2nd 3rd 4th n th
Sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, x,
Recurrence relations can be used to represent mathematical functions or sequences that cannot be easily
represented non-recursively. An example is the Fibanocci sequence.
239
My A Level Maths Notes
E.g. 1
Un = 3 +
n
4, 3 1/2 , 3 1/3 , 3 1/4 , 3
lim
n
(3 + 1n ) = 3
As n becomes very large. 1n becomes vanishing small and the sequence
tends to 3.
( )
E.g. 1n
Un =
3
1 1 1 1
, , , , 0
3 9 27 81
( )
n
1
lim = 0
n 3
E.g. U n = 3n + 1
4, 7, 10, 13,
E.g. U n = 2 (2)n
4, 8, 16, 32, 64,
E.g. U n = 3 + (1)n
2, 4, 2, 4, 2, 4,
Period = 2 (repeats every 2 terms)
E.g.
U n = sin ( n2 )
1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1
Period = 4 (repeats every 4 terms)
241
My A Level Maths Notes
Limit L = U = U + 1
L = qL + r
L qL = r
r
L =
1 q
20
L = = 333 1/3
06
E.g.
Sequence: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
Series: 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10
r
r=1
= 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + + n
where r is the term, n is the last term, and r = 1 gives the first term. This translates to the sum of all the
numbers from 1 to n
The sigma notation also allows us to specify the range of values over which the series should be added.
E.g. 6
2
r=4
r
= 24 + 25 + 26
n n n
r=1
(ar + br) =
r=1
ar + b
r=1
r
k n n
a
r=1
r +
r=k+1
ar = a
r=1
r r < k < n
n n
ka
r=1
r = k a
r=1
r
c
1
= nc where c is a constant
1 1
= n
4n + 2
n=1
243
My A Level Maths Notes
10
2
r=4
r
= 24 + 25 + 26 + 27 + 28 + 29 + 210
r
1
= n (n + 1)
r=1
2
n
r 2 1
= n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
r=1
6
2 2
n
1 n
1
r = n2 (n + 1)2 = n (n + 1)
3
= r
4 2
r=1 r = 1
r=1
(3r 1) =
r=1
3r 1
r=1
n n
= 3
r=1
r 1
r=1
n (n + 1)
= 3 n
2
3n (n + 1)
= n
2
3n (n + 1) 2n
=
2 2
n
= [ 3 (n + 1) 2]
2
n
= [ 3n + 3 2]
2
n
(3r 1)
n
= [ 3n + 1]
r=1
2
1 20 19
Solve:
r=1
k
2
k
r=2
2
Solution:
20 19 1 20
k
r=1
2
k
r=2
2
= k
r=1
2
+ k
r = 20
2
look at the terms - left with 1st & last term only.
= 1 + 400 = 401
2 n
r
n
Show that: = (n + 1)
r=1
2
Solution:
The sum of terms is given by: Sn =
n
[ 2a + (n 1) d]
2
n
Now: r
r=1
= 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + + n
Hence: a = 1; d = 1
n
r [ 2a + (n 1) d] = n [ 2 + (n 1) ]
n
=
r=1
2 2
n
= [n + 1 ]
2
3 2n
Given that:
r=n+3
r = 312 Find the value of n
Solution:
2n n+2 2n
Now: r = r +
r=1 r=1 r=n+3
r
2n 2n n+2
Hence:
r=n+3
r = r r
r=1 r=1
2n
r
2n
= [ 2 + (2n 1) ] = n [ 2n + 1 ] See Q2 above for technique.
r=1
2
n+2
n + 2
r = [ 2 + (n + 2 1) ] = (n + 2) (n + 3)
r=1
2 2
2n
(n + 2) (n + 3)
r=n+3
r = n (2n + 1)
2
= 312
245
My A Level Maths Notes
x2 x2 x2 x2
Is the difference between each adjacent term the same? i.e. a common difference.
6 10 14 18 22
+4 +4 +4 +4
+3 +5 +7 +9
Is it a pattern with alternating signs? When k is odd: (1)k = 1. When k is even: (1)k = 1.
1 4 9 16 25
If any of the above do not work, try finding a pattern in the first set of differences, (quadratic sequence: n2 + 2).
3 6 11 18 27
+3 +5 +7 +9
+2 +2 +2 +2
Natural or counting 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, Un = n U 1 = 1, U n + 1 = U n + 1
numbers
Triangle numbers: U 1 = 1, U n + 1 = U n + n + 1
1, 3, 6, 10, 15, n(n + 1)
Un = 2 Un = Un 1 + n
13, 23, 33, 43, 53,
Cube numbers: U n = n3 U 1 = 1, U n + 1 = ( 3
U n + 1)
3
Reducing Sequence 92, 78, 64, 50, 36, U n = 106 14n U 1 = 92, U n + 1 = U n 14
Notes:
Triangle numbers are found by adding the natural numbers in order, thus:
1, 1 + 2, 1 + 2 + 3, 1 + 2 + 3 + 4,
Adding consecutive triangle numbers makes a square number, thus:
3 + 6 = 9, 6 + 10 = 16, 10 + 15 = 25,
Fibonacci numbers are formed by adding the last two number in the series together, thus:
0 + 1 = 1, 1 + 1 = 2, 1 + 2 = 3, 2 + 3 = 5,
247
My A Level Maths Notes
1 3 6 10 15 n(n+1) 2
1 1+2 1 + 2 +3 1+2+3+4 1+2+3+4+5 (n2+n)
1 4 9 16 25 n2
6 15 27 3n(n+3) 2
3/ (n2+3n)
2
4 12 24 2n(n+1)
2n2+2n
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 Un
6 10 14 18 22
+4 +4 +4 +4
d d d d
} Common difference
Where U 1 is the first term, etc. and the n-th term is denoted by U n.
Un + 1 = Un + d U1 = a
U n = a + (n 1) d
Un
Un
d
d
d
3 d
-1 1 2 3 n -1 1 2 n
249
My A Level Maths Notes
29.1.1 Example:
A sequence is given by the equation U n = an + b. Find a and b if U 3 = 5 & U 8 = 20.
U 3 = 3a + b = 5 (1)
U 8 = 8a + b = 20 (2)
From (1) b = 5 3a (3)
From (2) b = 20 8a (4)
Equate (3) & (4) 5 3a = 20 8a
8a 3a = 20 5
5a = 15
a = 3
Sub a into (3) b = 5 9
b = 4
29.2.1 Example:
A sequence is defined by: 2, 5, 8, 11
How many terms are required for the sum to exceed 1600?
Solution:
n n
Now: Sn = [ 2a + (n 1) d] Sn = [ 4 + (n 1) 3] = 1600
2 2
3n2 + n 3200 = 0
1 1 4 3 (3200) 1 38401 1 19596
n = = =
2 2 2
Ignore -ve solution: n = 9778.
But n has to be an integer, hence: n = 98 terms.
a + l
Sn = n or Sn =
n
[ a + l]
2 2
where l = a + (n 1) d
An alternative method to find the sum, is to make a series and then reverse the terms and add the two series
together to give 2Sn.
U1 U2 Un 1 Un
Sn a + (a + d) + ... + a + (n 2) d + a + (n 1) d
Sn a + (n 1) d + a + (n 2) d + ... + (a + d) + a
Add 2Sn 2a + (n 1) d + 2a + (n 1) d + ... + 2a + (n 1) d + 2a + (n 1) d
Therefore: 2Sn = n [ 2a + (n 1) d ]
Hence: Sn =
n
[ 2a + (n 1) d] (a quadratic)
2
Note that:
S1 = U 1 = a
29.3.1 Example:
The sum of the first n natural numbers is:
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + +n
where a = 1, d = 1
n 1
Sn = ( n + 1) or n ( n + 1)
2 2
n
n (n + 1)
and r
r=1
=
2
In an AP, the sum of the terms that are equidistant from the beginning and end is always the same as the sum of
the first and last terms.
Since a number of questions are based on manipulating the equation for Sn it is worth practising rewriting the
equation in terms of n.
2Sn = n [ 2a + (n 1) d ]
2Sn = 2an + dn (n 1)
2Sn = 2an + dn2 dn
2Sn = dn2 + n (2a d)
251
My A Level Maths Notes
Sn =
n
[ a + a + (n 1) d]
2
=
n
2
[ 2a + (n 1) d]
29.5 No Sum to Infinity for an Arithmetic Series
The sum to infinity of any series is only possible for a divergent series.
For an AP with a common difference d:
Sn =
dn2
2 (
+ n a
d
2 )
This is a quadratic equation and so as n then the sum Sn .
Therefore, any AP is divergent, (except for the trivial case of a = 0, & d = 0)
1 A 24m metal rod has been split into a number of different lengths forming an AP. The first piece is
04m long and the last piece is 3.6m long. Find the total number of pieces.
Solution:
a + l
Sn = n
2
2Sn
n =
a + l
2 24 48
n = =
04 + 36 4
n = 12
2 An arithmetic progression has a first term of 1, and a common difference of 4. The sum of the first
n terms is 3160.
Show that 2n2 n 3160 = 0 and find the value of n.
Solution:
2Sn = n [ 2a + (n 1) d ]
2 3160 = n [ 2 + (n 1) 4]
2 3160 = 2n + 4n (n 1)
3160 = n + 2n (n 1)
3160 = 2n2 n
2n2 n 3160 = 0
Find n by factorising:
3160 2
6320
40 158
80 79
(n + 79 / 2) (n 80 / 2) = 0
(2n + 79) (n 40) = 0
n = 40 (ignore the ve value since n is +ve)
3 The sum of the first 31 terms of an AP is 1302. Show that a + 15d = 42.
The sum of the 2nd and 9th terms is 21. Find a and d.
Solution:
2Sn = n [ 2a + (n 1) d ]
2 1302 = 31 [ 2a + (31 1) d ]
2 1302
= 2a + 30d
31
(i) 42 = a + 15d (1)
U 2 = a + (2 1) d = a + d
U 9 = a + (9 1) d = a + 8d
U 2 + U 9 = a + d + a + 8d
21 = 2a + 9d (2)
21 = 2a + 9 3 From (2)
21 27 = 2a
a = 3
253
My A Level Maths Notes
Method 1:
a + l
Sn = n
2
649 + 1243
S101 200 = 100
2
= 94600
Method 2:
n
Sn = [ 2a + (n 1) d]
2
S101 200 = 50 [ 2 649 + (99) 6]
= 94600
Method 3:
200
S200 = [ 2 49 + (199) 6]
2
= 129200
100
S100 = [ 2 49 + (99) 6]
2
= 34600
S200 S100 = 129200 34600
= 94600
5 A sequence is given as 2, 6, 10, 14 How many terms are required for the sum to exceed 162.
Solution:
n
Sn = [ 4 + 4 (n 1)] = 2n2
2
2n2 = 162
n2 = 81
n = 9
255
My A Level Maths Notes
10 The ratio of the sixth and sixteenth terms of an AP is 4 : 9. The product of the first and third terms
is 135. Assuming that the AP is positive, find the sum of the first 100 terms.
Solution:
U6 4
Step (i) =
U 16 9
9 U 6 = 4 U 16
but U 6 = a + (n 1) d = a + 5d
U 16 = a + (n 1) d = a + 15d
9 (a + 5d ) = 4 (a + 15d )
9a + 45d = 4a + 60d
5a = 15d
a = 3d (1)
step (ii) U 1 U 3 = 135
a (a + 2d ) = 135
a2 + 2ad = 135
but from (1) (3d )2 + 6d 2 = 135
2 2
9d + 6d = 135
2
15d = 135
2
d = 9
d = 3 hence a = 9
Using the +ve value for d, (a positive AP given)
100
S100 = [ 18 + (99) 3] = 15750
2
EIFBL
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 Un
6 18 54 162 486
3 3 3 3
r r r r
} Common ratio
Where U 1 is the first term, etc. and the n-th term is denoted by U n.
The general definition of an GP can be given by the recurrence relation:
Un + 1 = Un r (where the integer n 1, r 0)
Many series have the same recurrence relationship, so it is important to state the first term.
The algebraic definition is:
U n = ar(n 1)
U n = ar(n 1)
U n = U 0 rn
257
My A Level Maths Notes
a (1 rn)
Sn = Convenient for r < 1
(1 r)
a (rn 1)
Sn = Convenient for r > 1
(r 1)
Either of these formulae will work in finding the sum, but it is easier to use them as indicated above.
Tip: The formulae above work well for large values of n. For small values of n (say 3 or less) then it can be
easier to just find the first few terms manually and just add them up!
30.3.1 Example:
a (1 rn)
Sn =
(1 r)
5 (1 (15)25)
Sn =
1 (15)
5 (1 (25251168))
=
25
= 2.5 (1 + 25251168)
= 2.5 25252168
= 6313042
60,000
50,000
40,000
Sn
30,000
20,000
10,000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
n
a (rn 1) 1 (264 1)
Sn = = = 185 1019pence
(r 1) (2 1)
a (1 rn) 1 (1 264)
Sn = = = 185 1019pence
(1 r) (1 2)
259
My A Level Maths Notes
L L L L L
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + n L
2 2 2 2 2
L L L L L
lim + 2 + 3 + 4 + n = L
n 2 2 2 2 2
This can be simplified by saying:
S = lim [ Sn]
n
0.9
0.8
Sn
0.7
0.6
0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
n
(The issue of convergence will be revisited when discussing the Binomial Theorem in C4).
Sn =
a (1 rn)
(1 r)
which can be written as: Sn = ( 1 a r ) ( 1 a r ) r n
However, if r is small and between 1 < r < 1, (r 0) then the term rn tends to 0 as n
(A useful exercise is to find 052, 0520, 05200 and see how quickly the term diminishes).
Mathematically this is written:
if | r | < 1, then lim rn = 0
n
and the sum to infinity becomes:
a
S = |r| < 1 1 < r < 1
(1 r)
( )
5
(n 1) 3
b) U n = ar 8 3
2
23 3 ( 3)
5
3 9 3
= =
25 22
27
=
4
a 8 3 8 3
c) S = = =
(1 r) 1 23 2 3
2
8 3 16 3 2 + 3
= 2 =
2 3 2 3 2 + 3
16 3 (2 + 3)
= = 16 3 (2 + 3)
4 3
= 32 3 + 16 3 = 16 (2 3 + 3)
261
My A Level Maths Notes
U
n=1
n
Solution:
U 2 = 1 2 = 1
U 3 = 1 (1) = 2
U 4 = 1 2 = 1
U 5 = 1 (1) = 2
U
n=1
n = 100 50 = 50
Extension work:
This gives an opportunity to explore an alternating series. An alternating series is one in which the signs
change after each term. The sequence also oscillates between two numbers of 2 and 1, with a mid-point
of 05.
Now consider the alternate form of the sequence. This can be written as:
U n = 05 15 (1)n
Note the use of (1)n in order the make the sign change. An important tool in mathematics.
The sum of the terms can be written in Sigma notation as:
U
n=1
n = 05 15 (1)
n=1 n=1
n
100
= 50 15 (1)
n=1
n
100
= 50 15 (1)
n=1
n
U
n=1
n = 50 15 S100
100 [ 1 (1)100]
S100 = = 0
(1 (1))
100 100
U
n=1
n = 50 15 (1)
n=1
100
= 50 0
= 50
4 Water is pumped weekly from a well, with 10,000 gallons being extracted in the first week. The common
ratio is given as 085.
(a) Calculated the amount of water extracted at the end of week 4.
(b) Find how long it takes for the amount of water to be extracted per week to fall to below 100 gallons,
rounding up to the nearest week.
(c) Find the total water extracted up to and including the week found in (ii) above, to 4sf.
Solution:
(a)
U n = ar(n 1)
U 4 = 10000(085)3
U 4 = 614125 gallons
(b)
ar(n 1) < 100
10000 [ 085 ]
(n 1)
< 100
(n 1) 100
085 <
10000
(n 1)
085 < 001
(n 1) ln 085 < ln 001
ln 001
(n 1) > Note change of inequality, since ln 085 = 016
ln 085
ln 001
n > 1 +
ln 085
n > 2934
n = 30 weeks
(c)
a (1 rn)
Sn =
(1 r)
10000 (1 08530)
S30 =
(1 085)
S30 = 6615795
S30 = 66160 gallons (4sf )
OECFRL
263
My A Level Maths Notes
5 A GP has the first term a = 15, and the second term of 141
(a) Show that S = 250
(b) The sum of the first n terms is greater than 249. Show that 094n < 0004
(c) Find the smallest value of n to satisfy the inequality in (ii)
Solution:
(a)
141
r = = 094
15
a
S = |r| < 1 (1 < r < 1)
(1 r)
15
S =
(1 094)
15
= = 250
006
(b)
a (1 rn)
Sn =
(1 r)
15 (1 094n)
> 249
(1 094)
15 (1 094n) > 249 006
249 006
1 094n >
15
1 094n > 0996
094n > 0004
094n < 0004 (note change of inequality)
(c)
n ln 094 < ln 0004
ln 0004
n > 8924 (2dp) (note change of inequality)
ln 094
Least value of n = 90
Note the trap and the reason for the change in inequality:
n ln 094 < ln 0004
0062n < 552
0062n > 552
552
n >
0062
As n increases, so does Sn until the limit is reached when S = 250. The value of n 8924 represents
the point at which the curve crosses a value of Sn = 249. Since n is an integer value, the smallest value
to satisfy the inequality is 90.
Drawing a graph of Sn : v : n will illustrate this.
OECFRL
6 The difference between the 4th and the 1st term of a GP is 3 times the difference between the 2nd and the
1st term. Find the possible values of the common ratio.
Solution:
U n = ar(n 1)
U 4 U 1 = 3 ( U 2 U 1)
ar3 a = 3 (ar a)
r 3 1 = 3 ( r 1)
r3 3r + 2 = 0
(r + 2) (r 1) (r 1) = 0
r = 2, or 1 OECFRL
7 You decide to save some money for a rainy day, by joining a monthly savings scheme. The initial deposit
is 100, and after 360 months the final payment will be 2110. What is the total paid into the scheme
assuming the monthly payments increase by an inflation adjusted amount every month.
Solution:
From the question, a = 100, and U 360 = 2110
U n = ar(n 1)
2110 = 100r(359)
2110
r(359) = = 211
100
r = 359
211
r = 100853 (This represents an inflation of approx 08% per month)
a (rn 1)
Sn = r > 1
(r 1)
100 (100853360 1)
S360 =
(100853 1)
100 (21279 1) 202799
= =
000853 000853
= 237,74972 saved over 360 months (30 years)
OECFRL
8 A van sold at auction is serviced immediately after the auction at a cost of 400. Each year the car is
serviced but the servicing costs rise by 5% p.a.
Calculate the total servicing costs in its 8 years of ownership.
Solution:
From the question, a = 400, and r = 105
a (rn 1)
Sn =
(r 1)
400 (1058 1) 400 (1058 1)
S8 = =
(105 1) (105 1)
400 (14775 1)
=
(005)
Sn = 381964
265
My A Level Maths Notes
U 6 = 2.5 103(5)
= 2898 tonnes (4sf)
(b)
a (rn 1)
Sn =
(r 1)
25 (103n 1)
206 (number of jumps is an integer)
(103 1)
25 (103n 1) 206 003
206 003
103n 1
25
103n 1 2472
103n 3472
(c)
n ln 103 ln 3472
ln 3472
n 4211 (2dp)
ln 103
Least value of n = 42
OECFRL
10 Given that U n + 1 = 05 U n + 25 and that the limit of U n as n is U L, form an equation for U L and
find its value.
Solution:
At the limit: U n + 1 = U L & Un = UL
U L = 05 U L + 25
05 U L = 25
U L = 50
12 On the 1 May 2000, a van is sold for 30,000. The car depreciates at a rate of 30% p.a.
a) What is the value of the car exactly 4 years after its purchase?
b) How many years after its original sale does the value of the van fall below 1000?
Solution:
From the question, a = 30,000, and r = 070. (This is a fence post problem:-)
(a)
U 5 = 30000 074 U1 U2 U3 U4 U5
= 7203
Also make sure you know that the a stands for the first term.
j If the terms of an AP are decreasing, the common difference must be negative.
j In a GP, the nth term is given by U n = ar(n 1). Do not use (ar)n 1
267
My A Level Maths Notes
n n n
(a
r=1
r + br) = a + b
r=1
r
r=1
r
k n n
a
r=1
r +
r=k+1
ar = a
r=1
r r < k < n
n n
ka
r=1
r = k
r=1
a r
c
1
= nc where c is a constant
1
1
= n
n
No. of terms in sum
r=m
n m + 1
n
n (n + 1)
r
r=1
=
2
Formula for the sum of the first n natural numbers
j Row numbering starts at 0, (the power n), and row numbers match the 2nd number in each row
j If each row is added up, a new sequence is created, (the powers of 2).
269
My A Level Maths Notes
31.2.1 Example:
2
(
Use Pascals triangle to expand 3x 1x )4
Solution:
Use row 4 from Pascals triangle to find the coefficients, which are 1, 4, 6, 4, 1.
Set up a table to help calculate the terms:
Coef f icient 1st term 2nd term Calculation Total
1 (3x)4 1 1 81x4 1 81x4
4 (3x)3 ( 1x )1 4 27x3 ( 1x ) 108x2
6 (3x)2 ( 1x )2 6 9x2 ( 1x )2 54
4 (3x)1 ( 1x )3 4 3x ( 1x )3 12 x12
1 1 ( 1x )4 1 1 ( 1x )4 1
x4
(
3x
14
x ) 12 1
= 81x4 108x2 + 54 2 + 4
x x
Note the alternating signs in the expansion.
3 Use Pascals triangle to find the coefficient of the x4 term of the binomial (5x + 2)6
Solution:
Use row 6 from Pascals triangle to find the coefficients, which are 1, 6, 15, 20, 15, 6, 1.
Set up a table to help calculate the terms:
Coef f icient 1st term 2nd term Calculation Total
1 (5x)6 1
6 (5x)5 2
15 (5x)4 22 15 625x4 4 37500x4
20 (5x)3
15
31.3.1 Factorials
A factorial is a simple and short way to write down the product of all the positive integers from 1 to n thus:
n! = n (n 1) (n 2) (3) (2) (1) (called n factorial)
e.g. 5! = 5 4 3 2 1 or 5! = 5.4.3.2.1
e.g. 6! = 6 5! or 6! = 6.5!
where, by definition:
0! = 1
A combination is an selection of things, without repetition, but where the order is not important.
The number of combinations of n things, taken r at a time is given by:
n
Now: Cr r! = nPr
n n!
Cr =
r! (n r)!
This formula can be used to find the coefficient of each term in the binomial expansion.
Note that combinations are symmetric so that 12C5 = 12C7. So choose the easiest one to calculate if doing it by
hand (or use a calculator).
n
Cr = nCn r
n
Cr = ()
n
r
=
n!
r! (n r)!
We say n choose r, which is the number of ways of choosing r things from a pool of n items, where order is
not important.
271
My A Level Maths Notes
0 1 1
1 1C 1C 2
0 1
2 2C 2C 2C 4
0 1 2
3 3C 3C 3C 3C 8
0 1 2 3
4 4C 4C 4C 4C 4C 16
0 1 2 3 4
5 5C 5C 5C 5C 5C 5C 32
0 1 2 3 4 5
6 6C 6C 6C 6C 6C 6C 6C 64
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
7 7C 7C 7C 7C 7C 7C 7C 7C 128
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
: : : : : : : : :
These are easily calculated by using the nCr or nCr button on the calculator.
Note that:
nC = 1 nC = n
n1 = n = 1
nC nC
0 1 n
Recall that the counter r starts at zero. It can become confusing if care is not taken over the difference between
the term number and the counter r. If the term number is k, then r = k 1.
0 1 1
1 1 1 2
2 1 n 1 4
3 1 n n 1 8
4 1 n 4C
2 n 1 16
5 1 n 5C
2
5C
3 n 1 32
6 1 n 6C 6C 6C n 1 64
2 3 4
7 1 n 7C 7C 7C 7C n 1 128
2 3 4 5
: : : : : : : : :
Recursive definition:
n n r n
Cr + 1 = Cr
r + 1
( )n
r + 1
=
n r n
r + 1 r ()
Combination method: n
Cr = ()
n
r
=
n!
r! (n r)!
(Only valid for +ve integers)
n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) (n r + 1)
Long method: Coefficient = n R
r!
Note that in the longer method there are r terms on the top.
31.4.1 Example:
Calculate 8C5
Long Method:
8 n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) (n 4) 8 7 6 5 4 8 7 6 5 4
C5 = = = = 56
5! 5! 5 4 3 2 1
Combination Method:
8 n! 8! 8! 8 7 6 5 !
C5 = = = = = 56
r! (n r)! 5! (8 5)! 5! 3! 5 ! 3 !
Note how the digits of the factorials in the denominator add up to the same value as the factorial digit in
the numerator. In this case 5 + 3 = 8
273
My A Level Maths Notes
2 3 n1 n
(a + b)n = nC0 an + nC1 an 1b + nC2 an 2b + nC3 an 3b + nCn 1 ab + nCn b
Term no k: (n) (n+1)
(a + b)n = () ()
n n
0
a +
n n1
1
a b +
n n2 2
2
a b +
3 ()
n n3 3
a b + +
n
n 1
ab
n1
+
n n
n
b () ( ) ()
where nC0 = ()
n
0
= 1; n
Cn = ()
n
n
= 1; n
C1 = ()
n
1
= n; n
Cn 1 = ( n
n 1 ) = n;
(a + b)n = an + nan 1b + ()
n n2 2
2
a b +
n n3 3
3
a b + +
r()
n nr r
a b + + nab
n1
+ b
n
()
The compact sigma notation definition is:
( )
n n
(a + b)n =
r=0
n nr r
r
a b or =
r=0
n
Cr an rb
r
The long version (as per the formula book) is written thus:
n n1 n (n 1) n 2 2 n (n 1) (n 2) n 3 3 n
(a + b)n = an + a b + a b + a b + + b
1! 2! 3!
Simplifying a bit:
n (n 1) n 2 2 n (n 1) (n 2) (n r + 1) n r r
(a + b)n = an + n an 1b + a b + + a b + + nabn 1 + bn
2! r!
n (n 1) 2 n (n 1) (n 2) 3
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + + n xn 1 + xn
2! 3!
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + nC2 x2 + nC3 x3 + + nxn 1 + xn
This can be used to solve more complex problems and derive the full binomial expansion in the section above.
Consider:
( ) ( )
n
n x x n
(a + x) = a 1 + = an 1 +
a a
275
My A Level Maths Notes
= nCk 1 an k + 1b
k1
or ( n
k 1 )
an k + 1b
k1
31.8.1 Example:
Find the 9th term of (x 2y)12. The coefficient is given by:
12 12 12! 12!
C9 1 = C8 = =
8! (12 8)! 8! 4!
12 11 10 9 8! 11 10 9
= =
8! 4 3 2 1 2
= 495
Add in the x & y terms:
9-th term = 495x12 8 y8 = 495x4y8
31.8.2 Example:
Find the coefficient of the x5 term in the expansion of (2 2x)7
Solution:
The general term is given by:
n r
Cr an rb
In this case:
n = 7, r = 5, a = 2, b = 2x
The x5 term is when r = 5 :
7
C5 27 5 (2x)5 = 7C5 22 (2x)5
= 7C5 4 (32 x5) = 7C5 128 x5
7! 5 7 6 5
= 128 x = 128 x
5! 2! 2
= 2688 x5
The coefficient is: = 2688
1
(
Expand x + 2x )4
Solution:
2 3 4
(a + b)4 = 4C0 a4 + 4C1 a4 1b + 4C2 a4 2b + 4C3 a4 3b + 4C4 b
2 3 4
(a + b)4 = 4C0 a4 + 4C1 a3b + 4C2 a2b + 4C3 ab + 4C4 b
4
But C0 = 4C4 = 1 and 4
C1 = 4C3 = 4
4 4 3
C2 = = 6
2!
2 3 4
(a + b)4 = a4 + 4 a3b + 6 a2b + 4 ab + b
2
Let a = x and b =
x
( ) () () () ()
4
22 23 4
2 2 2
x + = x4 + 4 x3 + 6 x2 + 4x +
x x x x x
4 8
= x4 + 8 x2 + 6x2 2 + 4 x 3 + 4
x x ( )
16
x ( )
32 16
= x4 + 8 x2 + 24 + 2 + 4
x x
( )
2 2 12
What is the coefficient of x6 in x2 + ?
x
Solution:
The general term in an expansion is give by:
n r
Cr an rb
Require to find which value of r will give a term in x6
2
Let a = x2 b = n = 12
x
The term then becomes:
()
r
12 r 2
Cr (x2) Cr (x24 2r) 2 xr
12 12 r
=
x
= 2r 12
Cr x24 3r (1)
Now work out the value of r required to give x6
24 3r = 6 3r = 24 6
r = 6
Substitute in (1) for the coefficient only
2r 12
C r = 26 12
C6
12 11 10 9 8 7
= 26
6 5 4 3 2 1
11 9 8 7
= 64
6
= 59136
277
My A Level Maths Notes
3 Expand (2 x)10 up to the terms including x3. Find an estimate for (1.98)10 by using a suitable
value for x.
Solution:
2 3
(2 x)10 = 1a10 + 10a9b + 10
C2 a8b + 10
C3 a7b
Let a = 2 b = x n = 10
(2 x)10 = 210 + 10 29 (x) + 10
C2 28 (x)2 + C3 27 (x)3
10
= 210 10 29 x + 10
C 2 28 x2 C3 27 x3
10
10 10! 10 9 8 !
C2 = = = 5 9 = 45
2! 8! 2 8 !
10 10! 10 9 8 7 !
C3 = = = 10 3 4 = 120
3! 7! 3 2 7 !
(b)
(3 + x)10 = 310 + ( )
10 9
1
3 (x) +
2 ( )
10 8 2
3 (x) +
10! 9 10! 8 2
= 310 + 3 (x) + 3 (x) +
1! 9! 2! 8!
10 9! 9 10 9 8! 8 2
= 310 + 3 (x) + 3 (x) +
9! 2 8!
= 310 + 19 6830 (x) + 45 38 (x)2 +
Coefficient of x = 196 830
(c)
(1 + 3x)3 (3 + x)10 = (1 + 9x + 27x2 + 27x 3) (310 + 196 830 (x) + )
x term: x = 196 830x + 310 9x = 196 830x + 531 441x
Coefficient of x = 728 271
Solution:
(a)
2 3 n1 n
(1 + b)n = 1 + nb + nC2 b + nC3 b + + nb + b General expansion
2 3 4
(1 + b)4 = 1 + nb + nC2 b + nb + b Has 5 terms
n
Substitute: n = 4; b = 3x; C2 = 6
(1 3x)4 = 1 + 4 (3x) + 6 (3x)2 + 4 (3x)3 + (3x)4
(1 3x)4 = 1 12x + 54x2 108x3 + 81x4
p = 54; q = 108
(b)
2 3
(a + b)8 = 8C0 a8 + 8C1 a7b + 8C2 a6b + 8C3 a5b +
8
Substitute: n = 8; a = 3; b = x; C2 = 28
(3 + x)8 = 38 + 8 (3)7 x + 28 (3)6 x2 +
Coefficient of x = 8 (3)7 = 17 496
(c)
(1 3x)4 (3 + x)8 = (1 12x + 54x2 ) ( 38 + 17 496x ) Only need up to x term
= 17 496x 12x 38
= 17 496x 78 732x
= 61 236x
Coefficient of x = 61 236
EAFQLA
6 The coefficient of the x2 term, in the expansion of (2 tx)7, is 42. Find the value of t.
Solution:
The general term is given by: T = nCr an rbr
In this case:
n = 7, r = 2, a = 2, b = sx
Hence:
C2 27 2 (tx)2 = 7C2 25 (tx)2
7
= 7C2 32 t 2x2
7! 7 6
= 32 t 2x2 = 32 t 2x2
2! 5! 2
= 672 t 2x2
42 1
The coefficient of x2 = 42 t2 = =
672 16
1
t =
4
279
My A Level Maths Notes
31.10.1 Example:
Alternative Method:
Step 1: Calculate the number of terms: n + 1 = 6
Step 2: Layout the binomial with the term numbers and just the x terms:
(x + y)5 = x5 + x4 + x3 + x2 + x1 + x0
(note that the terms numbers start with 1)
Step 4: Add in the outer two coefficients for terms 1, 2, 5, & 6 and simplify x0 & y0:
(x + y)5 = x5 + 5x4 y + x3 y2 + x2y3 + 5x y4 + y5
Step 5: Calculate the coefficients for the remaining terms 3 & 4. This is done by taking the
coefficient and power of the previous x term and multiply them together and divide that by the
term number of that previous term.
(x + y)5 = x5 + 5x4 y + (10) x3 y2 + (10) x2y3 + 5x y4 + y5
( 5 2 4) ( 10 3 3)
(x + y)5 = x5 + 5x4 y + 10x3 y2 + 10x2y3 + 5x y4 + y5
281
My A Level Maths Notes
Alternative Method:
Step 1: Calculate the number of terms: n + 1 = 11 (not really necessary for this example)
Step 2: Layout the binomial with the term numbers and just the constant terms:
(2 x)10 = 210 + 29 + 28 + 27 + 26 +
Step 5: Calculate the coefficients for the remaining terms 3 & 4. This is done by taking the
coefficient and power of the previous x term and multiply them together and divide that by the
term number of that previous term.
(2 x)10 = 210 10 29x + (45) 28x2 (120) 27x3 +
( 10 2 9) ( 45 3 8 )
Simplifying:
10
(2 x) = 1024 5120x + 11520x 15360x3 + 2
3 One source of confusion with this method can be if trying to expand something like (1 + x)4.
Care must be taken to include the 1 with its powers.
Solution:
Step 1, 2, 3 & 4: Combined
4 0 3 1 2 2
+ 4 1 x + 10 x4
4 1 3
(1 + x) = 1 x + 4 1 x + 1 x
Step 5: Simplify and calculate the coefficient for the remaining term 3.
(1 + x)4 = 14 + 4 13 x1 + 6 12 x2 + 4 11 x3 + x4
( 4 2 3)
Simplifying:
4
(1 + x) = 1 + 4 x + 6x + 4x + x4 2 3
j When substituting another term for the basic a or b in a binomial, a most common mistook is to forget
to raise the substituted terms to the correct power. The liberal use of brackets will help avoid this
particular howler.
31.11.1 Example:
Expand (1 + 3x)3
2 3
(1 + b)3 = 1 + 3b + 3b + b
j Evaluating simple fractions raised to a power also gives rise to a number of errors.
()
2
3 9 9 3
e.g. = NOT or
x x2 x x2
(1 + x)3 = 1 + 3x + 3x2 + x3
(1 x)3 = 1 3x + 3x2 x3 Note how the signs change.
(1 + x)4 = 1 + 4x + 6x2 + 4x3 + x4
(1 x)4 = 1 2x + 6x2 4x3 + x4
283
My A Level Maths Notes
(a + b)n = an + ()
n n1
1
a b +
n n2 2
2
a b +
3 ()
n n3 3
a b + +
n nr r
r
a b + +
n
n 1 ()
ab
n1
+ b
n
() ( )
(a + b)n = an + nan 1b + ()
n n2 2
2
a b +
n n3 3
3
a b + +
n nr r
r ()
a b + + nab
n1
+ b
n
()
where: () (n
1
=
n
n 1 ) = n (n N)
( )
n n
n
(a + b) =
r=0
n nr r
r
a b or (a + b) = n
r=0
n
Cr an rb
r
Where:
n
Cr = ()
n
r
=
n!
r! (n r)!
n
Cr = nCn r
n
Ck 1 an k + 1b
k1
or ( n
k 1 )
an k + 1b
k1
n
Cr an rb
r
or () n nr r
r
a b
A D
45 30
1 1 1
1
2 3
2
45 60
B 1 C E F G
2
Unit Triangles
1
1
sin 30 = 2
=
1 2
3
3
cos 30 = 2
=
1 2
1
2 2 4
tan 30 = 2
= =
3 1 3 3
2
sin
Recall also the identities of: tan = & cos2 + sin2 = 1
cos
285
My A Level Maths Notes
It also becomes easy to deduce the sign of each trig function in each quadrant. This gives us the standard CAST
diagram:
y = sin
Once you realise that the x-axis represents cos and the y-axis sin then it can be seen that trig functions for
any angle have a close relationship with angles in the 1st quadrant. Knowing what the axes represent will help
interpret the CAST diagrams.
The diagram below summarises the relationship with angles in the 1st quadrant:
y = sin
Q2 Q1
P2 (cos , sin ) P1 (cos , sin )
Q2 Q3
180 Q2 = Q2 Q1
O x = cos Q3 180= Q3 O x = cos
P3 (cos , sin )
Q3
y = sin
Q1
x = cos
O
360 Q4 = Q4
Q4
P4 (cos , sin )
Q4
Related Acute Angles
287
My A Level Maths Notes
-1 -1
In solving trig equations, and depending on the trig function, the PV is restricted to these intervals:
Sin = s = sin1 s 90 PV 90 2 PV
2 1 s 1
Tan = t = tan1 t 90 PV 90 2 PV
2 t R
So each trig function has two solutions in each 360 interval. The first solution is the PV, and the second solution
or secondary value (SV) will be in a different quadrant. The CAST diagram will show the PV & SV.
Example: Find if sin = 076604
y
1) Find the PV from the calculator:
= sin 1 (076604 ) = 50
O x
2) Since sine is ve, the answers are in Q4 (PV) & Q3
(SV). The solutions make a 50 angle with the x-axis. 180 PV = SV PV = 50
sin = 0.766
SV = 180 (50) = 230.
-1
Period = 360 PV range
cos q
-1
patterns.
q270
360
tan
tan
y = sin
1
Q (1, 1)
1
1
Tan Period = 180
sin q
tan = yx = cos q
PV range
Tangent Graphs and the Unit Circle
289
My A Level Maths Notes
y y = sin q = n + (1)n PV
1
s
360 180 90
p/2
180
p
270
3p/2
360
2p
540
3p
720
4p
q
PV SV 3rd 4th 5th 6th
(360+PV) (180PV) (180PV) (360+PV) (540PV) (720+PV) (900PV)
-1 (360+SV) (720+SV)
n = 2 n = 1 n=0 n=1 n=2 n=3 n=4 n=5
From the diagram above, we can see that the solution given by the principal value (PV) is repeated every 360.
Due to the symmetry of the curve, a secondary solution (SV) exits at (180 PV), and this solution is also
repeated every 360. This is because there is a line of symmetry at x = 90, and the PV and SV are equidistant
from the line of symmetry.
The solutions for follow a pattern thus:
in degrees = , (360 + PV) , (180 PV) , PV, (180 PV) , (360 + PV) , (540 PV) ,
Think of the (1)n as a switch to make the last term positive or negative.
3
Example: Find if sin = sin = 3
2 y 2
180 PV = SV PV
The answer is in Q1 (PV) & Q2 (SV), since sin is
positive . The solutions make a 60 angle with the x-
axis. O x
SV = 180 60 = 120.
Line of symmetry
y = cos q y = 2n PV
1
c
360 180 90
p/2
180
p
270
3p/2
360
2p
720
4p q
3rd SV PV PV SV 3rd 4th 5th
(360PV) (360+PV) (360PV) (360+PV) (720PV) (720+PV)
-1
n = 1 n = 1 n=0 n=0 n=1 n=1 n=2 n=2
From the diagram above, we can see that the solution given by the principal value (PV) is repeated every 360.
Looking at the positive side of the graph, a secondary solution (SV) exits at (360 PV), and this solution is
also repeated every 360. This gives two solutions per period. The cosine curve is symmetrical about the y-axis
and solutions on the negative side are reflected in a similar way.
Because of the curves symmetry, two solutions appear either side of each line of symmetry every 360 or 2
rads.
The solutions for follow a pattern thus:
= , (360 + PV) , (PV) , PV, (360 PV) , (360 + PV) , (720 PV) , (720 + PV) ,
or in radians
= , (2 + PV) , (PV) , PV, (2 PV) , (2 + PV) , (4 PV) , (4 + PV) ,
291
My A Level Maths Notes
1
Example: Find if cos = y
2
PV
The answer is in Q1 (PV) & Q4 (SV). The solutions
make a 60 angle with the x-axis.
x
SV = 360 60 = 300. cos = 1
2
y y = tan q = n + PV
t=1
360 180 90
p/2
180
p
270
3p/2
360
2p
q
3rd 2nd -1 PV SV 3rd 4th
(360+PV) (180+PV) (180+PV) (360+PV) (360+SV)
n = 2 n = 1 n=0 n=1 n=2 n=3
From the diagram above, we can see that the solution given by the principal value (PV) is repeated every 180.
Because there is no line of reflective symmetry, we do not have the double solutions that are present with the
sine and cosine functions. The idea of a secondary value is not really needed for the tan solutions, but has been
kept for consistency with the CAST diagram. This comes about because sine and cosine functions have two
solutions within their 360 periods, whereas the tan function only has one solution with in its 180 period.
Although, all three functions have two solutions within an 360 interval, not quite the same thing.
tan
SV = 180 + 45 = 225
x = cos
In this case, additional solutions can be found by adding
or subtracting multiples of 180 from the PV. 180 + PV = SV
293
My A Level Maths Notes
2 3
Solve sin2 x = 1 cos x for: 0 x 180
2
Solution:
3
sin2 x = 1 cos x
2
But: sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
3
1 cos2 x = 1 cos x
2
3
cos2 x = cos x
2
2 cos2 x 3 cos x = 0
cos x (2 cos x 3) = 0
1st solution: cos x = 0 x = 90, (other solutions out of range)
2nd solution: (2 cos x 3) = 0
3
cos x = x = 30, (other solutions out of range)
2
295
My A Level Maths Notes
Solution:
y y = 2 sin (2x) + 1
1
y = sin (z)
x
90 180 360
0
-1
PV 105 165 180PV 360+PV
30 180(30) 360+(30)
210 330
Draw a sketch!
2 sin (2x) + 1 = 0
Let z = 2x adjust the interval 0 z 360
1
sin (z) =
2
z = sin1 ( 12 )
z = 30 (PV, which is outside the specified interval)
Potential solutions for z are: 180 PV, 360 + PV (0 z 360)
z = 180 (30) , 360 + (30)
z = 210, 330
Hence: 2x = 210, 330
x = 105, 165
Note that the original equation given was 2 sin (2x) + 1 = 0 and this is plotted on the diagram for
interest. The roots for this curve are shown in the diagram at 105, 165.
5 Find the values of x for which sin (2x 25) = 0799 for: 90 x 180
Solution:
sin (2x 25) = 0799
(2x 25) = sin1 (0799)
(2x 25) = 530 (PV)
If you want to adjust the interval, let: u = (2x 25) .
Substitute x = 90 & x = 180 to find limit values for u. (205 u 345)
Potential solutions are: (180 PV) , PV, 180 PV, 360 + PV (90 x 180)
(2x 25) = (180 + 530) , 53, (180 + 53) , (360 53)
(2x 25) = 127, 53, 233, 307 205 u 345
2x = 102, 28, 258, 332
x = 51, 14, 129, 166 90 x 180
Solution:
sin (x 30) + cos (x 30) = 0
sin (x 30) = cos (x 30)
sin (x 30)
= 1
cos (x 30)
tan (x 30) = 1
(x 30) = tan1 (1)
(x 30) = 45 (PV)
Potential solutions are: PV, 180 + PV, 360 + PV
Solutions are: (x 30) = 45, 135, 315, 495 (0 u 330)
x = 15, 165, 345,
x = 165, 345 0 x 360
4 + 2 sin2 x
= 2 cos x
cos (x) 5
Solution:
4 + 2 sin2 x = 2 cos x (cos (x) 5)
4 + 2 sin2 x = 2 cos2 x 10 cos x
but cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
4 + 2 (1 cos2 x) = 2 cos2 x 10 cos x
6 2 cos2 x = 2 cos2 x 10 cos x
4 cos2 x 10 cos x 6 = 0
2 cos2 x 5 cos x 3 = 0
(2 cos x + 1) (cos x 3) = 0
cos x = 3 (no solution since cos x > 1)
1
cos x =
2
x = cos1 ( )
1
2
= 120
297
My A Level Maths Notes
Solution:
cos x (5 cos x + 3) = 0
cos x = 0 or (5 cos x + 3) = 0
3
cos x = 0 or cos x =
5
For cos x = 0 x = 90, 270
3
For cos x = x = 12687 (PV) , 23313 (SV)
5
The trap here is to ensure you do not divide through by cos x. You will loose a solution set if you
do.
Q2 Q1
(0, 1)
180 q Positive
S A P (x, y) direction
1 y
(1, 0) x (1, 0)
Negative
T C 360 q
direction
180 + q
(0, 1)
Q3 Q4
10
299
My A Level Maths Notes
2p
2 p
3
3
3p
p
4
4
5p
p
6 6
0
p
2p
7p
11p
6
6
5p
7p
4 4
4p
5p
3 3p
3
2
Solutions
Function PV SV nth solution Valid f or
| sin | 1
Periodic: every 360 or 2 radians y = sin x
Hence: sin = sin ( 360) 1
Cosine Properties: 2
| cos | 1
Periodic: every 360 or 2 radians y = cos x
Symmetric about = 0
-360 -270 -180 -90 90 180 270 360
p/2 p 3p/2 2p
cos (90 ) = sin
cos () = cos -1
Tangent Properties:
Periodic: every 180 or radians y = tan x
Hence: tan = tan ( 180)
or tan = tan ( )
1
tan () = tan
-360 -270 -180 -90 45 90 180 270 360
f () = tan = f () p/2 p 3p/2 2p
-1
tangent is classed as an odd function and the
graph has rotational symmetry, order 2, about Period 180 or p
the origin. Period 180 or p
301
My A Level Maths Notes
Scale factor = a 2
y = sin x
-a
y = k + sin (x)
-360 -270 -180 -90 90 180 270 360
p/2 p 3p/2 2p
k
y = k + sin x
Horizontal translation
y = tan (x + )
y = tan (x+p) p
This means a translation to the LEFT!
1
-1
Translate 90
1
Scale factor = -1
a
-1
y = sin 2 x
1
y = sin 2 x
-360 -270 -180 -90 90 180 270 360
p/2 p 3p/2 2p
y = sin x
-1
1
y = sin x
y = sin 2 x
-360 -270 -180 -90 90 180 270 360
p/2 p 3p/2 2p
-1
y = sin 2 x
303
My A Level Maths Notes
1
y = cos 2 x
o
y = cos 2 x -360 -270 -180 -90 90
p/2
180
p
270
3p/2
360
2p
y = cos x
-1
1
y = cos x
o
y = cos 2 x -360 -270 -180 -90 90
p/2
180
p
270
3p/2
360
2p
-1 y = cos 2 x
y = tan 2 x
y = tan x
y = tan x
y = tan 2 x
1
Solve
y = sin x
1
sin 2 = 08 0.8
0 2 p/2 p 3p/2 2p 3p
4p
-1
2p
Solution:
2 = sin1 (08) (radian mode set)
2 = 092729 (principal value)
Based on the period of 2 for a sine function, the values are:
2 = 0927, 0927, 2 + 0927, 3 0927, 4 + 0927
Since the limits have been defined as 0 2 then for 2, limits are 0 2 4
Hence: 2 = 0927, 2214, 7210, 8497
= 0464, 111, 361, 425 (2dp)
305
My A Level Maths Notes
y = a sin (bx c) + k
Translation Decode
Note: The modulus function is used to keep the value of a & b positive. A negative value of implies a reflection
as well as the usual vertical or horizontal stretch.
sin
tan
cos
sin2 + cos2 1
opposite o u se
sin = = en
hypotenuse h ot
yp h o
H
adjacent a
cos = =
hypotenuse h q a
opposite o
tan = = = gradient of hypotenuse
adjacent a
Degrees 0 30 45 60 90
Radians 0
6 4 3 2
sin 0 1 1 3 1
2 2 2
cos 1 3 1 1 0
2 2 2
tan 0 1 1 3 asymtote
3
1
Recall that (cos )2 is written as cos2 etc., but cos1 means the inverse of cos not the reciprocal .
cos
Similarly for sin and tan.
Note also:
tan tan ( 180)
cos = cos () even f unction
sin () = sin () odd f unction
307
My A Level Maths Notes
34.5.1 Example:
34.6.1 Example:
2 Show that 5 tan sin = 24 can be written as 5 cos2 + 24 sin 5 = 0 and solve
5 tan sin = 24 for 0 360.
Solution:
5 tan sin = 24
sin
5 sin = 24
cos
5 sin2 = 24 cos
5 (1 cos2) = 24 cos
5 5 cos2 24 cos = 0
5 cos2 + 24 cos 5 = 0
(5cos 1) (cos + 5) = 0
1
cos = (cos = 5 not a valid solution since 1 < cos < 1)
5
= 785, 2815
309
My A Level Maths Notes
3 7 + 9 cos2
Show that can be written in the form of a + b sin .
4 3 sin
Find the integer values of a and b.
Solution:
Now: cos2 + sin2 1
7 + 9 cos2 7 + 9 (1 sin2)
Hence we can rewrite: =
4 3 sin 4 3 sin
7 + 9 9 sin2
=
4 3 sin
16 9 sin2
=
4 3 sin
(4 3 sin ) (4 + 3 sin )
=
4 3 sin
= (4 + 3 sin )
a = 4, b = 3
4 5 + cos2
Solve = sin
5 sin 16
Solution:
Now: cos2 + sin2 1
5 + cos2
= sin
5 sin 16
5 + (1 sin2) = sin (5 sin 16)
5 + 1 sin2 = 5 sin2 16 sin
6 sin2 + 16 sin + 3 = 0
3 sin2 8 sin 6 = 0
(3 sin + 1) (sin 3) = 0
1
sin = (sin = 3 not a valid solution since 1 < sin < 1)
3
34.7.1 Example:
311
My A Level Maths Notes
sin
tan
cos
sin cos ( 12 ) sin x = cos (90 x)
cos sin ( )
1
cos x = sin (90 x)
2
sin2 + cos2 1
1 + tan2 sec2
j Cosine
j The principal value of cos = k is as per your calculator where = cos 1k
j A second solution is found at = 360 cos 1k ( = 2 cos 1k)
j Thereafter, add or subtract multiples of 360 (or 2)
j k valid only for 1 k 1
j Sine
j The principal value of sin = k is as per your calculator where = sin1k
j A second solution is found at = 180 sin1k ( = sin1k)
j Thereafter, add or subtract multiples of 360 (or 2)
j k valid only for 1 k 1
j Tan
j The principal value of tan = k is as per your calculator where = tan1k
j A second solution is found at = 180 + tan1k ( = + tan1k)
j Thereafter, add or subtract multiples of 360 (or 2)
j k valid for k R
All these methods are based on the premise of dividing the area under the curve into thin strips, calculating the
area of each strip and then summing these areas together to find an overall estimate. Clearly, the more strips that
are used, the more accurate the answer, and in practise, many hundreds of strips would be chosen with results
being calculated electronically. In the exam, calculations with up to 5 ordinates may be required.
Each method has its advantages and disadvantages.
yn1
y y = f(x) yn
y3
y1 y2
y0
n
h h h h
O x
x0 x1 x2 x3 xn1 xn
a b
Trapezium Rule
313
My A Level Maths Notes
j To use the trapezium rule, ensure that the part of the curve of interest is either all above or all below
the x-axis, such that y is either y > 0 OR y < 0
j When asked to give the answer to (say) 3 SF, always work with figures of 4 or more SF.
O x
x0 x1 x2 x3
h h h
O x
x0 x1 x2 x3
1
2x2 + 4
Solution:
First, find the value of h from the given information, then set up a table to calculate the required
values of y. Finally add the values together in the approved manner.
With 5 ordinates there are 4 strips.
b a 3 1 1
h = = =
n 5 1 2
Ordinate No xi f (xi) yi
0 x0 = 1 f (1) = 60
1 x1 = 1.5 f (1.5) = 85
2 x2 = 2 f (2) = 120
3 x3 = 2.5 f (2.5) = 165
4 x4 = 3 f (3) = 220
3
h
2x2 + 4 dx [ (y0 + yn) + 2 (y1 + y2 + + yn 1)]
1 2
1 1
[ 6 + 22 + 2 (85 + 12 + 165)]
2 2
1
[28 + 74]
4
2550 Sq units
Compare this answer with the fully integrated value which is 2533
Hence, the trapezium rule gives a slight over estimate in this case.
0
12 1
[ 6 + 2 + 2 (4 + 3 + 24)]
4 x + 6 2
1
[ 8 + 2 (94)] = 134 Sq units From integration we have: 13183
2
315
My A Level Maths Notes
3
log10 x dx
Solution:
b a 9 3
h = = = 3
n 2
Ordinate No xi yi
0 x0 = 3 0477
1 x1 = 6 0778
2 x2 = 9 0954
9
3
log10 x dx [ 0477 + 0954 + 2 (0778)]
3 2
4481 sq units
2
cos x dx
0
Solution:
b a 0
h = = 2
=
n 4 8
Ordinate No xi yi
0 x0 = 0 1000
1 x1 = 8 0924
Note the limits are just of a period. Hence all +ve.
2 x2 = 4 0707
3 x3 = 3
8 0383
4 x4 = 2 0000
[ 10 + 00 + 2 (0924 + 0707 + 0383)]
2
cos x dx
0 16
0987 sq units From integration we have: 1
NOTE: as with all things to do with integrals, you must use radians when trig functions are
discussed. The limits, in terms of , will be a strong clue here.
j Always start the counting of the ordinates from zero, in which case the last ordinate will have a
subscript value equal to the number of strips
j The number of strips is always one less that the number of ordinates. (Fence post problem!)
j Draw a sketch, even if you dont know what the function really looks like
j Ensure that the part of the curve of interest is either all above or all below the x-axis.
j Use a calculator to put whole calculation in at one time. The results are more accurate (error excepted)
j Dont use these numerical methods unless specified by the question or if no other method is available
j In all other cases use the full integral methods.
So far so good, but if our original function included a constant term, which differentiates to zero, how are we to
reconstruct this constant. In short we cant, unless we have some more information to hand. What we can do is
add an arbitrary constant, c, which means that integration will give us not one reconstructed function, but a
whole family of similar curves.
dy b
If
dx
= bxn then bxn dx =
n + 1
xn + 1 + c
b
xn + 1 + c
y =
n + 1
This general form of integration, where c is not defined, is called Indefinite Integration.
There is one other restriction on integrating this form of function, which is that a value of n = 1 is not allowed,
as it results in division by zero, as seen below:
dy 2
= 2x1 2x x1 + 1 + c
1
If then dx =
dx 1 + 1
2 0
= x + c
0
This problem is tackled in later modules. Hence:
a n+1
ax
n
dx = x + c n 1
n + 1
Of course integration can also be used to find the gradient function from a second derivative.
f (x) dx = f (x) + c
317
My A Level Maths Notes
Example:
Find (3x 1)2 dx.
Solution:
(3x 1) (9x 6x + 1) dx
2 2
dx =
9x 6x dx + 1 dx
2
= dx
9 3 6
= x x2 + x + c
3 2
= 3x3 3x2 + x + c
Example:
Find the equation of a curve, which passes through the point (1, 4) and which has the gradient function of
f (x) = 9x2 2x
Solution:
f (x) = 9x2 2x
(9x 2x) dx
2
f (x) =
9 3 2
= x x2 + c
3 2
f (x) = 3x3 x2 + c
To find c, substitute the value for x & y. Since f (1) = 4 then:
4 = 3 1 + c
c = 2
The original function is: f (x) = 3x3 x2 + 2
If f (x) dx = (x) + c
[ ]a
b
then f (x) dx = (x) = f (b) f (a)
a
where a = the lower limit of x
b = the upper limit of x
dx is the operator which tells us what variable is being integrated, and which limits should be used.
x=b y=b
Limits: x=a
y dx y=a
x dy
36.5.1 Example:
1 2
Find 3x2 dx.
0
2
3x2 dx = [ x3 + c] 0 = [ x3 + c] [ x3 + c] 0
2 2
= 8 + c (1 + c)
= 8 1 + c c
= 7
Note that the constant of integration, c, is cancelled out. So this is not required in definite integrals.
2 a
Find 6x2 dx and express the answer in terms of a. Deduce the value of 6x2 dx
1 1
Solution:
a
6 a
6x2 dx = [ 6x1] 1 =
a
1 x 1
=
6 6
a 1
6
= 6
a
6
1
6x2 dx = 6
= 6
6
If a = , then 0
a
319
My A Level Maths Notes
b
y
a
f (x) dx
y = f (x)
O a b x
d
y
c
g (y) dy
d x = f (y)
O x
36.6.3 Example:
1 16 1
Find dx
0 x
16 16
1
12
dx = x dx
0 x 0
1 16
x2
= 1 = [ 2 x] 0 = 2 16
16
2 0
= 8
2
Find the area under the curve, y = 4 x2 y
between x = 0 & x = 3. y = 4 x2
Solution:
The integral has to be taken in 2 parts. The positive part between x = 0 & x = 2 and the negative
part between x = 2 & x = 3. Then the areas obtained can be added together.
2 2
x3
2
Area 1 4 x dx = 4x
0 3 0
= 8 0
8
3
8
= 8
3
16
=
3
3 3
x3
Area 2 2
4 x2 dx = 4x
3 2
= 12
27
8
8
3 3
8 8
= 3 8 + = 5 +
3 3
7
=
3
16 7 23
Total area is: + =
3 3 3
2
= 7 square units
3
Area under the curve is always treated as a +ve value. The negative sign just means it is below the
x-axis.
321
My A Level Maths Notes
3
A curve is given by y = 2 + x + 3 y
y = 2 + (x+3)
Find the shaded area for limits of
x = 1, x = 13
1 13 x
Solution:
The plan here is to re-write the equation with x as the subject, and determine the limits on the y
axis to use for integration.
y = 2 + x + 3 (1)
y 2 = x + 3
(y 2)2 = x + 3
x = (y 2)2 3
= y2 4y + 4 3
x = y2 4y + 1
Set the limits:
From (1) when x = 1 y = 2 + 1 + 3 = 2 + 4
y = 4
From (1) when x = 13 y = 2 + 13 + 3 = 2 + 16
y = 6
Set up the integral:
6 6 6
y3 4y2 y3
4
y2 4y + 1 dy =
3 2
+ y = 2y2 + y
4 3 4
63 43
= 2 62 + 6 2 42 + 4
3 3
= [ 72 72 + 6] 32 + 4
64
3
= [ 6] 6
2
3
2
= 12 sq units
3
oecfrl
4
The curve is given by y = 1 2x 2
1
y
y = 1 2x
Find the value of p given that the shaded area
has an area of 4 square units. p x
Solution:
The first action is to determine the lower limit of the shaded area and find where the curve crosses
the x-axis. Then set up the integration and work out the value of p.
12
y = 1 2x (1)
2
0 = 1
x
2
1 =
x
x = 2
x = 4
Set up the integral:
1 p
p 2x 2
dy = x 1 = [ x 4 x] 4
12 p
1 2x
4 2 4
= [ x 4 x] 4
p
= [ p 4 p] [ 4 4 4]
= p 4 p + 4
Give area is 4:
4 = p 4 p + 4
0 = p 4 p
p = 4 p
p2 = 16p
p = 16
oecfrl
323
My A Level Maths Notes
36.7.1 Example:
1
A function is given by y = 16 x2 and has the y
(0, 18)
line y = 2x + 8 intersecting in two places, at
points P (4, 0) and Q (2, 12). y = 16 x2 Q (2, 12)
P (4, 0)
4 O 4 x
Solution:
The plan here is to find the area under the curve from x = 4 to x = 2, then subtract the area
under the line for the same limits. Either use integration or calculate the area of the triangle
formed.
2
2
1 x3 6 12
2
16 x dx bh = 16x
4 2
3 4 2
= 32 64 +
8 64
36
3 3
8 64
= 32 + 64 36
3 3
72
= 60 = 60 24
3
= 36
An alternative method is to combine the functions in one integral
2 2
= 16 4 32 16 +
8 64
3 3
= 12 48 +
8 64
3 3
8 64
= 12 + 48
3 3
72
= 60 = 60 24
3
= 36
2 16
Find the area between the two curves, y = 17 x2, & y = .
x2
Solution:
First, find the intersection points of the two curves to
establish the limits of integration. y (1, 16)
Then find the area under both curves and subtract the
values. A sketch is recommended. (4,1)
O x
16
17 x2 =
x2
17x2 x4 = 16
17x2 x4 16 = 0
x4 17x2 + 16 = 0
( x2 1) (x2 16) = 0
x2 = 1 & x2 = 16
x = 1 & x = 4
y = 16 & y = 1
Therefore the intersection is at (1, 16) & (4, 1) and limits for integration are x = 1, x = 4
4 4
16
Curve 1 1 x
2
dx = 1
16x2 dx
= [ 16x1] 1 =
4 16 16
4 1
= 4 + 16 = 12
4 4
x3
Curve 2 1
17 x2 dx = 17x
3 1
= 68
64 1
17
3 3
64 1
= 68 17 +
3 3
= 30
Area between the 2 curves: 30 12 = 18 sq units
325
My A Level Maths Notes
The C3 exam is 1 hour 30 minutes long and is in two sections, and worth 72 marks (75 AQA).
Section A (36 marks) 5 7 short questions worth at most 8 marks each.
Section B (36 marks) 2 questions worth about 18 marks each.
OCR Grade Boundaries.
These vary from exam to exam, but in general, for C3, the approximate raw mark boundaries are:
Grade 100% A A B C
Raw marks 72 61 2 54 2 47 3 40 3
U MS % 100% 90% 80% 70% 60%
The raw marks are converted to a unified marking scheme and the UMS boundary figures are the same for all
exams.
C3 Contents
Module C1 21
Module C2 187
Module C3 327
Module C4 495
Plus other minor editorial alterations and corrections. * means latest items to be updated
327
My A Level Maths Notes
1 Trig
1 1 1
sec cosec cot
cos sin tan
sec2 A 1 + tan2 A
cosec2 A 1 + cot 2 A
2 tan A
sin 2A
1 + tan2 A
1 tan2 A
cos 2A
1 + tan2 A
2 tan A
tan 2A
1 tan2 A
sin 2A 2 sin A cos A {A = B in sin (A + B)}
cos 2A cos2A sin2A {A = B in cos (A + B)}
cos 2A 2 cos2A 1 {sin2A = 1 cos2A}
cos 2A 1 2 sin2A {cos2A = 1 sin2A}
2 Differentiation and Integration
dy dy dx
Rates of change =
dt dx dt
b
Volume of revolution about x axis Vx = a
y2 dx
b
Volume of revolution about y axis Vy = a
x2 dy
3 Other
R
R = k ln (at + b) e k = at + b
C3 Brief Syllabus
j understand the terms function, domain, range, 1 to 1 function, inverse function & composite functions
j identify the range of a given function in simple cases, and find the composition of two given functions
j determine if a given function is one-one, and find the inverse of a one-one function in simple cases
j illustrate in graphical terms the relation between a one-one function and its inverse
j use and recognise compositions of transformations of graphs, such as the relationship between the
graphs of y = (x) & y = a (x + b) - See C2 notes. Combined translations.
j understand the meaning of |x| and use relations such as |a| = |b| a2 = b2 and
|x a| < |b| a b < x < a + b in solving equations and inequalities
j understand the relationship between the graphs of y = (x) & y = | (x)|
j understand exponential & log function properties (ex & ln x) & their graphs, including their inverses
j understand exponential growth and decay.
2 Trigonometry
j use the notations sin1x, cos1x, tan1x to denote the inverse trig relations, and relate their graphs (for
the appropriate domains) to those of sine, cosine and tangent
j understand the relationship of the sec, cosec and cotan functions to cos, sin and tan, and use properties
and graphs of all six trig functions for all angles
j use trig identities for the simplification and exact evaluation of expressions, and be familiar with the
use of
j sec2 A 1 + tan2 A and cosec2 A 1 + cot 2 A
j the expansions of sin(A B), cos(A B) and tan(A B),
j the formulae for sin 2A, cos2A and tan 2A,
j the expression of a sin x + b cos x in the forms R sin (x ) and R cos (x ).
j use the derivatives of ex & ln x, together with constant multiples, sums, and differences
j differentiate composite functions using the chain rule
j differentiate products and quotients
dy
j understand and use the relation dx = 1 dx dy
j apply differentiation to connected rates of change (chain rule)
j integrate ex and 1x , together with constant multiples, sums, and differences
j integrate expressions involving a linear substitution, e.g. (3x 1)8 , e3x + 1
j use definite integration to find a volume of revolution about one of the coordinate axes (including, for
example, the region between the curves y = x2 & y = x, rotated about the x-axis.
4 Numerical Methods
j locate approximately a root of an equation, using graphical means and/or searching for a sign-change
j understand the idea, & notation for a sequence of approximations converging to a root of an equation
j understand how an iterative formula of the form xn + 1 = (xn) relates to an equation being solved, &
use a given iteration, or one based on a given rearrangement of an equation, find a root to a given
degree of accuracy (conditions for convergence not required, but know iterations may fail to converge)
j carry out numerical integration of functions by means of Simpsons rule, and mid ordinate rule.
329
My A Level Maths Notes
(x) = x2 + 3x + 4
2
If x = () = + 3 + 4
( ) ( ) ( )
2
If x = (x 5) (x 5) = (x 5) + 3 (x 5) + 4
The terms used to describe functions are often interchanged. Strictly speaking f is the name of the function and
x is the input, whilst f(x) is the value of f at x. So f(x) corresponds to the y value of an equation.
To be considered a true function, our equation must give rise to one, and only one, value in the output. If an
input gives us two or more values in the output, then it is not a function (more about this later).
Although any letter could be used to represent a function, convention is that the letters used are generally
restricted to f, g and h, or their corresponding capital letters.
331
My A Level Maths Notes
Other restrictions may be applied to a domain. In simple terms, finding the domain is a matter of finding which
inputs are valid. (More of which later).
Domain: x R, x 2
Range: f (x) R, f (x) 0
Even Roots
Even roots of ve real numbers cannot be evaluated, so the domain of any function must exclude these values.
Square Root Function:
e.g. y = (x 2) y
We do not allow the square root of a negative number. y = (x 2)
Range
Range
or negative.
Therefore, we exclude the values for x = 2, and above.
The domain & range are written as: x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
Domain
Domain: x R, x < 2
Range: f (x) R
These functions are commonly encountered in the exam questions. A good knowledge of transformations is an
asset in answering these problems.
Finding domains of functions is similar to finding the asymptotes of functions. (See 15 C1 Standard Graphs I)
333
My A Level Maths Notes
A function is just a special sort of relation. In function terminology, we talk about functions that map a set of
input values to a set of output values.
Note the terminology:
Domain
This IS a function. b Co-domain
(Input)
Domain Range
(Input) (Output)
Domain Range
(Input) (Output)
A function must have one and only one output for every given input.
Anything else is not a function.
In the diagrams above, the domains have been artificially restricted for the sake of clarity, but in reality we use a
much larger sets of numbers, usually the set of all real numbers.
335
My A Level Maths Notes
Range
function of y).
Domain: x R, x 0
Range: y R,
Domain x
Range: y R, 2 y 2 Domain
Domain: x R, 1 x 1
Range: y R
y = sin1 x
Restricting the range will ensure it can be regarded as a
inverse function (see later).
Range
Range
y = x 1
If we exclude the value for x = 0, then this can be
considered as a function.
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 x
Domain: x R, x 0 Domain
Range: f (x) R, f (x) 0
Domain: x R
Range
y = x3
Range: f (x) R
Finally, y = x2.
y
This passes the vertical line test and is a many to one y = x2
function.
Range
Domain: x R
Range: f (x) R, f (x) 0
337
My A Level Maths Notes
x f(x) = 2x f(x)
f
2 4
3 6
4 8
Domain Range
of f of f
Range Domain
of f1 f1 = x/2 of f1
f1
2 4
3 6
4 8
Inverse Function
x 3 +2
Note that we take the last operation first when finding the inverse.
It should be clear that a many to one function will have a one to many inverse relationship, which is not a
function by definition. However, if the domain is restricted, then a many to one function can be changed to a
one to one function.
E.g. The function f (x) = 4x2 is a many to one function. Restricting the
functions domain to x R, x 0 then the inverse can be found as
f 1 (x) = 2 x
Taking positive values of x only.
Typical self inverse functions are reciprocal functions, ( bx ) and functions of the form y = b x.
338 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
37 C3 Functions
j If the function is in quadratic form, completing the square will allow suitable manipulation.
37.6.1 Example:
1 1
Find the inverse of f (x) =
4 3x
Solution:
1
y = Make x the subject
4 3x
1 1
4 3x = 3x = 4
y y
1
3x = 4 1
y
x =
1
3 ( )
4
1
y
x = g (y)
y =
1
3
4 (1
x ) reverse x & y
f 1 (x) =
1
3
4 (1
x ) f 1 (x) = g (x)
2 Find the inverse of f (x) = 4 x, and state the domain and range of both.
Solution:
Domain of f (x) = 4 x is found thus: y
y = (4 x) 4
4 x 0 (avoids ve square root)
x 4
x 4 2
Domain is x 4 O 4 x
y = 4 x2
Find the Inverse:
y = 4 x y2 = 4 x
x = 4 y2
y = 4 x2 reverse x & y
f 1 (x) = 4 x2
Domain of f (x) is x R, x 4 Range of f (x) is f (x) R, f (x) 0
Domain of f 1 (x) is x R, x 0 Range of f 1 (x) is f (x) R, f (x) 4
Can only be an inverse if the restrictions are applied.
339
My A Level Maths Notes
y = 4 x2
y2 = 4 x2
x2 = 4 y2
y2 = 4 x2 reverse x & y
y = 4 x2
f 1 (x) = 4 x2
Since f (x) = f 1 (x) the function is self inverse.
Solution 2:
Find the value of f f (x) and test to see if f f (x) = x
f (x) = 4 x2
f (f (x)) = 4 (f (x))2 x = f (x)
f f (x) = 4 ( 4 x 2)
2
= 4 ( 4 x 2)
= 4 4 + x2
= x2
= x the function is self inverse.
4 x
Show that the function f (x) = x R, x 1 is self inverse.
x 1
Solution:
The function is self inverse if the value of the function for a given value of x, is the same when the
function is applied to that answer.
Let x = 4 (say)
4 4
f (4) = =
4 1 3
Apply the function to the answer for f (4)
()
4 4
4
f = 4
3
= 3
1
3 3 1 3
4 3
= = 4
3 1
f (4) =
4
3
& f
4
3
= 4 ()
Hence the function is self inverse
y
y = x3
Range
Domain x
If any one of the horizontal lines crosses the curve at more than one place, then the equation is a many to one,
or even a many to many relationship.
y
y = x2
Range
O x
Domain
Horizontal Line Test, showing a Many to One relationship
Since the derivative 3x2 will always be positive, then the function must be one to one.
341
My A Level Maths Notes
y = f(x)
Restricting Domains
y
p/2
The standard trig functions can be made into
one to one functions by restricting the domain.
Range: sin1
2 2
-p/2
(More later)
y = x2
O x
Domain
fg
x g(x) fg(x)
g f
The order in which two functions are composed is very important. For the function f g (x), g(x) is done first, and
then f(x) is done to the output of g(x). Similarly for gf (x).
A composite function ghf(x), with three functions of x, is shown. f(x) is the first, h(x) is 2nd, and g(x) is 3rd.
ghf
f h g
Domain Range
of f of ghf
343
My A Level Maths Notes
37.10.2 Example:
gf (x) = g (cos x)
= (cos x)2 + 3 (cos x) 1
Solution:
f f (x) = 8
f (2x + 8) = 8
2 (2x + 8) + 8 = 8
4x + 16 = 0
x = 4
3 x + 6
If f (x) = 1 2x, x R, g (x) = x2 + 5, h (x) = .
2
Evaluate hgf(3)
Solution:
f (3) = 1 2 3 = 5
g (5) = (5)2 + 5 = 30
30 + 6
h (30) = = 18
2
4 If f (x) = 1 3
x + 3, x R
Evaluate ff(67)
Solution:
There is no requirement to build an expression for ff(x), since we can pass the output of f(x) back
into itself to find ff(x)
f (67) = 1 3
67 + 3
= 1 3
64
= 1 (4) = 5
f (5) = 1 3
5 + 3
= 1 3
8
= 1 2 = 1
f f (67) = 1
5 4x + 3
Find the inverse of f (x) = with a domain of x R, x > 2.
x + 2
Calculate the co-ordinates of the points of intersection of f (x) & f 1 (x).
Solution:
4x + 3
y = Make x the subject
x + 2
y (x + 2) = 4x + 3
xy + 2y = 4x + 3
xy 4x = 3 2y
x (y 4) = 3 2y
3 2y
x = reverse x & y
y 4
3 2x
y =
x 4
3 2x
f 1 (x) =
x 4
The intersection of f (x) & f 1 (x) occurs on the line y = x, hence solve for:
3 2x
y = & y = x
x 4
3 2x
x =
x 4
x (x 4) = 3 2x
x2 4x + 2x 3 = 0
x2 2x 3 = 0
(x 3) (x + 1) = 0
co-ordinates are (3, 3) & (1, 1)
345
My A Level Maths Notes
fg
x g(x) fg(x)
g f
The output or range of g(x) is all in the domain of f, and ALL values pass through
fg
x g(x) fg(x)
g f
The output or range of g(x) is larger than the domain of f, so not all values pass through
37.11.1 Example:
( 9 x2) ( 9 x2) 9
2
= f =
= 9 x2 9 = x2
y
3
Inner function 9 x2 x R : 0 y 3
g (x) 3 x 3
3 3 x
Outer function x2 9 x R y 9 3 3 x
f (x)
y
Composite ( 9 x2) 9
2
x R : 9 y 0 3 3 x
function 3 x 3
f g (x) f g (x) = x
2
Points to note:
j The domain of g(x) is restricted, as we do not allow the square root of a negative number.
j The range of the inner function g(x) is within the domain of the outer function, and so
passes through without problems.
j The natural domain of f g (x) = x2 would be x R, however, the domain restrictions
from the inner function are kept, and become the dominant domain restrictions.
j To plot the graph of f g (x) on a computer/calculator, use f g (x) = ( 9 x2) 9,
2
347
My A Level Maths Notes
y
fg(x)
2 3 x
Domain of fg(x)
y
f(x)
2 3 5
x
Domain of f(x)
Range of g(x)
2
Domain of g(x)
Start Point
y
5 5
x = gives g() = 0
which fits the lower domain of f g(x)
3
Graph of g(x) has been
rotated clockwise 90 x
3 1
Two functions are defined as: f (x) = , and g (x) = x
x 4
Give the domains of f(x) & g(x) and derive an expression for fg(x) and state its domain.
Solution:
Inner function: g (x) = x Domain: x R : x 0 Range: g (x) 0
1
Outer function: f (x) = Domain: x R : x 4
x 4
1
f g (x) = f (g (x)) =
g (x) 4
1 1 x + 4
= =
x 4 x 4 x + 4
x + 4
=
x 16
To avoid division by zero, set x 4 0 hence: x = 4, x = 16
and so the natural domain of f g (x) is: x R : x 16
But we keep the domain of g (x) x R : x 0
Final domain of f g (x) is: x R : x 0, x 16
4 3 2
Two functions are defined as: f (x) = , and g (x) =
x 2 x
Give the domains of f(x) & g(x) and derive an expression for fg(x) and state its domain.
Solution:
2
Inner function: g (x) = Domain: x R : x 0 Range: g (x) 0
x
3
Outer function: f (x) = Domain: x R : x 2
x 2
3
f g (x) = f (g (x)) =
g (x) 2
3 3x
= =
2 2 2x
2
x
Now, to avoid division by zero, 2 2x 0 hence: x 1
hence the natural domain of f g (x) is x R : x 1
But we keep the domain of g (x) x R : x 0
Final domain of f g (x) is: x R : x 0, x 1
349
My A Level Maths Notes
( 3 x) + 2
2
= (1)
= 5 x (2)
From (2) note that the natural domain of f g (x) = 5 x is x R
but from (1), to avoid a ve square root, we can see that: 3 x 0
Hence we keep the domain of g (x) x R : x 3
Final domain of f g (x) is: x R : x 3
6 3
Two functions are defined as: f (x) = , and g (x) = 1 x
x 2
Give the domains of f(x) & g(x) and derive an expression for fg(x) and state its domain.
Solution:
Inner function: g (x) = 1 x Domain: x R : x 1 Range: g (x) 0
3
Outer function: f (x) = Domain: x R : x 2 Range: f (x)
x 2
3
f g (x) = f (g (x)) =
g (x) 2
3
= (1)
1 x 2
From (1) to avoid division by zero: 1 x 2 0
Set 1 x 2 = 0
1 x = 2
1 x = 4
x = 3 (2)
From (2) note that the natural domain of f g (x) is x R : x 3
but keep the original domain of g (x) x R : x 1
Final domain of f g (x) is: x R : x 1, and 3
7 1
Two functions are defined as: f (x) = 2x 1, and g (x) =
x 2
Give the domains of f(x) & g(x) and derive an expression for fg(x) and state its domain.
Solution:
1
Inner function: g (x) = Domain: x R : x 2 Range: g (x) 0
x 2
1
Outer function: f (x) = 2x 1 Domain: x R : x Range: f (x) 0
2
f g (x) = f (g (x)) = 2g (x) 1
2 2 (x 2)
= 1 =
x 2 x 2
4 x
= (1)
x 2
4 x
From (1), to avoid a ve square root. we can see that 0
x 2
There are two cases to look at: (1) when both top AND bottom are positive and (2) when both top
AND bottom are negative. Note that (x 2) cannot be zero.
(4x)
y =
(x2)
2 y = (2x1)1
-4 -2
2 4 6 x
/
y = 1 (x1)
-2
-4
351
My A Level Maths Notes
37.12.1 Example:
j The function and graph is said to be even if it is symmetrical about the y-axis and:
f (x) = f (x)
(This is equivalent to two transformations with a reflection in both the x-axis and y-axis).
j Many functions are neither odd nor even.
y = x3
353
My A Level Maths Notes
1 If f (x) = 1 3
x + 3, x R
Find the set of values for which f (x) = | f (x) |
Solution:
This is simply a matter of finding where the curve crosses the x-axis.
Hence: y
x+3
3
2 y=1
f (x) = 0
-4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
1 3
x + 3 = 0
3
x + 3 = 1
x + 3 = 13
x = 2
f (x) = | f (x) | when x 2
Solution 1:
Let y = ax + b
y b
x =
a
x b
f 1 =
a
Compare coefficients of the function and its inverse.
x b
ax + b
a
b
b =
a
b
a = = 1
b
Solution 2:
A functions and its inverse will be reflected in
y
the line y = x, which has a gradient of 1. (0, b)
1 y = f1(x)
y=x
Since f (x) = f (x), then the reection must
be perpendicular to the line y = x. (b, 0)
Hence the gradient must be 1. x
y = f(x)
3 If f (x) = x + c and g (x) = 16x2 8x find the set of values for b, when gf (x) > 0.
Solution:
Inner function: f (x) = x + c
Outer function: g (x) = 16x2 8x
Composite function: gf (x) = (16x2 8x) + c
Critical point is when the roots of the quadratic are coincident, hence we need to use the
discriminant.
gf (x) = 16x2 8x + c
2
and b 4ac = 0
(8)2 4 16 c = 0
64
c = = 1
64
gf (x) > 0 when c > 1
Solution:
Let y = x2 9
x2 = y + 9
x = y + 9
As given, f(x) does not have an inverse, since the means it has two solutions for each value of x,
hence it is a one to many relationship and therefore not an inverse.
355
My A Level Maths Notes
[ f (x)] 1
1
=
f (x)
Take care in substituting the values for x:
1 1
Give that f (x) = , evaluate f(x + a).
1 3x
1
f (x + a) + a c
1 3x
1
f (x + a) = b
1 3 (x + a)
2 f (2)
Give that f (x) = x + 6, evaluate
f (4)
f (2) 2
c
f (4) 4
Note that you cannot cancel the fs. They are operators not factors.
f (2) 2 + 6 8 4
= = = b
f (4) 4 + 6 10 5
5
E.g. f (x) = has a domain of {x : x R, x 6}
6 x
E.g. f (x) = 5x 3 {
has a domain of x : x R, x
3
5 }
E.g. g : {x : 2 y < 4} | R g (x) = 3x + 5
3
E.g. f (x) = , x R, x 4
x + 4
Note that curly brackets are part of the set terminology.
357
My A Level Maths Notes
Recall:
Natural Nos: N Integers: Z Rational Nos: Q Real Nos: R
E.g. |x| = x
| x | = (x) = x
|0| = 0
| 8 | = 8 |8|=8
8 0 8
Since distance is not a vector, then the distance will always be positive or zero. (Cant have a negative distance).
In this example, | x | is the distance either side of zero:
|x| = 8
x = 8
The modulus function is also a short hand way of expressing the difference between two numbers, without
saying which number is the larger one.
Hence: | Q q | is the same, whether Q > q or q > Q or even when Q = q
Illustrated on a number line thus:
q Q
|Q q|
359
My A Level Maths Notes
If x is ve x2 = x
| ab | = (ab)2 = a2b2 = a2 b2 = | a | | b |
| a2 | = (a2)2 = a2a2 = a2 a2 = | a | | a | = | a |2
|a| = |b| a2 = b
2
y y
y = 2x + 1 y = |2x + 1|
y =(2x + 1)
x x
y y
y =(2x 1) y = 2x 1 y = |2x 1|
x x
From the above, it can be seen that the modulus function | f (x) | is always a positive quantity or zero.
y y
y = x 1
y = | x 1 |
x x
y y
y = ln(x) y = |ln(x)|
1 1
e x e x
(1, 0) (1, 0)
y = | sin x |
1
y = sin x
-1
361
My A Level Maths Notes
From the section on transformations recall that f (x) is a reflection in the y-axis.
y y
y = 2x 1
y = 2x 1
x x
y y
y = f(x) y = f(x)
x x
38.4.1 Summary
Sketching y = | f (x)|
j Sketch y = f (x)
j Any part of y = f (x) that is below the x-axis is reflected in the x-axis.
Sketching y = (x)
j Sketch y = f (x)
j Any part of y = f (x) that is to the right of the y-axis is reflected in the y-axis.
The inequality | x | < a, is valid for any number that is less than a units away from zero.
In other words:
x < a a < x < a
x a a x a
The inequality | x | > a, is valid for any number that is more than a units away from zero.
In other words:
x > a x < a or x > a
x a x a or x a
Note that we dont write: a > x > a
We can also say:
|x m| < a a < (x m) < a m a < x < a + m
|x m| > a (x m) < a or (x m) > a
x < m a or x > a + m
where m represents the middle value, (provided the coefficient of x is 1).
Summarising:
|x m| < a
a a
x is within a units of m
ma m x m+a
m a < x < a + m |x m| < a
|x m| > a
a a
x is more than a units from m
x ma m m+a x
x < m a or x > a + m |x m| > a
363
My A Level Maths Notes
| ab | = || ab ||
We also find:
a| b | = | a b | provided a > 0
|a| |a|
= provided b > 0
b |b|
but not this:
|a + b| |a| + |b|
|a b| |a| |b|
In solving these types of question, it is always advisable to draw a sketch, whatever method you use. It is also
strongly suggested that answers should be checked for validity, either by a sketch or substituting values back into
the original equations.
These next two examples are sort of trick examples, but do test your understanding of the subject:
38.7.1 Example:
1 Solve for x:
| 2x + 1 | 3
Solution:
This has no solution, since the modulus is always positive.
Recall | f (x) | 0
2 Solve for x:
| 2x + 1 | > 3
Solution:
This is valid for all values of x since the modulus is always positive and must always be greater
than 3.
38.8.1 Example:
1 Solve for x:
|x 4| < 5
Solution:
From the definition above:
|x 4| = x 4 when (x 4) 0
|x 4 | = (x 4) when (x 4) < 0
From this we find two equations to solve, making them equal to find the intersection points:
When (x 4) 0 : (x 4) = 5 x = 9
When (x 4) < 0 : (x 4) = 5 x = 1
|x 4| < 5 when 1 < x < 9 (see rules above).
2 Solve for x:
| 2x + 1| 3
Solution:
From the definition above:
| 2x + 1 | = 2x + 1 when (2x + 1) 0 (2x + 1) = 3
| 2x + 1 | = (2x + 1) when (2x + 1) < 0 (2x + 1) = 3
Solving the two equations gives x = 1 and x = 2.
| 2x + 1| 3 when 2 x 1 (see rules above).
3 Solve for x:
4 | 2x | = x
Solution:
The first thing to do is rearrange the equation, such that only the modulus part is on the LHS.
| 2x | = x 4 | 2x | = 4 x
Hence:
4
Solve 2x = 4 x x =
3
Solve 2x = 4 x x = 4
4
4 | 2x | = x when x = 4 or x =
3
365
My A Level Maths Notes
If | f (x) | = 8 If | f (x) | = 8
(x + 2) (x 4) = 8 (x + 2) (x 4) = 8
2
x 2x 8 = 8 x2 2x 8 = 8
x2 2x = 0 x2 2x 16 = 0
x (x 2) = 0 (x 1)2 1 16 = 0
x = 0, x = 2 (x 1)2 = 17
x 1 = 17
x = 1 17
x = 312, x = 512
8
y=8
y = (x2 2x 8)
y = x2 2x 8
2 2 4 x
Inequality: | f (x) | < 8 when 312 < x < 0; 2 < x < 512
5 Solve for x:
|x 4| = 5
Solution:
A geometric solution:
|x 4| = 5 then x 4 = 5 x = 4 5
x = 1, or x = 9
a2 = | a |
If x 0 then a2 = x
Squaring both sides of the equation can be used provided that both sides are positive. This method invariably
gives a quadratic to solve rather than a pair of linear equations. There will still be two solutions.
Any modulus function is positive by definition, but something like | 3x 2 | = x + 4 has a RHS that cannot be
guaranteed to be positive.
If you do square such an equation then you may find that some of the solutions will be invalid.
38.9.1 Example:
1 Solve for x:
|x 3 | = | 3x 1 |
Solution:
(x 3)2 = (3x 1)2 Square both sides, since they are both positive.
x2 6x + 9 = 9x2 6x + 1
8x2 8 = 0
8 (x + 1) (x 1) = 0
x = 1 or x = 1
Note: only true for | f (x)| = | g (x)| or | f (x)| < | g (x)|
2 Solve for x:
|x 4| = 5
Solution:
(x 4)2 = 25 Square both sides, since they are both positive.
x2 8x + 16 = 25
x2 8x 9 = 0
(x + 1) (x 9) = 0
x = 1 or x = 9
367
My A Level Maths Notes
3 Solve for x:
| 2x + 1| 3
Solution:
(2x + 1)2 9
4x2 + 4x + 1 9 0
4x2 + 4x 8 0
4 (x2 + x 2) 0
4 (x + 2) (x 1) 0
Critical values: x = 2, x = 1
2 x 1
4 Solve for x:
(x 2)2 25
Solution:
(x 2)2 25
Recall: a2 = | a |
|x 2| 5
5 x 2 5
3 x 5
5 Solve for x:
|x| = 2x + 1
Solution:
x2 = (2x + 1)2 Square both sides, but not positive both sides
x2 = 4x2 + 4x + 1
0 = 3x2 + 4x + 1
(3x + 1) (x + 1) = 0
1
x = x = 1
3
Now test to see if these are valid solutions:
x =
1
3
| | ( )
1
3
1
= 2 + 1
3
1
3
=
1
3
True
x = 1 | 1| = 2 (1) + 1 1 1 False
1
x =
3
As you can see, squaring can work provided the solutions are tested for validity.
Draw the diagram to see what the meaning of the false solution is.
Solution:
a)
| 3x + 6a | = | x 4a |
( 3x + 6a )2 = ( x 4a )2
9x2 + 36ax + 36a2 = x2 8ax + 16a2
8x2 + 44ax + 20a2 = 0
4x2 + 11ax + 5a2 = 0
(2x + a) (2x + 10a) = 0
x = a, x = 5a
b)
6a
y = |x 4|
4a
y = |3x + 6|
5a 2a a 4a
x
c)
gf (x) = | f (x) 4a | = | | 3x + 6a | 4a |
gf (3a) = | | 3 (3a) + 6a | 4a |
gf (3a) = | | (9a) + 6a | 4a |
gf (3a) = | | 3a | 4a |
gf (3a) = | 3a 4a |
gf (3a) = | a| = a
369
My A Level Maths Notes
38.10.1 Example:
1 Solve for x:
y = x + 2 and y = | x2 4 |
Solution:
Drawing a graph of the equations.
y
y=x+2
From the graph choose the equations to A
solve. Hence, the following equations: 4
B
x + 2 = x2 4 (A)
y = (x2 4) y = (x2 4)
2
and
C
x
x + 2 = (x2 4) (B) 2 1 1 2 3 4
x = 2, x = 1, x = 3
2 Solve for x:
| 2x + 1| 3
Solution:
Drawing a graph of
y=3 y
y = | 2x + 1 |
and y = 3
y = |2x + 1|
y = (2x + 1)
gives a visual representation of the
inequality. 1
2 1 x
Solve:
2x + 1 = 3 and (2x + 1) = 3
x = 2, or 1
2 x 1
38.11.1 Example:
2 0 2
|x + 2| (x + 2) x + 2 x + 2
| x2 4| x2 4 (x2 4) x2 4
1) (x + 2) = x2 4 x2 + x 2 (x + 2) (x 1)
2 2
2) x + 2 = (x 4) x + x 2 (x 2) (x + 1)
3) x + 2 = x2 4 x2 x 6 (x 3) (x + 2)
y = (x + 2)
C
2 1 1 2 3 4
x
371
My A Level Maths Notes
|x| = x2 x R
| x2 | = | x |2 = x 2 x R
|x| 0
|x | = |x|
| f (x) | < a a < f (x) > a
| f (x) | > a f (x) < a or f (x) > a
|a b| = |b a|
| a + m | = | a (m)|
| ab | = | a | | b |
| ab | = || ab ||
a | b | = | ab | provided a > 0
|a| |a|
= provided b > 0
b |b|
| an | = | a |n
|a| = |b| a2 = b
2
2 2
a2 b | a |2 | b | (| a | | b |) (| a | + | b |)
but not this:
|a + b| |a| + |b|
|a b| |a| |b|
7 7 y=ex
y=ex
6 6
y = ax y = ax
5 5
4 4
y=2x
y=2x 3 3
(0, 1) 2
2
(1, a)
1
1
2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 x 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 x
Graphs for y = ax and y = a x, all with a > 1
373
My A Level Maths Notes
y
d(5x) y = 5x
8
dx
y = ax 7 y = ex
a>1 d(ex)
6
dx
5
y = 2x
4
3 d(2x)
2
dx
In the illustration above, the gradient functions of y = 2x and y = 5x are shown (dotted lines).
The value of e is chosen such that the gradient function of y = ex is the same as the original function, i.e.
= ex.
Therefore, in exponential graphs, the gradient divided by the y value (dy/dx y) is a constant.
For ex this value is 1, and we find that the gradient at any point is equal to y. Thus:
dy / dx dy
= 1 = y
y dx
dy
but y = ex = ex
dx
y y
y = ln(ex) y = eln(x)
x x
375
My A Level Maths Notes
y=x
y = ex
1
1 x
y = ln(x)
This relationship is vital in solving equations and other problems involving exponentials.
y = ex y = ex y = ex y = ex
x
y = ex y = 4ex 3 y = ex y = 4e 2 3
y y
y= e4x
4 4
y = ex y = ex
y = 4ex
2 2
1 1
x x
4 2 2 4 2 2
y y
4 4
y = ex y = ex y = ex
2 2
1 1
x x
2 2 4 2 2
y = ex
2
y y
4 4
y = ex
y = ex
2 2
1 1
x x
4 2 2 4 2 2
y = 4ex 3 y = 4e x 3
2 2
3 3
Graph Transformations
377
My A Level Maths Notes
39.6.1 Example:
1
1) 103x = 270 3x = log10 270 x = 0810
2) 6x = 78
log10 6x = log10 78
x log10 6 = log10 78
log10 78 1892
x = = = 2432
log10 6 0778
y = a eln (b )
x
y = a ex ln (b)
y = a ekx where k = ln b
Recall that something = eln (something)
3 Solve for x:
e3x 6.5ex = 0
Solution:
e4x 6.5 = 0 ex
e4x = 6.5
ln e4x = ln 6.5
4x = ln 6.5
ln 6.5
x = = 0468 (3sf )
4
4 Solve for x:
3
ln x ln (2x 3) =
4
Solution:
x 3
ln =
(2x 3) 4
x 3
= e4
(2x 3)
x = e075 (2x 3)
x = 2e075x 3e075
3e075 = 2e075x x
3e075 = x (2e075 1)
3e075
x = = 196 (3sf )
(2e075 1)
5 Solve for x, (give an exact solution):
ln (5x 2) = 3
Solution:
(5x 2) = e3
5x = e3 + 2
e3 + 2
x =
5
6 Solve for x:
9 e1 2x = 0
Solution:
9 = e1 2x
ln 9 = 1 2x
2x = 1 ln 9
1 ln 9
x =
2
1 2 ln 3
x =
2 2
1
x = ln 3
2
379
My A Level Maths Notes
y y
y = Aekt
y = Aekt
O t O t
Typical Growth & Decay Curves
39.7.1 Example:
1 An oil bath is heated and the heating is switched off. The cooling of the oil temperature, TC, of
the oil after t hours from when the heat was removed, is given by:
The cooling of the oil is given by:
t
20
T = 28 + 100e t > 0
Where TC is the temperature and t hours is the time from when the heating is switched off.
Give the temp at the moment the heating is removed:
0
20
T = 28 + 100e
= 28 + 100 1
= 128C
Give the temp 5 hours after the heating is removed:
5
20
T = 28 + 100e
14
= 28 + 100e
= 28 + 100 07788
= 10588C
Find the time taken for the temp to fall to 64C:
t
20
64 = 28 + 100e
t
20
64 28 = 100e
36 t
= e 20
100
ln( )36
100
t
= ln e 20
t
ln 036 = ln e but ln e = 1
20
t = 20 ln 036
= 20 (1022)
= 2043 hrs
Where P = amount left after time t , starting with 10Kgs in this example.
How much plutonium is left after 241 years:
()
241
1 24100
After 241 years P = 10
2
P = 10 ( )
1
1 100
= 10 0933
2
P = 933 Kgs
381
My A Level Maths Notes
3 The mass of some particularly smelly stuff, after t hours, is given by:
M = 240e0015t t > 0
1) State the starting mass: 240 grams
ln ( )
50
240
= ln (e0015t )
ln ( )
50
240
= 0015t
ln ( 240
50
)
t =
0015
t = 1046 years (4sf )
3) Find the rate at which the mass is changing at t = 60 years.
dM
= 240 (0015) e0015t
dt
dM
= 240 (0015) e0015 60 = 146 (3sf )
dt
The stuff is decreasing by 1.46 grams per year.
4 The population of the planet Gollgahampton, at the end of any given year, is given by:
k
P =
2 + 4et/80
4et/80 = 1
1
et/80 =
4
t
= ln (025)
80
t = 80 ln (025)
t = 11090
Year is : 3131
P
300
250
200
150
100
50
0 t
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
5 A vicious parasite is spreading across the land. The area, A, affected by the parasite is given by:
A = 20 + 16 ln (2t + 4)
1) Find the rate at which the area is growing when t = 30:
dA 2
= 16
dt 2t + 4
dA 32
= = 05
dt 64
A = 20 + 16 ln (64)
A = 865 units2 (3sf )
383
My A Level Maths Notes
Differentiating ln x gives:
dy 1
y = ln x =
dx x
dy 1
y = ln ax =
dx x
dy a
y = ln (ax + b) =
dx ax + b
E.g.
x2 6x + 8 = 0
(x 2) (x 4) = 0
Roots are: x = 2 & x = 4
This is the same as finding all the values of x for which the curve y = x2 6x + 8 intersects the line y = 0.
In function notation, the real roots are found when f (x) = 0.
There are three main numerical methods which can be used to estimate the solution of an equation:
j Graphical methods: Draw a sketch or use a graphical calculator. Use the change of sign methods to
refine the solution.
j Change of Sign methods: Locate a real root between two points by detecting a change of sign in f (x).
j Iterative formulae: Set up and use a formula that converges on a solution.
Illustrate with staircase or cobweb graphs.
j The accuracy of each solution should be stated, usually to the required number of decimal places (dp).
j Be aware of the limitations of each of these methods.
j If available, use algebraic methods to give an exact solution.
j A sketch is worth a 1000 numbers! You should be familiar with the various standard graphs,
see 69 Annex Catalogue of Basic Graphs
385
My A Level Maths Notes
{
changes sign.
y = f(x)
In this example, testing the function at points a
y +ve
and b, will show that the curve changes from
ve at point a, to +ve at point b.
a
We can then say that a root lies between x = a x
and x = b, provided the function is continuous.
0 y ve
{ b
The change of sign method only works if the function is set to zero and the function is continuous.
In the case of comparing two functions, say, f (x) and g (x), at an intersection, then set the equation to be
f (x) g (x) = 0. Doing this gives you the plus/minus effect you are looking for.
j Decimal search: Use regularly spaced decimal values, such as x = 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 1.7, 1.8, 1.9
Once a change of sign is found, do another decimal search, but this time with smaller interval steps of
001, then steps of 0001 and so on until the required accuracy is achieved.
Use this method if an accurate graph is not available to you.
j Interval bisection: Bisect the interval and test for a change of sign, and keep on bisecting the
subsequent intervals until the level of accuracy is achieved. Start with x = 1.5, 1.75, 1.875 as
appropriate. A change of sign will govern which values to bisect.
j Linear interpolation: In this case, interpolate the probable value of the root from the values of f (x) at
the interval values, i.e. f (1) and f (2). You can then interpolate a new value of x based on the first
interpolated value and so on.
In practice it might be easier to do a simple interpolation on the first interval, then use either of the two
methods above for further refinement. A certain amount of caution is required because the curve is not
linear, so do not expect an accurate answer on the first interpolation it is only a starter for 10
Solution:
Draw a sketch.
y
From this it can be see there is a solution 20 y = x3 + 8x 20
in the interval 1 < x < 2
10
Substituting these values in f (x) and we
a
observe a change of sign, which confirms x
a root in the given interval. 0 1 2 3
b
10
f (1) = 1 + 8 20 = 11
f (2) = 8 + 16 20 = +4 20
Decimal Search:
To speed up the calculation, observe that the root appears closer to x = 2 than x = 1.
Start at x = 2 and initially use a difference of 02 between each x value:
x 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
f (x) 11 6056 3104 + 0232 +4
Refine using steps of 005
x 1.60 1.65 1.70 1.75 1.80
f (x) 31040 14870 06406 + 02320
Refine using steps of 001
x 1.75 1.76 1.77 1.78 1785 179 1.80
f (x) 06406 02947 01202 03259 + 00553 + 02320
With an interval of 1785 < x < 179, we can say that the root is approximately 179 (2 dp),
(note the extra column for x = 1.785 to help determine that 1.79 is the correct root to 2 dp).
387
My A Level Maths Notes
Interval Bisection:
Bisect the interval given interval, 10 < x < 20 giving x = 1.5
x 1.0 1.5 2.0
f (x) 11 46250 + 4
Bisect the new interval 15 < x < 20, giving x = 1.75
x 1.50 1.75 2.00
f (x) 46250 06406 +4
Bisect the new interval, 175 < x < 20 giving x = 1.875
x 1.750 1.875 2.000
f (x) 06406 +15918 +4
Bisect the new interval, 175 < x < 1875 giving x = 1.8125
x 1.750 1.8125 1.875
f (x) 06406 + 04523 +15918
Bisect the new interval, 175 < x < 18125
x 1.750 1.796875 1.8125
f (x) 06406 + 01768 + 04523
Bisect the new interval, 175 < x < 17969
x 1.750 1.7734375 1.796875
f (x) 06406 02349 + 01768
Bisect the new interval, 17734 < x < 17969
x 1.7734375 1.7851562 1.796875
f (x) 02349 00298 + 01768
Bisect the new interval, 17852 < x < 17969
x 1.7851562 1.7910156 1.796875
f (x) 00298 + 00732 + 01768
With the new interval, 17852 < x < 17910,
we can say that the root is approximately 179 (2 dp).
Linear Interpolation:
Using the values of f (1) and f (2) estimate the value of the root:
x 1.0 1.733 2.0
2 4 +411 = 173
f (x) 11 09259 + 4
Using the values of f (1733) and f (2) estimate the value of the root:
x 1.733 1.7834 2.0
f (x) 09259 00599 + 4
(4
2 (2 1733) 4 + 09259 )
= 17834
Using the values of f (17834) and f (2) estimate the value of the root:
x 1.7834 1.7866 2.0
f (x) 00599 00038 + 4
4
(
2 (2 17834) 4 + 00599 )
= 17866
Using the values of f (17866) and f (2) estimate the value of the root:
x 1.7866 1.78684 2.0
f (x) 00038 00002 + 4
4
(
2 (2 17866) 4 + 00038 )
= 178684
Once again, we can say that the root is approximately 179 (2 dp), particularly since the value
of f (178684) is very small.
In Practise:
In this current example, linear interpolation gave a more accurate answer in the least number of
steps. However, it does require some extra maths to work our each new value of x. This is not a
problem with a spreadsheet, but in exam conditions this may not be so easy.
Perhaps the easiest option is to use linear interpolation as the initial first step and then use a
decimal search.
Using interpolation, the root is approximately:
b (b a) ( f (b)
f (b) + f (a) ) 2
4
4 + 11
1.73
Since f (1.73) is ve, then the root must be in the interval 173 < x < 2
The interval is now: 177 < x < 179. Refining the search with smaller increments:
x 1.770 1.775 1.780 1.785 1.787 1.79
f (x) 02947 01202 00325 +00025 +00553
The interval is now: 1785 < x < 1787. We can say the root is 1.79 to 2 dp.
As you can see, the starter for 10 was not wholly accurate, but gave a very good starting
point.
For interest, the most accurate figure found for the root is 178685492 (8 dp)
y = f(1.733)
10
y = f(1)
DP accuracy:
If asked to find a root accurate to 2 dp, you need to work with values of x to 3 dp as a
minimum. If our answer is 1.79 (2 dp), then you need to use an interval of 1785 < x < 1795
to ensure the solution is within the prescribed accuracy.
389
My A Level Maths Notes
j The curve may touch the x-axis but not cross it, (repeated roots possibly).
j The chosen values of x for the interval search may be too course to find all the roots.
j The function may contain a discontinuity, such as an asymptote.
In the diagram below are two curves (L1 & L2) that touch the x-axis, but do not cross it. On the right hand side,
are two curves that cross the x-axis between x = a and x = b.
In R1, f (a) and f (b) are both +ve, therefore no root would be detected.
In R2, f (a) is ve and f (b) is +ve, indicating a root has been found, however, there are three roots in the interval,
so potentially two roots may be missed.
y y
L1 R1
x a b x
y y
a
x b x
L2 R2
1
Not all functions are continuous, particularly functions like f (x) = tan x, and f (x) = .
x k
Functions that have asymptotes, or other discontinuities, may give a false indication of a root if the interval
straddles the discontinuity and a change of sign is detected, see L1 below.
On the other hand, R1 shows a curve in which f (a) and f (b) are both +ve, and no root is detected, missing the
real root.
y y
L1 R1
a { y +ve x
y +ve { { y +vex
0 y ve { b 0 a b
The first step is to rearrange the function to make x the subject. There are many ways to rearrange a function, for
example:
E.g.
x4 10x + 9 = 0 x = g (x)
x4 = 10x 9 x = 4
10x 9
x4 + 9
10x = x4 + 9 x =
10
9
x (x3 10) = 9 x =
(x3 10)
In order to converge, the function g (x) needs to be chosen such that the gradient of g (x), as it crosses the line
y = x, is less than the gradient of the line, which is 1. Which gives the rule that:
1 < g (x) < 1
or | g (x) | < 1
Having found a possible root, the change of sign method should be used to prove the result.
391
My A Level Maths Notes
From the graph we see that there are two roots of approximately x 1.0 and x 1.7
We can set up an iterative formulae to find the first root as:
x n4 + 9
xn + 1 =
10
Start with x0 = 05 and find the first root:
(05)4 + 9
x1 = = 090625 Feed this answer back into the formula to give:
10
(090625)4 + 9
x2 = = 096745 Again feed back the answer and so on
10
(096745)4 + 9
x3 = = 098760 etc
10
x4 = 099513
x5 = 099806
x6 = 099922
After just 6 iterations it can be seen the first root is in fact 1.00 (to 2 dp).
After 14 iterations the value of x is 09999995.
Alternatively, the iterations can be started with x0 = 15, which converges from the other side:
(15)4 + 9
x1 = = 140625
10
(140625)4 + 9
x2 = = 129107
10
(129107)4 + 9
x3 = = 117784
10
x4 = 109246 x5 = 104244
x6 = 101809 x7 = 100743
This time, convergence is from the other side provided you choose a value below the second
root of x 166 (found graphically, actual 16608). If a value of x0 > 1661 is chosen, the
iterations diverge very quickly. The second root cannot be found by this method.
E.g. Find a positive root for x3 8x + 3 = 0 using an iterative formula with a starting value of
x0 = 10:
Sketch y = 3
8x 3 and y = x
1
From the sketch we see that there are two
positive roots of approximately 04 and
26.
0 x
1 x1 2 x2 x3
[There is also a root at x 30] x0
x1 = 3
(8 1.00) 3 = 170997 Feed this answer back to give:
x2 = 3
(8 170997) 3 = 220219 Again feed back the answer and so on
x3 = 3
(8 220219) 3 = 244507
x4 = 3
(8 244507) 3 = 254893
x5 = 3
(8 254893) 3 = 259087
x6 = 3
(8 259087) 3 = 260742
x7 = 3
(8 260742) 3 = 261389
x8 = 3
(8 261389) 3 = 261642
After 8 iterations it can be seen that the second root is 262 (2 dp).
You might try a starting value of x0 = 30 and note how the values converge from the other
side.
393
My A Level Maths Notes
E.g. Find the root for 1x x = 0, using an iterative formula with a starting value of x0 = 025
e
x = ex
0.5 y = ex
Sketch y = ex and y = x
y y Iteration diverges
Iteration converges Root not found
Root found
|g(x)| < 1 |g(x)| > 1
395
My A Level Maths Notes
1 Show that x3 cos x 15 = 0 has only one root, and find the root to 2 dp.
Solution:
Rearrange the function to be:
y
5
x3 15 = cos x
y = cos x
Draw a sketch of y = x3 15 and x
y = cos x 1 0 1 2 3
20
Solution:
To test for a root in the interval
y
6 < x < 7 5
5 0 5 7.5 x
2.5
.
x 6 7
1x
y = e6 2718 3211
Set f (x) g (x) = 0
y = 3
3x + 5 2844 2962
1x
e6 3
3x + 5 0126 + 0249
From the table, you can see a change of sign when the functions are compared.
To show the equations can be written in the given manner, equate both functions.:
1x
e6 = 3
3x + 5
1 1
x = ln (3x + 5) 3
6
6
x = ln (3x + 5)
3
x = 2 ln (3x + 5)
The iterative formula becomes:
xn + 1 = 2 ln (3xn + 5)
Using xn = 60
x1 = 2 ln (3 6 + 5) = 62710
x2 = 2 ln (3 62710 + 5) = 63405
x3 = 2 ln (3 63405 + 5) = 63579
x4 = 2 ln (3 63579 + 5) = 63622
x5 = 2 ln (3 63622 + 5) = 63633
x6 = 63636
x7 = 63637
Root is 6364 to 3 dp.
397
My A Level Maths Notes
3 Show that the function f (x) = x3 5x2 6 has a real root in the interval 5 < x < 6.
Rearrange the function in the form: x = c
x + b , where c and b are constants.
Using this form, write a suitable iterative formula and say whether it converges or diverges.
Solution:
Look for a change of sign in the interval 5 < x < 6
x 5 5.3 5.5 5.7 6
Change of sign, therefore a root exists.
f (x) 60 +2427 +30
x1 = 3
5 52 + 6 = 507875
x2 = 51295
x3 = 51621
x20 = 52201
Root = 5220 (3dp) (Note: the gradient at this point 064)
4 With a suitably labelled sketch, show that 4 cos1 (x 2) = x has only one root.
(ii) Show that the root is in the interval 25 < x < 3.
(iii) Using the iterative formula xn + 1 = 2 + cos (xn), show that the value of x converges to the
number . Start at x1 = 2, and give the answer to 2dp.
(iv) Explain how is a root of 4 cos1 (x 2) = x
Solution:
2p
y = 4cos1(x2)
y=x
(3, 0)
O 1 2 3 x
~2.7
(ii)
Look for a change of sign in the interval 25 < x < 3
x 25 275 30
Change of sign, therefore a root exists.
f (x) 1688 +01409 3
(iii):
xn + 1 = 2 + cos (xn)
x1 = 2 + cos ( 2) = 28777
x2 = 2 + cos ( 28777) = 27522
x3 = 27724
x4 = 27693
x5 = 27678
= 277 (2dp)
(iv)
To show is a root of 4 cos1 (x 2) = x rearrange the equation thus
4 cos1 (x 2) = x
x
cos1 (x 2) =
4
(x 2) = cos ()
x
4
x = 2 + cos
x
4()
399
My A Level Maths Notes
The accuracy of each solution should be stated, usually to the required number of decimal places (dp).
Iterative method:
Rewrite the function f (x) as:
x = g (x)
The iterative formula is:
xn + 1 = g (xn)
For convergence the rule is:
1 < g (x) < 1
or | g (x) | < 1
Calculator work:
On a calculator, with an iterative formula of, say, 3 28 5xn and an x0 = 2, place 2 into the Ans field, then
enter: (28 5Ans)1 3
Each press of the = key will give the next iteration.
All these methods are based on the premise of dividing the area under the curve into thin strips, calculating the
area of each strip and then summing these areas together to find an overall estimate. Clearly, the more strips that
are used, the more accurate the answer, and in practise, many hundreds of strips would be chosen with results
being calculated electronically.
Each method has its advantages and disadvantages.
Exam hint: always start the counting of the ordinates from zero, and draw a diagram, even if you dont know
what the function really looks like.
y1 y2
y0
n
h h h h
O x
x0 x1 x2 x3 xn1 xn
a b
The Trapezium Rule
401
My A Level Maths Notes
y
y3/2
y5/2
y1/2
y = f(x)
h h h
x0 x1/2 x3/2 x5/2 xn
x
a b
Mid-ordinate rule
b a
where h = and n = number of strips
n
41.3.1 Example:
1 Use the mid-ordinate rule with 4 strips (5 ordinates) to estimate the area given by
3
(e3x + 1)
1/2
dx
1
Solution:
Draw a sketch, even if you are not sure of the
y
exact shape of the function, although in this y7/2
case it is bound to be an exponential curve of y = (e3x +1)
some sort.
y5/2
y3/2
Then calculate h: y1/2
h
b a 3 1 1
h = = = x
n 4 2 1 1 2 2 3
x0 x1 x2 x3 x4
Set up a table to tabulate the results:
1 111555
Area [ 65970 + 138407 + 292414 + 618759] = 5578 sq units (2 dp)
2 2
Compare this with the proper integrated value of 5710 sq units.
2 Use the mid-ordinate rule with 4 strips (5 ordinates) to estimate the area given by
2
3
0 x2 + 1
dx
Solution:
Draw a sketch.
y y
1/2
Then calculate h: y = 3/(x2 + 1)
y3/2
b a 2 0 1
h = = =
n 4 2 y5/2
y7/2
h
x
1 1 2
x0 x1 x2 x3 x4
1 66527
Area [ 28235 + 192 + 11707 + 07385] = 333 sq units (2 dp)
2 2
Compare this with the proper integrated value of 33214 sq units.
403
My A Level Maths Notes
y0
y
y = f(x) y1
y2
quadratic
h h
x
a b
x0 xn
j Accurate for any cubic graph, but less accurate for higher order functions
j More accurate than the other two methods discussed.
y0
y quadratic
y = f(x) curves yn
h h h h h h
x
a b
x0 xn
41.4.1 Example:
1 Use Simpsons rule with 4 strips (5 ordinates) to estimate the area given by
3
(e3x + 1)
1/2
dx
1
Solution:
Draw a sketch, even if you are not sure of the y4
exact shape of the function, although in this
y
case it is bound to be an exponential curve of
some sort. y = (e3x +1)
y3
Then calculate h: y2
y0 y1
b a 3 1 1
h = = = h
n 4 2
x
1 1 2 2 3
x0 x1 x2 x3 x4
xordinate x f (x)
x0 10 f (x0) 45919 First
x1 15 f (x1) 95403 Odd
x2 20 f (x2) 201104 Even
x3 25 f (x3) 425328 Odd
x4 30 f (x4) 900227 Last
1 1
Area [ (45919 + 900227) + 4 (95403 + 425328) + 2 (201104)]
2 3
1
Area 343115 5716 sq units (2 dp)
6
This compares with the previous calculation by the mid-ordinate rule of 5578 and a fully
integrated value of 5710 sq units.
405
My A Level Maths Notes
2 Use Simpsons rule with 4 strips (5 ordinates) to estimate the area given by:
2
3
0 x2 + 1
dx
Solution:
Draw a sketch.
y
y0 y = 3/(x2 + 1)
Then calculate h: y1
b a 2 0 1 y2
h = = =
n 4 2
y3
y4
h
x
1 1 2
x0 x1 x2 x3 x4
xordinate x f (x)
x0 00 f (x0) 3000 First
x1 05 f (x1) 2400 Odd
x2 10 f (x2) 1500 Even
x3 15 f (x3) 0923 Odd
x4 20 f (x4) 0600 Last
1 1
Area [ (3000 + 0600) + 4 (2400 + 0923) + 2 (150)]
2 3
1
Area 19892 332 sq units (2 dp)
6
This compares with the previous calculation by the mid-ordinate rule of 333 and a fully integrated
value of 33214 sq units.
2
dx = 3 [ tan1x] 0 = 33214
3
2
i.e.
0 x2 + 1
y
y = f (x)
yi
d x
The area under the curve is the summation of all these strips, therefore the area is given approximately by:
n
A f (x ) x
i=1
i
If x is very, very small, the accuracy of the calculation improves such that, as x tends towards zero, then:
n
A = lim
x 0
f (x ) x
i=1
i
Hence, the limit of the sum becomes the equivalent of the definite integral thus:
n b
lim
x 0
i=1
f (xi) x = a
f (x) dx
407
My A Level Maths Notes
b a
where h = and n = number of strips
n
Simpsons Rule C3
For a function f (x) the approximate area is given by:
b xn
h
f (x) dx = f (x) dx [ (y0 + yn) + 4 (y1 + y3 + + yn 1) + 2 (y2 + y4 + + yn 2)]
a x0 3
b a
where h = and n = an EVEN number of strips
n
In simpler terms:
b
h
f (x) dx [ (first + last ordinate) + 4 (sum of odd ordinates) + 2 (sum of even ordinates)]
a 3
Degrees 0 30 45 60 90
Radians 0
6 4 3 2
sin 0 1 1 3 1
2 2 2
cos 1 3 1 1 0
2 2 2
tan 0 1 1 3 asymtote
3
Three more ratios are generated when taking the reciprocal of these trig functions:
j Note that the above ratios are undefined if sin , cos , or tan are 0.
j Do not confuse the reciprocal of the original trig functions with their inverse functions
1
viz. sin1
sin
j When solving equations which include these new functions, it is often advisable to convert them to
their respective sin, cos, or tan form.
j Alternate name sometimes required by certain graphing software.
409
My A Level Maths Notes
Vertical asymptotes: x = (2n + 1)
2
(where cos x crosses the x-axis at odd
multiples of )
Line symmetry about the y-axis (Even
function). Also every vertical line
passing through each vertex.
2
Period: 2 or 90 90 180 270 360
k -p/2 p/2 p 3p/2 2p
No x or y intercepts -1
Vertical asymptotes: x = n
(where sin x crosses the x-axis at
multiples of )
Rotational symmetry about the origin -
order 2. (Odd function)
Line symmetry about every vertical
line passing through each vertex.
Vertical asymptotes: x = n
(where tan x crosses the x-axis)
Rotational symmetry about the origin -
order 2. (Odd function)
42.4.1 Example:
1 3
Find the exact value of sec .
4
Solution:
1 3
As sec = we first solve cos
cos 4
S A
3 1 2 3p
cos = cos = =
4
4 4 2 2 p
4
3 1
sec = 1 = 2 T C
4
2
2 11
Find the exact value of cot .
6
Solution:
1 11
As cot = we first solve tan
tan 6
S A
11 1 11p
tan = = 6
6 6 3
p
11 1 6
cot = 1 = 3 T C
6
3
411
My A Level Maths Notes
Version 1 Version 2
Divide the above by sin2 Divide the above by cos2
cos2 sin2 1 cos2 sin2 1
+ +
sin
2 sin
2 sin2 cos
2 cos
2 cos2
cot 2 + 1 cosec2 1 + tan2 sec2
cot 2 + 1 cosec2
1 + tan2 sec2
42.6.1 Example:
2 Show that:
sec2 1
sin2
sec2
Solution:
Taking the more complex LHS:
sec2 1 (1 + tan2 ) 1 tan2
(From the above identities)
sec2 sec2 sec2
tan2 cos2
sin2
cos2
cos
2
sin2
RHS
3 Prove that:
sec x
cosec2 x
sec x cos x
Solution:
Using the more complex LHS:
1 1
sec x
= 1 cos x = cos x2
sec x cos x 1 cos x
cos x cos x cos x
1 cos x 1
= 2
=
cos x 1 cos x 1 cos2x
But: sin2 x = 1 cos2x
1
= = cosec2 x
sin2 x
= RHS (as required)
5 Prove that:
cosec4 x cot 4 x cosec2 x + cot 2 x
Solution:
Using the LHS and recognise that this is a difference of squares:
cosec4 x cot 4 x = (cosec2 x cot 2 x) (cosec2 x + cot 2 x)
But: cosec2 x cot 2 x = 1
cosec4 x cot 4 x = cosec2 x + cot 2 x
413
My A Level Maths Notes
From the four identities above, the identities for tan (A B) can be derived and could be asked for in the exam.
For : tan (A + B)
sin (A + B)
tan (A + B)
cos (A + B)
sin A cos B + cos A sin B
cos A cos B sin A sin B
sin A cos B cos A sin B
+
cos A cos B cos A cos B
cos A cos B sin A sin B Divide top and bottom by cos A cos B
cos A cos B cos A cos B
sin A sin B
cos A + cos B
sin A sin B
1
cos A cos B
tan A + tan B
1 tan A tan B
Similarly for : tan (A B)
tan A tan B
tan (A B)
1 + tan A tan B
tan A + tan B
tan (A + B)
1 tan A tan B
tan A tan B
tan (A B)
1 + tan A tan B
tan A tan B
tan (A B) (A B) (k + )
1 tan A tan B
42.7.1 Example:
1 Evaluate cos (A + B) & tan (A B); given that A is obtuse and sin A = 3;
5
B is acute and sin B = 12
13 .
Solution:
First, find the values for cos A, cos B, tan A, & tan B.
A is obtuse which means quadrant 2, therefore sin is +ve, and both tan & cos are ve.
3
sin A = (recognise this a 3, 4, 5 right angled )
5
3 4
tan A = and cos A =
4 5
B is acute which means quadrant 1, therefore sin, tan & cos are all +ve.
12
sin B = (recognise this a 5, 12, 13 right angled )
13
12 5
tan B = and cos A =
5 13
Now: cos (A + B) cos A cos B sin A sin B
4 5 3 12 56
cos (A + B) = =
5 13 5 13 65
tan A tan B
Now: tan (A B)
1 + tan A tan B
34 12
5 63
= =
( )
3
1 + 4 5 12 16
2 Prove that:
sin (A B) sin (B C) sin (C A)
+ + 0
cos A cos B cos B cos C cos C cos A
Solution:
Using the LHS:
sin A cos B cos A sin B sin B cos C cos B sin C sin C cos A cos C sin A
= + +
cos A cos B cos B cos C cos C cos A
sin A cos B cos A sin B sin B cos C cos B sin C sin C cos A cos C sin A
= + +
cos A cos B cos A cos B cos B cos C cos B cos C cos C cos A cos C cos A
sin A sin B sin B sin C sin C sin A
= + +
cos A cos B cos B cos C cos C cos A
= tan A tan B + tan B tan C + tan C tan A
= 0 = RHS (as required)
3 Show that:
cos ( 2 x) sin x
Solution:
Using the LHS
cos (
2 )
x cos cos x + sin sin x
2 2
(0) cos x + (1) sin x
sin x = RHS (as required)
415
My A Level Maths Notes
sin = cos ( 2 )
sin 2 = cos ( 2 )
2
cos ( 2 ) = cos 2
2
( 2 2) = 2 4 =
2
= + n
8
5 9 13
= , , ,
8 8 8 8
42.8.1 Example:
tan (15) = 2 + 2 3
417
My A Level Maths Notes
42.9.1 Example:
2 Simplify:
sin x
1 + cos x
Solution:
Now sin A 2sin A cos A & cos A 2cos2 A 1
sin x 2sin x cos x
=
1 + cos x 1 + 2cos2 x 1
2sin x cos x
=
2cos2 x
sin x
=
cos x
= tan x
2
( (1 + cos 2x))
1
(1 + cos 2x)2
4
1
(1 + 2 cos 2x + cos22x)
4
1
4( 1 + 2 cos 2x +
1
2
(1 + cos 4x) )
1
4( 1 + 2 cos 2x +
1
2
1
+ cos 4x
2 )
1
(2 + 4 cos 2x + 1 + cos 4x)
8
1
(3 + 4 cos 2x + cos 4x)
8
419
My A Level Maths Notes
2tan 3
24
A = , tan 2 = 2
=
1 tan2 1 9
16 7
2tan 2 2 ( 24
7) 336
A = 2, tan 4 = 2 =
2
1 tan 2 1 (7) 24 527
2tan 2 3
A = , tan = (given)
2 1 tan2 2 4
4 2tan
2 (
= 3 1 tan2
2 )
8 tan = 3 3tan2
2 2
3tan2 + 8 tan 3 = 0
2 2
(
2
3tan 1 tan + 3
2)( )=0
1
tan = or = 3 tan
2 3 2
Now is acute, hence 2 is acute hence: tan is +ve
2
1
tan = (as required)
2 3
()
2
1
From (2): cos2 (3)
y
()
2
1
x 2 1 Substitute (3) into (1)
y
y2x 2 y2
y2x + y2 2
y2 (x + 1) 2
6 Prove that:
1
tan + cot
sin cos
Solution:
Using the LHS:
LHS = tan + cot
sin cos
= +
cos sin
sin sin + cos cos
=
sin cos
sin2 + cos2
=
sin cos
1
=
sin cos
= RHS
7 Given that:
sin 2x + cos 2x = cos x 1
show that:
2 (sin x + cos x) = 1
Solution:
Using the identities:
sin 2A 2 sin A cos A
cos 2A 2 cos2A 1
8 Prove that:
cos 2
cos + sin
cos sin
Solution:
Taking the LHS:
cos 2
LHS =
cos sin
cos2 sin2
=
cos sin
(cos sin )(cos + sin )
= Difference of squares
cos sin
= cos + sin
= RHS (as required)
421
My A Level Maths Notes
sin A
tan A =
cos A
(1 cos A) (1 cos A)
= =
(1 + cos A) (1 + cos A)
(1 cos A) (1 cos A)
=
(1 + cos A) (1 cos A)
(1 cos A)
=
(1 + cos A) (1 cos A)
1 cos A 1 cos A
= =
(1 + cos2A) sin A
sin2 A (1 cos A)
cos2 A (1 + cos A)
1 cos A sin A
tan A =
sin A 1 + cos A
The same technique can be used to find other double combinations such as:
cos 6A cos2 3A sin2 3A
42.11.1 Example:
1 Prove that:
sin 3A 3 sin A 4 sin3A
Solution:
Using the LHS:
sin 3A sin (2A + A)
sin 2A cos A + cos 2A sin A
(recall sin 2A 2 sin A cos A & cos 2A 1 2 sin2A)
(2 sin A cos A) cos A + (1 2 sin2A) sin A
2 sin A cos2A + sin A 2 sin3A
2 sin A (1 sin2A) + sin A 2 sin3A
2 sin A 2 sin3A + sin A 2 sin3A
3 sin A 4 sin3A
RHS
2 Prove that:
cos 3A 4 cos3A 3 cos A
Solution:
Using the LHS:
cos 3A cos (2A + A)
cos 2A cos A + sin 2A sin A
(recall cos 2A 2 cos2A 1 & sin 2A 2 sin A cos A)
(2 cos2A 1) cos A + (2 sin A cos A) sin A
2 cos3A cos A 2 sin2A cos A
2 cos3A cos A 2 (1 cos2A) cos A
2 cos3A cos A 2 cos A + 2 cos3A
4 cos3A 3 cos A
RHS
423
My A Level Maths Notes
Alternative format:
An alternative format in terms of A & B is as follows:
sin (A + B) + sin (A B) = 2 sin A cos B
sin (A + B) sin (A B) = 2 cos A sin B
cos (A + B) + cos (A B) = 2 cos A cos B
cos (A + B) cos (A B) = 2 sin A sin B
42.12.1 Example:
1 Show that:
sin + sin 3
tan 2
cos + cos 3
Solution:
Using the RHS:
sin + sin 3
( ) (
2 sin +23 cos 23 )
cos + cos 3 ( ) (
2 cos +23 cos 23 )
( )
sin 4
2
cos ( 4
2 )
sin (2 )
cos (2 )
tan 2
2 Show that:
sin 3x + sin x = 2 sin 2x cos x
Solution:
Starting on the LHS, the argument of sin 3x needs to be changed into something more useful and
recognisable, hence we can try using sin (A + B) thus:
sin 3x = sin (2x + x) = sin 2x cos x + cos 2x sin x Factor formula
sin (2x + x) + sin x = sin 2x cos x + cos 2x sin x + sin x
But: sin x = sin (2x x) = sin 2x cos x cos 2x sin x Factor formula
sin (2x + x) + sin x = sin 2x cos x + cos 2x sin x + sin 2x cos x cos 2x sin x
= 2 sin 2x cos x
LHS = RHS
425
My A Level Maths Notes
j Generally choose the longest or most complicated side to simplify and work towards the shortest or the
least complicated target expression.
j Only mess with one side at a time.
j Note the functions contained in the target expression. Aim your conversions towards those functions.
j Look out for and apply the following techniques:
j Note the number of marks allocated to that part of the question. (5 marks = 56 mins, maybe 5
lines of working, 1 mark means 1 minute and 12 lines of working).
j Recognise opportunities to use the obvious identities (first 4 sections of the Trig Identity Digest).
j Note the number of terms in the target expression.
j Check for difference of squares: e.g. cos2A sin2A = (cos A + sin A) (cos A sin A)
j Expand expressions: e.g. (A + B)2 = A2 + 2AB + B2
j Try to remove fractions (unless the target is a fraction). Make common denominators.
j Factorise any numerator/ denominators and cancel any common factors.
j If there are no obvious moves or if mixed functions, convert entire identity to sines & cosines.
j Remove squared trig functions with either the Pythagorean or Double Angle Identities.
j Remove sum and difference of angles: e.g. sin (A B)
j Remove multiple angles: e.g. sin 2A
j Pairings of sines & cosines; secants & tangents; and cosecants & cotangents, work well together.
j Multiply by 1 and use cos2A + sin2A
j Replace powers of cosines > 2 with powers of sines using the Pythagorean identities.
j Use the conjugate of an expression to give the difference of squares, which will allow the use of
the Pythagorean identities:
sin A 1 cos A sin A (1 cos A)
e.g. = etc.
1 + cos A 1 cos A 1 cos2 A
42.14.1 Example:
1 Prove that:
cos sin tan
cos sin
2 2 1 tan2
Solution:
Using the LHS:
cos sin
LHS =
cos2 sin2
Look at the target and notice the tan2 on the bottom. This suggests dividing the sin2 by cos2
cos sin cos
sin2 sin
= =
cos2 sin2 1 tan2
sin2
tan
= as required.
1 tan2
2 Prove that:
cosec sec
cos sin
cosec sec
Solution:
Using the LHS:
cosec sec
LHS =
cosec sec
The target only has standard functions, whilst the LHS only reciprocal functions. With no
immediate identities to substitute try conversion to sines and cosines.
1 1
sin cos
LHS = 1 1
sin cos
427
My A Level Maths Notes
3 Prove that:
sin 2sin3
tan
2cos3 cos
Solution:
Using the LHS:
sin 2sin3
LHS =
2cos3 cos
The problem here is the cubed terms. Try factorising to reduce to square terms.
sin (1 2sin2 )
LHS =
cos (2cos2 1)
(1 2sin2 )
LHS = tan
(2cos2 1)
This has almost given us the required answer, but the 2sin2 and 2cos2 are now the problem. Try
splitting them apart to give a more familiar substitution.
(1 sin2 sin2 )
LHS = tan
(cos2 + cos2 1)
(cos2 sin2 )
LHS = tan
(cos2 sin2 )
LHS = tan as required.
4 Prove that:
cos 2 cos
cot cosec
sin 2 + sin
Solution:
Since the identity uses mixed functions the RHS can be converted to sines and cosines.
cos 2 cos cos 1
sin 2 + sin sin sin
cos sin ( )
or cos sin (90 )
2
sin
tan cos 0
cos
1 cos
cot = tan 0; sin 0
tan sin
1
sec cos 0
cos
1
cosec sin 0
sin
2 tan A
tan 2A
1 tan2A
sin2 A (1 cos A)
cos2 A (1 + cos A)
429
My A Level Maths Notes
Alternative format:
sin (A + B) + sin (A B) = 2sin A cos B
sin (A + B) sin (A B) = 2cos A sin B
cos (A + B) + cos (A B) = 2cos A cos B
cos (A + B) cos (A B) = 2sin A sin B
If t = tan A
2t 2t
sin A tan A
1 + t2 1 t2
1 t2
cos A
1 + t2
42.15.9 Periodicy
For the avoidance of doubt, the reciprocal of a trig function is written, for example, as (sin x)1.
Hence,
If sin = 05
= sin1 (05)
= 30
i.e. the angle whose sine is 05 is 30 Remember that sin1x is an angle.
An alternative way of writing = sin1x is = arcsin x, so we can say that:
sin = x = arcsin x
cos = x = arccos x
tan = x = arctan x
For a inverse function to exist, recall that the function and its inverse must have a one to one relationship or
mapping. The functions of sin x, cos x, and tan x are many to one mappings, so any inverse mapping will be
many to one.
However, if we restrict the domain, then we can create a one to one relationship and the two curves will be a
reflection of each other about the line y = x.
There are, of course, an infinite number of solutions to a trig function, but restricting the domain gives only one
solution called the principal value which is the one given on a calculator.
y = cos 0 180 0
y = tan 90 90 2
2
431
My A Level Maths Notes
y = sin x
o p/2 p x
1 x 1
-p/2
and a range of :
sin1x
2 2
or arcsin x
2 2
y = cos1 x p y=x
y = cos x
o p/2 p x
0 x
y
y = cos1 x
and the range becomes: p/2 y=x
1 cos x 1
y = cos x
The inverse function is now created, with a domain of:
-p/2 o p/2 x
1 x 1
cos 1x
2 2
or arccos x
2 2
433
My A Level Maths Notes
y=x
p
y = tan x
-p O p/2 p 3p/2 x
y = tan1 x
-p
y
x y=x
2 2
p/2
and the range becomes:
y = tan x
tan x R
tan 1x
2 2
or arctan x -p/2
2 2
-p/2
y
y = cos 1 x Inverse Cosine Function:
p
( 2 )
y-intercept 0,
y = cos1 x
p/2
Decreasing function
1 1 x
Intercept (0, 0)
Horizontal asymptotes: y = O
2
Symmetric about the origin has
rotational symmetry order 2.
Increasing function
-p/2
435
My A Level Maths Notes
y
5
a
53.1
1
y = sin x
1
437
My A Level Maths Notes
R = a2 + b2
b
= tan1
a
Take the RHS of (1) and use the Compound Angle Identity to expand the expression:
R sin (x + ) = R (sin x cos + cos x sin )
= R sin x cos + R cos x sin
= R cos sin x + R sin cos x
Since R and are both constants, therefore, R cos & R sin are both constants.
Hence we can say: R sin (x + ) = a sin x + b cos x
Equate the coefficients on the RHS:
where a = R cos (1)
& b = R sin (2)
R sin b
Divide (1) & (2) =
R cos a
b
tan =
a
b
= tan1 = positive acute angle
a
Take (1) & (2) and square and add:
a2 = R2cos2
2
b = R2sin2
2
a2 + b = R2cos2 + R2sin2
2
a2 + b = R2 (cos2 + sin2)
but (cos2 + sin2) = 1
2
R2 = a2 + b
R = a2 + b2
2
2 +b
a
R= b
a
a
q
R sin (q + a)
b cos q
b
R
h
a a sin q
a
q
Geometric View of the Harmonic Form
h = a sin + b cos
h = R sin ( + )
a sin + b cos = R sin ( + )
439
My A Level Maths Notes
5 Express 5 sin + 12 cos in the form R sin ( + ), and show that 5 sin + 12 cos + 7 20
Solution:
5 sin + 12 cos R sin ( + )
5 sin + 12 cos R sin cos + R cos sin
Equate the coefficients: 5 = R cos
12 = R sin
R sin 12
tan = =
R cos 5
= 674
441
My A Level Maths Notes
6 Find the minimum & maximum values of cos 7sin and the corresponding values of .
Solution:
From a previous example above:
cos 7sin 50 cos ( + 819)
1 cos ( + 819) 1
50 50 cos ( + 819) 50
50 (cos 7sin ) 50
Min value of (cos 7sin ) is 50
Min value occurs when: cos ( + 819) = 1
+ 819 = 180
= 180 819
= 981
Min value of 50 occurs when = 981
7 Find the minimum & maximum values of 2 sin + 7 cos and the corresponding values of .
Solution:
Find that: 2 sin + 7 cos 53 cos ( 159)
1 cos ( 159) 1
53 53 cos ( 159) 53
53 (2 sin + 7 cos ) 53
Min value of (2 sin + 7 cos ) is 53
Min value occurs when: cos ( 159) = 1
159 = 180
= 180 + 159
= 1959
Min value of 53 occurs when = 1959
Max value of 2 sin + 7 cos is 53
Max value occurs when: cos ( 159) = 1
159 = 0
= 159
Max value of 53 occurs when = 159
= tan1
1( )
3
=
3
R = 1 + 3 = 2
7
f (x) =
2 cos ( + 3 )
6
2 3
= cos +
3 ( )
( + 3 ) = cos ( 2 63 ) = 4 , 74
1
=
4
3 { = is obviously out of range}
4
3
= + = (Out of range)
4 3 12
7 17
= + = (As required)
4 3 12
443
My A Level Maths Notes
R = a2 + b2 R > 0
R cos = a R sin = b
b
tan = 0 < a <
a 2
As x 0 then y 0
dy 1 1
= x
= dx
dx lim y dy
y 0
dy 1
Hence = dx
dx
dy
dy dx
or = 1
dx dy
E.g. Consider:
dy
y = ax + b = a
dx
Rearrange to make x the subject:
y b
x =
a
y b dx 1
x = =
a a dy a
dy dx 1
= a
dx dy a
= 1
445
My A Level Maths Notes
45.2.1 Example:
Solution:
dx
= 3y2 + 6
dy
dx
At y = 1 = 3 1 + 6 = 9
dy
dy 1
Recall: = dx
dx dy
dy 1
=
dx 9
Solution:
y = ln x
ey = x
x = ey
dx
= ey
dy
dy 1
But = dx
dx dy
dy 1
= y
dx e
dy 1
=
dx x
d [ln x] 1
=
dx x
The advantage of this relationship is that you dont need to know the exact inverse function.
45.3.1 Example:
1 Find the gradient of the inverse function at the point (2, 1), where the function is defined as:
f (x) = x4 + 3x2 2
Solution:
y = f (x) x = f 1 (y)
y = x4 + 3x2 2
x = y4 + 3y2 2
Rearranging to make y the subject is not required since:
dx
= 4y3 + 6y
dy
dy 1
=
dx 4y + 6y
3
dy 1 1
= =
dx 4 + 6 10
2 Find the equation of the tangent of the function at the point (3, 1), where the function is defined as:
x = 3y4 + ln y
Solution:
Rearranging to make y the subject is not required since:
dx 1
= 12y3 +
dy y
dx
|
dy y = 1
= 12 +
1
1
= 13
dy 1
=
dx 13
Tangent is:
1
y 1 = (x 3)
13
1
y = (x + 10)
13
447
My A Level Maths Notes
449
My A Level Maths Notes
46.3.1 Example:
1 dy
Find when y = (x2 4)5
dx
Solution:
y = (x2 4)
5
u = x2 4 y = u5
du dy
= 2x = 5u4
dx du
dy dy du
= = 5u4 2x
dx du dx
dy
= 10x (x2 4)
4
dx
Alternative Solution:
dy d 5
(u ) d (x2 4) = 5 (x2 4) 2x
4
= etc
dx du dx
2 dy
Find when y = (1 x3)
dx
Solution:
1
(1 x3) y = (1 x3)
2
y =
1
u = 1 x3 y = u2
du dy 1 1
= 3x2 = u 2
dx du 2
dy dy du 1
= u 2 (3x2)
1
=
dx du dx 2
dy 3 1
= x2 (1 x3) 2
dx 2
3x2
=
2 (1 x3)
Alternative Solution:
dy
dx
=
d 12
du
u
d
( )
dx 2
1
(1 x3) = 1 (1 x3) 2 (3x2) etc
3 dy
Find when y = ln (3x2 2)
dx
Solution:
y = ln (3x2 2)
u = 3x2 2 y = ln u
du dy 1
= 6x =
dx du u
dy dy du 1
= = 6x
dx du dx u
dy 6x
= 2
dx 3x 2
dy
4 Find when y = e2x + 5
dx
Solution:
y = e2x + 5
u = 2x + 5 y = eu
du dy
= 2 = eu
dx du
dy dy du
= = eu 2
dx du dx
dy
= 2e2x + 5
dx
5 Take the parametric curve defined by x = 2t 2 & y = 4t . Point P has the co-ordinates, (2p2, 4p).
Find the gradient at point P:
Solution:
Draw a sketch of y in terms of x !!
y
t = (Given) y
4
P (2p2, 4p)
( 4y )
20
2
x = 2
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 x
2
y = 8x (Sketch)
-20
x = 2t 2 y = 4t
dx dy
= 4t = 4
dt dt
dy dy dt 1 1
= = 4 =
dx dt dx 4t t
At point P (2p2, 4p) ; y = 4p 4p = 4t p = t
1
The gradient at point P =
p
451
My A Level Maths Notes
46.4.1 Example:
dy
y = (6x + 8)4 = 4 (6x + 8)3 6
dx
dy
y = (ax + b)n = n (ax + b)3 a
dx
dy 1 4
y = ln (4x 1) = 4 =
dx 4x 1 4x 1
dy 1 1 6e3x
y = 4e3x + 2 = [ 4e3x + 2] 2 12e3x =
dx 2 4e3x + 2
1 dy 4x3
= 1 [ x4 + 2] 4x3 = 4
2
y =
x + 2
4 dx (x + 2)2
d 1 1
y = ln kx = k =
dx kx x
d 1 a
y = ln (ax + b) = a =
dx ax + b ax + b
46.7.1 Example:
1 Let A be the surface area of a spherical balloon. What is the rate of increase in the surface area of
the balloon when the radius r is 6 cm, and the radius is increasing at 008 cm/sec?
Solution:
We want to find dA
dt , and we know that A = 4r
2
dA
= 8r
dr
dA dA dr
=
dt dr dt
dA
= 8 6 008
dt
dA
= 384 cm2 / sec
dt
453
My A Level Maths Notes
3 The area of a circle, A, increases at a rate of 06 cm2 s1 (cm2/sec). Find the rate of change of the
circumference, C, when the radius is 5cm.
Solution:
dA
From the question we are told that the rate of increase in area is constant. Hence, = 06
dt
dA
The area of a circle is: A = r2 = r
dr
dC
The circumference of a circle is: C = 2r = 2
dr
dC
We are asked to find
dt
dC dA dr dC
Now: =
dt dt dA dr
dC 1 12
= 06 2 =
dt r r
dC
dt r = 5 |
=
12
5
= 024 cm2 s1
dy y
Now = lim
dx x 0 x
y y u
=
x u x
dy
dx
= lim
x 0
(y
u
u
x )
As x 0, u 0
dy
dx
= lim
u 0
( uy ) lim
x 0
( ux )
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
1 Differentiate:
y = sec x
Solution:
1
y = sec x = = (cos x)1
cos x
dy
= 1 (cos x)2 (sin x)
dx
sin x 1 sin x
= 2
=
cos x cos x cos x
= sec x tan x
2 Differentiate:
y = cosec x
Solution:
1
y = cosec x = = (sin x)1
sin x
dy
= 1 (sin x)2 (cos x)
dx
cos x 1 cos x
= 2 =
sin x sin x sin x
= cosec x cot x
455
My A Level Maths Notes
dy d [g (u)] du
=
dx du dx
d
[ f (x)] = n [f (x)] n 1 f (x)
n
dx
d
k [ f (x)] n = kn [f (x)] n 1 f (x)
dx
d
(ax + b)n = an (ax + b)n 1
dx
d [f (x)]
[e ]
d f (x)
= ef (x) = f (x) ef (x)
dx du
d [f (x)]
d
[ kef (x)] = k ef (x) = kf (x) ef (x)
dx du
d x
[e ] = ex
dx
d kx
dx
[e ] = kekx
dx
[e ]
d ax + b
= aeax + b
d f (x)
[ ln f (x)] =
dx f (x)
d f (x)
[ k ln f (x)] = k
dx f (x)
d 1
[ ln x] =
dx x
d 1
[ ln kx] =
dx x
d a
[ ln (ax + b)] =
dx ax + b
Note: other text books sometimes have the product rule laid out slightly differently. Use whatever you find
comfortable learning. e.g.
dy du dv
= v + u
dx dx dx
y dy u du v dv
More formerly lim = , lim = lim = and lim u = 0
x 0 x dx x 0 x dx x 0 x dx x 0
dy v u v
= u lim + v lim + lim lim u
dx x 0 x x 0 x x 0 x x 0
dy dv du
= u + v
dx dx dx
457
My A Level Maths Notes
dy
Stationary points when = 0
dx
2 (x 1)3 (5x 1) = 0
1
x = 1 and x =
5
2 Differentiate y = x2 (x2 + 7)
2
Solution:
v = (x2 + 7)
2
u = x2
du dv
= 2x = 2 (x2 + 7) 2x 4x (x2 + 7) (chain rule)
dx dx
dy
= x2 4x (x2 + 7) + (x2 + 7) 2x
2
dx
= 4x3 (x2 + 7) + 2x (x2 + 7)
2
[
= 2x (x2 + 7) 2x2 + (x2 + 7) ]
= 2x (x2 + 7) (3x2 + 7)
3 Differentiate y = xex
Solution:
u = x v = ex
du dv
= 1 = ex
dx dx
dy
= x ex + ex 1
dx
= ex (x + 1)
Solution:
u = (x2 + 4) v = (x5 + 7)
4
du dv
= 4 (x5 + 7) 5x4 20x4 (x5 + 7)
3 3
= 2x
dx dx
dy
= (x2 + 4) 20x4 (x5 + 7) + (x5 + 7) 2x
3 4
dx
[
= 2x (x5 + 7) 10x3 (x2 + 4) + (x5 + 7)
3
]
= 2x (x5 + 7) (11x5 + 40x3 + 7)
3
Solution:
1
u = (x + 4) v = (x2 1)2
du dv 1 12 12
= 1 = (x2 1) 2x x (x2 1)
dx dx 2
dy 1 1
= (x + 4) x (x2 1) 2 + (x2 1)2 1
dx
12 1
= x (x + 4) (x2 1) + (x2 1)2
= (x2 1)
12
[x(x + 4) + (x 2
1)
1
]
12
= (x2 1) (2x2 + 4x 1)
(2x2 + 4x 1) 2x2 + 4x 1
= 1 =
(x2 1) 2 x2 1
6 Differentiate y = x4 sin x
Solution:
u = x4 v = sin x
du dv
= 4x3 = cos x
dx dx
dy dv du
= u + v
dx dx dx
dy
= x4 cos x + sin x 4x3
dx
= x4cos x + 4x3sin x
= x3 (x cos x + 4 sin x)
459
My A Level Maths Notes
9 Find the gradient of the curve y = x3 (x + 1)3 at the point P(1, 8).
Solution:
u = x3 v = (x + 1)3
du dv
= 3x2 = 3 (x + 1)2
dx dx
dy
= 3x3 (x + 1)2 + 3 (x + 1)3 x2
dx
= 3x2 (x + 1)2 [x + (x + 1)] = 3x2 (x + 1)2 (2x + 1)
dy
|
dx x = 1
= 3 (2)2 (3) = 36
dy v du dv
dx u dx
=
dx v2
()
u '
v
=
vu uv
v2
Alternative forms of the equation as given in the exam formulae book:
( )
d f (x)
dx g (x)
=
f (x) g (x) f (x) g (x)
[ g (x)] 2
461
My A Level Maths Notes
1 x
Differentiate y =
x + 1
Solution:
dy v du u dv
u = x v = x + 1 Recall: = dx 2 dx
dx v
du dv
= 1 = 1
dx dx
dy (x + 1) 1 x 1
=
dx (x + 1)2
x + 1 x
=
(x + 1)2
1
=
(x + 1)2
2 x + 2
Differentiate y =
x2 + 3
Solution:
u = x + 2 v = x2 + 3
du dv
= 1 = 2x
dx dx
dy (x2 + 3) 1 (x + 2) 2x
=
dx (x2 + 3)2
(x2 + 3) 2x (x + 2)
=
(x2 + 3)2
x2 + 3 2x2 4x
=
(x2 + 3)2
3 x2 4x
=
(x2 + 3)2
3 3x
Differentiate y =
e4x
Solution:
u = 3x v = e4x
du dv
= 3 = 4 e4x
dx dx
dy e4x 3 3x 4 e4x
=
dx (e4x)2
3e4x 12x e4x 3e4x (1 4x)
=
(e4x)2 (e4x)2
3 (1 4x)
=
e4x
4 x + 1
Differentiate y =
x2 + 1
Solution:
1
(x + 1)2
y = 1
( x2 + 1) 2
1
v = ( x2 + 1) 2
1
u = (x + 1)2
du 1 dv 1 1 12
= (x2 + 1) 2 2x x ( x2 + 1)
1
= (x + 1) 2
dx 2 dx 2
dy v du u dv
= dx 2 dx
dx v
1 12 1 12
dy ( x2 + 1) 2 1 (x + 1) (x + 1)2 x (x2 + 1)
= 2
dx [ ( x2 + 1) ] 2 1
2
1 1 1 1
1 (x2 + 1)2 (x + 1) 2 x (x + 1)2 (x2 + 1) 2
= 2
( x2 + 1)
1 1
(x + 1) 2 (x2 + 1) 2 [ (x2 + 1) 2x (x + 1)]
=
2 ( x2 + 1)
(x2 + 1) 2x2 2x
= 1 1
2 (x2 + 1)2 (x + 1)2 (x2 + 1)
1 2x x2
= 3 1
2 (x2 + 1)2 (x + 1)2
5 ln x
Differentiate y = and find the exact value of the gradient at x = e
x + 1
Solution:
dy v du u dv
u = ln x v = x + 1 Recall: = dx 2 dx
dx v
du 1 dv
= = 1
dx x dx
dy (x + 1) 1x ln x 1
=
dx (x + 1)2
x + 1 x ln x
=
x (x + 1)2
dy
|
dx x = e
=
e + 1 e
e (e + 1)2
1
=
e (e + 1)2
463
My A Level Maths Notes
6 x
Find the gradient at the origin of y =
x2 + 2
Solution:
u = x v = x2 + 2
du dv
= 1 = 2x
dx dx
dy (x2 + 2) 1 x 2x
=
dx (x2 + 2)2
(x2 + 2) 2x2
=
(x2 + 2)2
2 x2
=
(x2 + 2)2
dy
|
dx x = 0
=
2
(2)2
=
1
2
E.g. 5 dy
y = 5 (3x + 2)2 = 30 (3x + 2)3 chain rule
(3x + 2)2 dx
1 x dy 2
y = (1 x) (1 + x)1 = product rule
1 + x dx (1 + x)2
f (x)
y =
g (x)
dy f (x) g (x) f (x) g (x)
=
dx [ g (x)] 2
Compare with our derivation:
dy v du u dv
= dx 2 dx
dx v
49.1 Differentiation of ex
Recall from Exponential & Log Functions that the value of e is chosen such that the gradient function of y = ex
is the same as the original function and that when x = 0 the gradient of y = ex is 1.
Hence:
dy
y = ex = ex
dx
dy
y = ekx = kekx
dx
dy
y = ef (x) = f (x) ef (x)
dx
dy
y = ef (x) = f (x) ef (x)
dx
49.1.1 Example:
1 Differentiate y = ecos x
Solution:
dy
= f (x) ef (x)
dx
dy
= sin x ecos x
dx
465
My A Level Maths Notes
4 Differentiate y = ex
3
Solution:
du
u = x3 = 3x2
dx
dy
y = eu = eu
du
dy du dy
=
dx dx du
dy
= 3x2 eu = 3x2 eu
dx
dy 3
= 3x2 ex
dx
5 Differentiate y = e (x 1)
2
Solution:
dt
t = x 1 = 1
dx
du
u = (t)2 = 2t
dt
dy
y = eu = eu
du
dy dy du dt
=
dx du dt dx
dy
= eu 2t 1 = 2t eu
dx
dy
= 2 (x 1) e (x 1)
2
dx
50.1 Differentiation of ln x
Recall that ln x is the reciprocal function of ex and that y = ex is a reflection of y = ln x in the line y = x
dy 1
y = ln x =
dx x
dy f (x)
y = ln f (x) =
dx f (x)
If y = ln x then x = ey
dx
Differentiate w.r.t to y = ey
dy
dx
Hence = x
dy
dy 1 1
From (1) = dx =
dx dy x
1 Differentiate y = ln x2
Solution:
du
u = x2 = 2x
dx
dy 1
y = ln u =
du u
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
dy 1 2x
= 2x =
dx u u
dy 2x 2
= 2 =
dx x x
467
My A Level Maths Notes
2 (
Differentiate y = ln x2 2x3 + 3 )
Solution:
1
Let z = x2 (2x3 + 3)2 and z = uv
1
Where u = x2 and v = (2x3 + 3)2
du dv 1 1 1
= 2x and = (2x3 + 3) 2 6x2 3x2 (2x3 + 3) 2
dx dx 2
dz dv du
= u + v
dx dx dx
12 1
= x2 3x2 (2x3 + 3) + (2x3 + 3)2 2x
12 1
= 3x4 (2x3 + 3) + 2x (2x3 + 3)2
1 1 1 1
dy 3x4 (2x3 + 3) 2 + 2x (2x3 + 3)2 3x4 (2x3 + 3) 2 2x (2x3 + 3)2
but = 1 = 1 + 1
dx x2 (2x3 + 3)2 x2 (2x3 + 3)2 x2 (2x3 + 3)2
3x2 2
= +
(2x + 3) x
3
3 Differentiate y = ex ln 2
Solution:
du
u = x ln 2 = ln 2
dx
dy
y = eu = eu
du
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
dy
= ln 2 eu = ln (2) eu
dx
dy
= ex ln 2 ln (2)
dx
4
Differentiate y = e (x 1)
2
Solution:
dt
t = x 1 = 1
dx
du
u = (t)2 = 2t
dt
dy
y = eu = eu
du
dy dy du dt
=
dx du dt dx
dy
= eu 2t 1 = 2t eu
dx
dy
= 2 (x 1) e (x 1)
2
dx
Time t
469
My A Level Maths Notes
51.2.1 Example:
1 An objects speed varies according to the equation y = 4sin 2 and increases at a constant rate of
15
3 radians / sec. Find the rate at which y is changing when =
18
Given: y = 4 sin 2 ; d = 3
dt
dy 15
Required: dt when = 18
dy d dy
Connection: dt = dt d
dy
= 8 cos 2
d
dy
= 3 8 cos 2 = 24 cos 2
dt
When =
15
18
dy
dt
= 24 cos 2 (15
18 )
= 24
1
2
= 12 units / sec
3 A spherical balloon (specially designed for exams) is being inflated. When the diameter is 10 cm,
its volume is increasing at 200 cm3 / sec. What rate is the surface area increasing.
Required: dA when r = 5
dt
Connection: dA = dV dA
dt dt dV
dA will require a connection between Volume and Area which is the radius.
To find dV
dA = dr dA
Using the chain rule to connect all the variables: dV dV dr
Extending the first chain connection we get:
dA dV dr dA
=
dt dt dV dr
dV
= 4r2
dr
dr 1
=
dV 4r2
dA
= 8r
dr
dA 1
= 200 8r
dt 4r2
dA 400
=
dt r
dA 400
When r = 5 = = 80 cm2 / sec
dt 5
4 The same balloon has its volume increased by 4 m3/ sec. Find the rate at which the radius changes
when r = 4 cm.
4 3 dV
Given: Volume of sphere: V = r ; = 4
3 dt
dr
Required: when r = 4
dt
dr dV dr
Connection: =
dt dt dV
dV dr 1
= 4r2 =
dr dV 4r2
dr dV dr
=
dt dt dV
dr 1 1
= 4 =
dt 4r 2 r2
dr 1
When r = 4 = cm / sec
dt 16
471
My A Level Maths Notes
5 A prism, with a regular triangular base has length 2h and each side of the triangle measures 2h cm.
3
If h is increasing at 2 m/sec what is the rate of increase in the volume when h = 9?
Required: dV when h = 9
dt
Connection: dV = dV dh
dt dh dt
2h
2h/
3
1 2h 2h3 dV 6h2
Volume of prism: V = h 2h = =
2 3 3 dh 3
dV 6h2 12h2
= 2 =
dt 3 3
dV 12 9 2
When h = 9 = = 5612 (4 sf )
dt 3
6 A conical vessel with a semi vertical angle of 30 is collecting fluid at the rate of 2 cm3/ sec. At
what rate is the fluid rising when the depth of the fluid is 6 cm, and what rate is the surface area of
the fluid increasing?
dV
Given: Volume of cone: V = 13 r2h ; = 2
dt
h
Radius of fluid: r = h tan 30 =
3
dh
Required, part 1: when h = 6
dt
dh dh dV
Connection, part 1: =
dt dV dt
2
( )
Volume of cone in terms of h: V = 13 h h = 19 h3
3
dV 3 2 h2
= h =
dh 9 3
dh dh dV
=
dt dV dt
dh 3
= 2
dt h2
dh 6 1
When : h = 6 = = cm / sec
dt 36 6
dA
Required, part 2: when h = 6
dt
dA dA dh
Connection, part 2: =
dt dh dt
( )
2
h h2
Area of fluid surface: A = r2 = =
3 3
dA 2h
=
dh 3
dA 2h 6 4
= =
dt 3 h 2 h
dA 4 2
When : h = 6 = = = 0333 cm2 / sec
dt 6 3
473
My A Level Maths Notes
52.1 Integrating ex
Recall that:
d x
e = ex
dx
and since integration is the reverse of differentiation, (i.e. integrate the RHS) we derive:
e dx
x
= ex + C
Similarly:
d x d (ax + b)
ae = aex and e = ae(ax + b)
dx dx
1 (ax + b)
ae dx e
x (ax + b)
= aex + C and dx = e + C
a
Note: to integrate an exponential with a different base that is not e, then the base must be converted to base e.
A good reason to use base e at all times for calculus!
y y y
y = x 1 y = ln(x)
y = ln(x)
1
x x e x
(1, 0) (1, 0)
475
My A Level Maths Notes
Since ln x is only valid for positive values of x (see graph above) and taking the reverse of the differential of ln x,
(i.e. integrate the RHS) and provided x > 0 we derive:
d
ln x =
1
1 dx = ln x + C valid for x > 0
x
dx x
However, from the graph of y = x1 we can see that solutions exist for negative values of x, so it must be
possible to integrate y = 1x for all values of x except for x = 0. The problem is dealing with x < 0.
From the graph, we can see that ln (x) is defined for negative values of x and so using the chain rule it can be
shown that:
d 1
ln kx = where k is a constant
dx x
d 1 1
If k = 1 then ln (x) = =
dx x x
Hence:
d
ln (x) =
1
1 dx = ln (x) + C valid for x < 0
x
dx x
Combining these two results using modulus notation we have:
1 dx = ln | x | + C x 0
x
provided
With the restriction of x 0, you cannot find the area under a curve with limits that span x 0.
Recall that:
d
ln (ax + b) =
a
1 1
dx = ln | ax + b | + C
ax + b
dx ax + b a
This reversal of the process leads to a number of standard integrals (many of which can be found in the annex).
Recognising and using standard integrals is often called
53.2.1 Example:
1 dy
If y = (2x 1)6 then = 12 (2x 1)5
dx
1
(2x 1)
5
dx = (2x 1)6 + C
12
1
(ax + b) dx (ax + b)n + 1 + C
n
Formula: =
a (n + 1)
1 3
= 21 (2 7x)2 + C
2
2 3
= (2 7x)2 + C
21
477
My A Level Maths Notes
3 Find the area between the curve y = 16 (2x + 1)4 and the x axis:
20
15
The curve crosses the x-axis at 2 points when:
16 (2x + 1)4 = 0
10
0
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5
-5
0.0 0.5 1.0
(2x + 1)4 = 16 (2x + 1) = 2
-10
-15 x = 12 or x = 23
-20
1 1
(2x + 1)5 2
2 4
Area = 16 (2x + 1) dx = 16x 3
23 10 2
16 (1 + 1)5 16 3 (3 + 1)5
=
2 10 2 10
(2)5 (2)5
= 8 24
10 10
(32)
= 8
32
24
10 10
= 4.8 (20.8) = 25.6
1
(ax + b) (ax + b)n + 1 + C
n
dx = Not valid for n = 1
a (n + 1)
53.3.1 Example:
1 1
Find the integral of
(3x 5)
1
(3x 5)
1
dx = ln (3x 5) + C
3
2 1
Find the integral of
(3x 5)3
1
(3x 5)
3
dx = (3x 5)2 + C
3 (2)
1
= (3x 5)2 + C
6
1
= + C
6 (3x 5)2
54.2.1 Example:
1
(2x 1)
5
dx
du dx 1
Let u = 2x 1 = 2 =
dx du 2
dx 1
(2x 1) (u) u
5 5 5
dx = du = du
du 2
1
= u6 + C
2 6
1
= (2x 1)6 + C
12
(2 7x)
1
2 7x dx = 2 dx
du dx 1
Let u = 2 7x = 7 =
dx du 7
(2 7x)
1
2 dx = (u)
1
2
dx
du
du = (u)
1
2
( 17) du
= ( 17 23 ) (u) 3
2 + C
2 3
= (2 7x)2 + C
21
479
My A Level Maths Notes
3 1
Find the integral of
(3x 5)3
Solution:
du dx 1
Let u = 3x 5 = 3 =
dx du 3
(3x 5)
3
dx = (u)
3 dx
du
du = (u)
3
( 13 ) du
=
1 1
3 2 ( )
(u)2 du
1
= + C
6 (3x 5)2
4 Find the area between the curve y = 16 (2x + 1)4 and the x axis:
20
15
The curve crosses the x-axis at 2 points when:
10
16 (2x + 1)4 = 0
5
0
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
-5
-10
(2x + 1)4 = 16 (2x + 1) = 2
-15
-20 x = 12 or x = 23
1
2
Area A = 16 (2x + 1)4 dx
23
du dx 1
Let u = 2x + 1 = 2 =
dx du 2
Change the limits to be in terms of u:
1 3
x = , u = 2 x = , u = 2
2 2
2
dx
A = 2
16 (u)4
du
du
2
1
A =
2 2
16 (u)4 du
2
1 (u)5
= 16u
2 5 2
2
(u)5
= 8u
10 2
(2)5 (2)5
= 16 16
10 10
= 12.8 (12.8) = 25.6
1
4x (6x + 5)
4
dx
Solution:
du dx 1 u 5
Let u = 6x + 5 = 6 = x =
dx du 6 6
dx 1
4x (6x + 5) 4x (u) 4x (u)
4 4 4
dx = du = du
du 6
4 4
= x u du
6
=
2 u 5 4
3 6 (
u du )
2
(u 5) u du
4
=
18
(u 5u ) du
1 5 4
=
9
1 u6 5u5
= + C
96 5
1 u6 5
= u + C
96
1 u6 6 5
= u + C
9 6 6
=
1 6
54
[ u 6u5] + C
1 5
= u [ u 6] + C
54
1
= (6x + 5)5 [ 6x + 5 6] + C
54
1
= (6x + 5)5 (6x 1) + C
54
2 1
x 2 x2 dx = x (2 x2 )2 dx
Solution:
du dx 1
Let u = 2 x2 = 2x =
dx du 2x
( 2x1 ) du
1
dx
x (2 x2 )2 dx = x (u) x (u)
1 1
2 du = 2
du
1
1
= (u)2 du
2
= ( 12 23 ) (u) 3
2 + C
3
1
= ( 2 x2 ) 2 + C
3
481
My A Level Maths Notes
3
(x + 1) (3x 4)
4
dx
Solution:
du dx 1
Let u = 3x 4 = 3 =
dx du 3
u + 4 u + 4 u + 7
x = x + 1 = + 1 x + 1 =
3 3 3
u + 7
(x + 1) (3x 4)4 dx =
3
(u)4 (
dx
du )
u + 7
du =
3
1
(u)4 du
3 ( )
=
1 (u + 7) u4 du
9
=
1 (u5 + 7u4) du
9
1 u6 7u5
= + C
96 5
1 5u6 42u5
= + C
9 30 30
1 5
= u (u 42) + C
270
1
= (3x 4)5 (3x 4 42) + C
270
1
= (3x 4)5 (3x 46) + C
270
4 1
Find the integral of using u = x as the substitution.
x (3 + x)
Solution:
1 du 1 1 dx
Let u = x = x2 = x 2 = 2 x = 2u
dx 2 du
1
x (3 + x)
dx =
1
( dx
u(3 + u ) du
du = ) 1
u(3 + u )
2u du ( )
= du = 2
2u 1
du
u(3 + u ) 3 + u
= 2 ln (3 + u) + C
= 2 ln (3 + x) + C
5
(6x + 3) (6x 3)
5
dx
Solution:
du dx 1
Let u = 6x 3 = 6 =
dx du 6
x =
u + 3
6
6x + 3 = 6 (
u + 3
6 )
+ 3 6x + 3 = u + 6
dx 1
(6x + 3) (6x 3)5 dx = (u + 6) (u)5
du
du = (u + 6) (u)5 du
6
=
1 (u + 6) (u)5 du
6
=
1 (u6 + 6u5) du
6
1 u7 6u6
= + + C
67 6
u6 u
= + 1 + C
6 7
u6
= [ u + 7] + C
42
1
= (6x 3)6 (6x 3 + 7) + C
42
1
= (6x 3)6 (6x + 4) + C
42
2
= (3x + 2)(6x 3)6 + C
42
1
= (3x + 2)(6x 3)6 + C
21
483
My A Level Maths Notes
6 ex
Find the integral of
(2ex + 3)
Solution:
du dx 1
Let u = 2ex + 3 = 2ex =
dx du 2ex
u 3 dx 1
ex = 2ex = u 3 =
2 du u 3
ex
(2e + 3 )
x
u 3
dx =
2
(
1 dx
u du
du =
2 )
u 3 1 1
u u 3
du ( ) ( )
=
1
2u
du
1
= ln (u) + C
2
= 2 ln (2ex + 3) + C
7 1
Find the integral of between x = 0 & x = 1
6x + 3
Solution:
du dx 1
Let u = 6x + 3 = 6 =
dx du 6
1 x=1 x=1
1 1 dx 1
0 6x + 3
dx = x = 0 u du
du = x = 0 6u
du
x=1
1 1
=
6 x=0 u
du
x=1
=
1
[ ln (u)] x = 0
6
x=1
=
1
6
[ ln (6x + 3)] x = 0
=
1
6
(ln (6 + 3) ln (0 + 3))
=
1
6
(ln (9) ln (3))
=
1
6 ( )
ln
9
3
1
= ln 3
6
1
[ ln (u)] 3
9
=
6
8
4x (x 5) dx
2 4
Solution:
du dx 1
Let u = x2 5 = 2x =
dx du 2x
dx 1
4x (x 5) dx = 4x (u) 4x (u)
2 4 4 4
du = du
du 2x
2 (u) du
4
=
2
= (u)5 + C
5
2 2
= (x 5)5 + C
5
485
My A Level Maths Notes
dy
Differentiating both sides of (1): = f (x) (2)
dx
dy dy dx
From the chain rule: =
du dx du
dy dx
From (2) = f (x)
du du
y =
dx
Integrating both sides w.r.t u: f (x) du
du
y =
dx
But f (x) = f [g (u)] f [g (u)] du
du
dx
From (1) f (x) dx = f [g (u)]
du
du
Solid of Revolution
Volume of Revolution
Recall that the volume of a cylinder is r2d , where r is the radius and d is the depth of the cylinder.
The volume of a thin slice, V , is given by:
V y2x
487
My A Level Maths Notes
Hence, the total volume of revolution about the x-axis is approximated by adding these slices together:
n
V V y x
i=1
2
Accuracy improves as x becomes ever smaller and tends towards zero, hence the volume is the limit of the sum
of all the slices as x 0.
n
V = lim
x 0
y x
i=1
2
Note that since integration is done w.r.t x, then the limits are for x = a, & x = b.
Hence:
n
V = lim
y 0
x y
i=1
2
n
V = lim
y 0
[f (y)]
i=1
2
y
b
V = a
[ f (y)] 2 dy
Note that since integration is done w.r.t y, then the limits are for y = a, & y = b.
1 y
1 y = sin x
p 2p
-1
Find the volume of the solid generated by rotating the area under the curve of y = sin x when
rotated through 2 radians about the x-axis, and between the y-axis and the line x = .
Solution:
b
V = a
y2dx
V = 0
sin2x dx
2
Now: 2 sin x = 1 cos 2x
V =
2 0
1 cos 2x dx
1
= x sin 2x
2 2 0
1
= ( 0) (0 0)
2 2
2
= units3
2
489
My A Level Maths Notes
2 y=x
y y
y2 = x
x x
Find the volume of the solid generated by rotating the area between the curve
y2 = x and the line y = x through 2 radians, about the x-axis.
Solution:
In general, the solid of rotation of similar shapes is the difference between the solids of rotation of
the two separate curves or lines.
Note that the limits are found from the intersection of the straight line and the curve. The
intersection points are easy found to be (0, 0) and (1, 1).
b
V = (y12 y22) dx
a
3
y
y = (4x 1)5
0.5 x
The shaded region is rotated about the x-axis, find the volume of the solid.
Solution:
The limits of the shaded region are found when y = 0 and x = 05 (given)
When y = 0 then (4x 1)5 = 0
4x 1 = 0
4x = 1
x = 025
To find the volume:
b
V = a
y2dx
05
[ (4x 1)5] dx
2
V = 025
du du
let u = 4x 1 and = 4, dx =
dx 4
1 111
= u
4 11 0
[ u11] 0
1
=
44
= [ 1 0]
44
= units3
44
491
My A Level Maths Notes
4 y
y = 4ex
1.0 x
The shaded region R enclosed by the curve y = 4ex is rotated about the x-axis. Find the volume
of the solid when the curve is bounded by the lines x = 0, x = 1 and y = 0.
Solution:
To find the volume:
b
V = a
y2dx
[ 4ex] dx
2
V =
0
1
= 0
16 e2xdx
1
= 16 0
e2xdx
1
1
= 16 e2x
2 0
=
16
[ (e2) (1)]
2
= 8 [ (e2) + 1]
= 8 (1 e2)
b
V = a
y2dx
Note that since integration is done w.r.t x, then the limits are for x = a, & x = b.
b
V = a
x2dy
Note that since integration is done w.r.t y, then the limits are for y = a, & y = b.
493
My A Level Maths Notes
C4 Contents
Module C1 21
Module C2 187
Module C3 327
Module C4 495
Plus other minor editorial alterations and corrections. * means latest items to be updated
495
My A Level Maths Notes
C4 Brief Syllabus
j divide a polynomial, (degree 4), by a linear or quadratic polynomial, & give quotient & remainder
j express rational functions as partial fractions, and carry out decomposition, where the denominator is
no more complicated than (ax + b) (cx + d) (ex + f ) or (ax + b) (cx + d)2, and not top heavy.
j use the expansion of (1 + x)n where n is a rational number and x <1 (finding a general term is not
included, but adapting the standard series to expand, e.g. (2 x)1 is included)
j understand the use of a pair of parametric equations to define a curve, and use a given parametric
representation of a curve in simple cases
j convert the equation of a curve between parametric and Cartesian forms.
j use the derivatives of sin x, cos x, tan x together with sums, differences and constant multiples
j find and use the first derivative of a function which is defined parametrically or implicitly
j extend the idea of reverse differentiation to include the integration of trig functions
j use trig identities (e.g. double angle formulae) in the integration of functions such as cos2 x
j integrate rational functions by decomposition into partial fractions
k (x) x
j recognise an integrand of the form , and integrate, for example 2
(x) x + 1
j recognise when an integrand can be regarded as a product, & use integration by parts.
E.g. for x sin 2x, x2e2, ln x (understand the relationship between integration by parts & differentiation
of a product)
j use a given substitution to simplify and evaluate either a definite or an indefinite integral
(understand the relationship between integration by substitution and the chain rule).
j derive a differential equation from a simple statement involving rates of change (with a constant of
proportionality if required)
j find by integration a general solution for a differential equation in which the variables are separable
j use an initial condition to find a particular solution of a differential equation
j interpret the solution of a differential equation for a problem being modelled by the equation.
4 Vectors
dy
Function f (x) Integral f (x) dx
Function f (x) Dif f erential dx = f (x)
sin kx 1k cos kx + c
sin kx k cos kx
1 sin kx + c
cos kx k sin kx cos kx k
tan kx k sec2 kx tan kx 1 ln | sec kx | + c
k
x in radians!
2 Vectors
| xi + yj + zk | = x2 + y2 + z2
(ai + bj + ck) (xi + yj + zk) = ax + by + cz
p q = | p | | q | cos
a
p q = b
c () () x
y
z
= ax + by + cz = ( a2 + b2 + c2) ( x2 + y2 + z2) cos
r = a + tp
3 Trig
R = a2 + b2 R cos = a R sin = b
b
tan = 0 < a <
a 2
497
My A Level Maths Notes
j Definitions of tan x, cot x, sec x & cosec x in terms of sin x & cos x
j The differential of sin x & cos x
j Product and Quotient rules of differentiation.
From previous module: (Note the coloured letters in bold - an easy way to remember them).
1 1 1
sec x cosec x cot x
cos x sin x tan x
dy
Function f (x) Dif f erential dx = f (x)
true for x in radians
sin x cos x
cos x sin x
Product and Quotient rules:
dy du dv
Product rule: if y = uv then = v + u
dx dx dx
u dy v du u dv
Quotient rule: if y = then = dx 2 dx
v dx v
dy dy du
Chain rule: =
dx du dx
We can use these results to find the differentials of the other trig functions:
499
My A Level Maths Notes
dy
Function f (x) Dif f erential dx = f (x)
sin x cos x
cos x sin x
tan x sec2x
cot x cosec x
cosec x cosec x cot x
sec x sec x tan x
dy
Function f (x) Dif f erential dx = f (x)
sin kx k cos kx
cos kx k sin kx
tan kx k sec2 kx
1
Differentiate y = x3sin x [product rule]
Solution:
u = x3 v = sin x
du dv
= 3x2 = cos x
dx dx
dy
= x3 cos x + sin x 3x2
dx
dy
= x2 (x cos x + 3 sin x)
dx
2 1 cos x
Differentiate y = cos x [quotient rule]
x x
Solution:
Let: u = cos x v = x
du dv
= sin x = 1
dx dx
dy x ( sin x) cos x
=
dx x2
dy x sin x cos x x sin x + cos x
= 2
=
dx x x2
3
Differentiate y = cos4x [chain rule]
Solution:
u = cos x y = u4
du dy
= sin x = 4u3
dx du
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
dy
= 4u3 ( sin x)
dx
dy
= 4 cos3x ( sin x) = 4 cos3x sin x
dx
4
Differentiate y = cos4x [quick method - diff out - diff in]
Solution:
y = (cos x)4
dy
= 4 (cos x)3 (sin x) [differentiate outside bracket - differentiate inside bracket]
dx
dy
= 4 cos3x sin x
dx
501
My A Level Maths Notes
5
Differentiate y = ln sec x [chain rule]
Solution:
u = sec x y = ln u
du dy 1
= sec x tan x =
dx du u
dy 1
= sec x tan x = tan x
dx sec x
6 Differentiate y = sin 3x (
4 ) [chain rule]
Solution:
u = 3x y = sin u
4
du dy
= 3 = cos u
dx du
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
dy
= cos (u) 3
dx
dy
dx (
= 3cos 3x
4 )
7 24
22
20
Differentiate y = sin2 3x 18
16
u = 3x y = sin2u 14
12
v = sin u
10
y = v2 4
y=sin23x 2
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Solution:
du dy dv
= 3 = 2v = cos u [extended chain rule]
dx dv du
dy dy du dv
=
dx dv dx du
dy
= 2v 3 cos u
dx
dy
= 2sin u 3 cos u
dx
dy
= 6cos 3x sin 3x
dx
dy
= 3sin 6x double angle formula
dx
9
Differentiate y = sin5x cos3x
Solution:
u = sin5x v = cos3x
Use chain rule on u Use chain rule on v
If z = sin x If w = cos x
5
u = z v = w3
du dz dv dw
= 5z 4 = cos x = 3w 2 = sin x
dz dx dw dx
du du dz dv dv dw
= =
dx dz dx dx dw dx
du dv
= 5z4 cos x = 3w2 ( sin x)
dx dx
du dv
= 5 sin4x cos x = 3 cos2x sin x
dx dx
503
My A Level Maths Notes
10
Differentiate y = ln sin x [chain rule]
Solution:
1
y = ln (sin x)2
= 1 ln
2 (sin x) [log laws]
Let u = sin x
1
y =ln u
2
dy 1 1 du
= = cos x
du 2 u dx
dy 1 1 cos x
= cos x =
dx 2 u 2sin x
11
Differentiate y = 4x6sin x [product rule]
Solution:
Let u = 4x6 v = sin x
du dv
= 24x5 = cos x
dx dx
dy du dv
= v + u
dx dx dx
dy
= sin x 24x5 + 4x6 cos x
dx
dy
= 4x5 (6 sin x + x cos x)
dx
12
Differentiate y = tan3x 3 tan x [chain rule]
Solution:
y = (tan x)3 3 tan x
du
Let u = tan x = sec2x
dx
y = u3 3u
dy
= 3u2 3
du
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
dy
= (3u2 3) sec2x
dx
dy
= (3tan2x 3) sec2x
dx
dy
= 3sec2x (tan2x 1)
dx
13 cos 3x
Differentiate y = [quotient rule]
e3x
Solution:
Let u = cos 3x v = e3x
du dv
= 3sin 3x = 3e3x
dx dx
dy v du u dv
= dx 2 dx
dx v
dy e3x (3 sin 3x) cos 3x 3e3x
=
dx (e3x)2
3 sin 3x cos 3x
=
(e3x)
3 (sin 3x + cos 3x)
=
e3x
14
Differentiate y = cosec 3x [quick method - diff out - diff in]
Solution:
y = cosec (3x)
dy
= cosec (3x) cot (3x) 3 [differentiate outside bracket - differentiate inside bracket]
dx
dy
= 3 cosec3x cot 3x
dx
15
Differentiate y = cot 2 3x [quick method - diff out - diff in]
Solution:
y = (cot (3x))2
dy
= 2 (cot (3x))1 ( cosec2 3x) 3
dx
[differentiate outside bracket - differentiate inside bracket used twice]
dy
= 6cot 3x cosec2 3x
dx
16 Find the smallest value of for which the curve y = 2 3sin has a gradient of 0.5
Solution:
y = 2 3sin
dy
= 2 3 cos
d
dy
When = 05 2 3 cos = 05
d
cos = 05
smallest +ve value of =
3
Note: the answer is given in radians, differentiation and integration are valid only if angles are
measured in radians.
505
My A Level Maths Notes
17
sin4 3x
Differentiate y = [quotient rule & chain rule]
6x
Solution:
(sin (3x))4
y =
6x
dz
Let z = sin (3x) = 3 cos (3x)
dx
u = (z)4 v = 6x
du dv
= 4 z3 = 6
dz dx
dz
= 3 cos (3x)
dx
du dz du
= = 3 cos (3x) 4 z3 = 12 cos (3x) sin3 (3x)
dx dx dz
dy v du u dv
= dx 2 dx
dx v
dy 6x [12 cos (3x) sin3 (3x)] sin4 (3x) 6
=
dx (6x)2
dy 6x [4 (sin (3x))3 3 cos (3x)] sin4 (3x) 6
=
dx (6x)2
[or differentiate outside bracket - differentiate inside bracket]
72x sin3 (3x) cos (3x) 6 sin4 (3x)
=
36x2
sin3 (3x) [12 cos (3x) sin (3x)]
=
6x2
18
Differentiate y = sin2x cos 3x
Solution:
Need product rule and chain rule:
y = (sin x)2 cos (3x)
dy
= sin2x 3sin (3x) + cos 3x 2 (sin x) cos x
dx
dy
= sin x [2 cos 3x cos x 3sin x sin 3x]
dx
1
Differentiate y = ln | sin x | [chain rule]
Solution:
du
Let u = sin x = cos x
dx
dy 1
y = ln |u| =
du u
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
dy 1 dy cos x cos x
= cos x = = = cot x
dx u dx u sin x
OR
dy 1
If y = ln | f (x)| = f (x)
dx f (x)
dy 1 d
= (sin x)
dx sin x dx
dy 1
= cos x
dx sin x
dy
= cot x
dx
2
Differentiate y = ln | sec x | [chain rule]
Solution:
dy 1 d
= (sec x)
dx sec x dx
dy 1
= sec x tan x
dx sec x
dy
= tan x
dx
3
Differentiate y = ln | sec x + tan x | [chain rule]
Solution:
dy 1 d
= (sec x + tan x)
dx sec x + tan x dx
dy 1
= sec x tan x + sec2x
dx sec x + tan x
dy 1
= sec x (tan x + sec x)
dx sec x + tan x
dy
= sec x
dx
507
My A Level Maths Notes
4
Differentiate y = ln | cosec x + cot x | [chain rule]
Solution:
dy 1 d
= (cosec x + cot x)
dx cosec x + cot x dx
dy 1
= ( cosec x cot x cosec2x)
dx cosec x + cot x
dy 1
= ( cosec x (cot x + cosec x)
dx cosec x + cot x
dy cosec x (cot x + cosec x)
=
dx cosec x + cot x
dy
= cosec x
dx
d
dx
(cos x) = sin x sin x dx = cos x + c
d
(tan x) = sec2 x sec
2
x dx = tan x + c
dx
cos kx 1 sin kx +
k
sec2 kx 1 tan kx + c
k Valid for x in radians
sec x tan x sec x + c
cosec x cot x cosec x + c
1
cosec kx cot kx cosec kx + c
k
cosec2x cot x + c
cot x ln | sin x |
tan x ln | cos x |
ln | sec x |
509
My A Level Maths Notes
58.3.1 Example:
1
1
cosec 2x cot 2x dx = cosec 2x + c
2
2
tan (2x ) dx
1
= ln | sec (2x ) | + c
2
3
tan x dx
2
(sec x 1) dx
2
= tan x x + c
-1
Solution:
1
2x + = 0, , etc
3
2
2x = , , etc
3 3
x = (which can be ignored as it is outside the range required)
6
2
or x = =
6 3
( ) ( )
3
dx = cos 2x +
1
3
sin 2x +
0 3 2 3 0
= cos ( + ) cos ( )
1 2 1
[cos = 1]
2 3 3 2 3
= ( ) ( ) =
1 1 3
[cos / 3 = 1]
2
2 4 4
k f (x) dx = k ln | f (x) | + c
f (x)
Derive tan x
sin x
tan x =
cos x
sin x
tan x = cos x dx
sin x d
= cos x dx since:
dx
(cos x) = sin x
= ln | cos1 x | + c
= ln | sec x | + c
1
cot ax dx =
a
ln | sin x | + c
N.B. the modulus sign means you cant take the natural log of a negative number. By using the modulus we
avoid this problem. The modulus sign also allows both sides of the integral to have the same domain of
x R, x 0
511
My A Level Maths Notes
d 1
dx
cos (ax + b) = a sin (ax + b) sin (ax + b) dx =
a
cos (ax + b) + c
d 1
tan (ax + b) = a sec2 (ax + b) sec (ax + b) dx
2
= tan (ax + b) + c
dx a
58.5.1 Example:
( )
1
4
Show that sec2 2x = 1
0 4
Solution:
( ) ( )
4
= tan 2x
1
4
2
sec 2x
2
0 4 4 0
= tan (2 ) tan (0 )
1 1
2 4 4 2 4
= tan ( ) tan ( )
1
2 4 4
1
= [ 1 + 1] = 1
2
sin A cos B 1
2(sin (A B) + sin (A + B))
cos A cos B 12 (cos (A B) + cos (A + B))
sin A sin B 12 (cos (A B) cos (A + B))
sin A cos A 1
2 sin 2A
Factor formulae:
513
My A Level Maths Notes
58.7 Integrals of Type: cos ax cos bx, sin ax cos bx, sin ax sin bx
This type of problem covers the most common questions. The only practical way to tackle these questions is to
use the trig identities below. Any other method is more complex.
One important result from integrating sin times cos is that the integral is always zero when integrated over a
complete period. (Important in Fourier analysis and signal processing).
From the addition (compound angle) trig identities we have:
sin A cos B 1
2 (sin (A B) + sin (A + B))
cos A cos B 1 ( cos (A B) + cos (A + B))
2
sin A cos A 1
2 sin 2A
These can be restated as:
sin ax cos bx 1
2 (sin (a b) x + sin (a + b) x)
cos ax cos bx 1 ( cos (a b) x + cos (a + b) x)
2
sin ax cos ax 1
2 sin 2ax
58.7.1 Example:
sin 3x cos 4x dx = 1
2 (sin (x) + sin 7x) dx
=
1
2 ( 1
cos x cos 7x + c
7 )
2 Integrate sin 4x cos 4x
Solution:
sin 4x cos 4x = 1
2 sin 8x dx Since: sin A cos A 1
2 (sin (2A)
1 1
= cos 8x + c
2 8
1
= cos 8x
16
3 2
Find 0
sin 3x cos 3x dx
Solution:
sin 3x cos 3x dx = 1
2 sin (3x 3x) + sin (3x + 3x) dx
= 1
2 sin (6x) dx
2
1 1
= cos 6x
2 6 0
= cos 12 1 cos 0
1
12
12
=
1 1
12 12
= 0
4 2
Find 0
sin 6x sin 5x dx
Solution:
2
sin 6x sin 5x dx = 1
2 0
cos (6x 5x) cos (6x + 5x) dx
2
= 1
2 0
cos (x) cos (11x) dx
2
1
sin 11x
1
= sin x
2 11 0
5 2
Find 0
sin 6x sin 6x dx
Solution:
2
sin 6x sin 4x dx = 1
2 0
cos (6x 6x) cos (6x + 6x) dx
2 2
= 1
2 0
cos (0) cos (12x) dx = 1
2 0
1 cos (12x) dx
2
1
sin 12x
1
= x
2 12 0
= 2 sin 24 + 0 + sin 0
1 1 1 1
2 12 2 12
1 1
= [ 2 0] + [ 0 + 0]
2 2
= + 0 =
Note: integrating a sin times sin is not always zero! See later for sin2 ax.
515
My A Level Maths Notes
sin x cos x dx
m n
If the power of Sine m is ODD, use sin2A = 1 cos2A and substitution u = cos x
If the power of Cosine n is ODD, use cos2A = 1 sin2A and substitution u = sin x
If m & n both ODD, use the one with the smallest power & proceed as above.
If m & n are both EVEN, we use the double angle identities:
sin2A 1
2 (1 cos 2A) cos2A 1
2 (1 + cos 2A) sin A cos A = 1
2 sin 2A
For simpler integrals of the form sinmx cos x, cosnx sin x, use the reverse of the chain rule for differentiation:
d
The derivative of sinn x is: (sinn x) = n sinn 1x cos x (from the chain rule)
dx
1
sin sinn + 1 x + c
n
In reverse: x cos x dx =
n + 1
1
Similarly: cosn x sin x dx =
n + 1
cosn + 1 x + c
58.8.1 Example:
1
sin 4x cos x dx = 1 sin5x + c
Ex 1:
5
cos7x sin x dx = 1 cos 8x + c
Ex 2:
8
3) = 1 sin
2 2x dx Since: sin A cos A 1
2 (sin (2A)
= 14 cos 2x + c
3
3 3
sin x cos x dx
Solution:
Since cos is ODD, use u = sin x. Substitute dx first and cancel before further substitutions.
Use: u = sin x du = cos x dx Recall: cos2A = 1 sin2A
sin3x cos3x dx = sin3x. cos3x du = sin3x. cos2x du = sin3x. (1 sin2x) du
cos x
u (1 u ) du =
= 3 2 3 5
u u du
u4 u6
= + c
4 6
sin4x sin6x
= + c
4 6
This technique can be used for any even power of sin x or cos x, and also sin2 (ax + b) etc.
Using identities is a simpler approach than using integration by parts. Substitution does not work in these cases.
58.9.1 Example:
1
sin x dx
2
Find:
Recognise: sin2A = 1
2 (1 cos 2A)
sin x dx
2
= 1
(1 cos 2x) dx
2
= 1
2 (x 12 sin 2x) + c
2
cos x dx
2
Find:
Recognise: cos2A = 1
2 (1 + cos 2A) [Double angle]
= 1
2 (x + 1
2 sin 2x) + c
4
Find: sin2 2x dx
0
now sin2A = 1
2 (1 cos 2A) Let A = 2x, sin2 2x = 1
2 (1 cos 4x)
4 4
2
sin 2x dx = 1
2 (1 cos 4x) dx
0 0
= x sin 4x
1 1 4
2 4 0
1
=
2 4
sin(4
4
(0 0)
)
=
8
4
cos
2
Find: 4x dx
Recognise: cos2A = 1
2 (1 + cos 2A) [Double angle]
= 1
2 (x + 1
8 sin 8x) + c
517
My A Level Maths Notes
5
cos x dx
4
Find:
Solution:
cos x dx
4 2 2
=
cos x cos x dx
=
1 1
(1 + cos 2x) (1 + cos 2x) dx
2 2
1
= (1 + cos 2x) (1 + cos 2x) dx
4
1
= (1 + 2cos 2x + cos2 2x) dx
4
1 1
= 1 + 2cos 2x + (1 + cos 4x) dx
4 2
=
1 3
4
2 ( 1
+ 2cos 2x + cos 4x dx
2 )
= x + sin 2x + sin 4x + c
1 3 1
4 2 8
3 1 1
= x + sin 2x + sin 4x + c
8 4 32
6
sin (2x
2
Find: + 3) dx
Solution:
Recognise: sin2A = 1
2 (1 cos 2A)
sin (2x
2
+ 3) dx = 1
2 (1 cos 2 (2x + 3)) dx
= 1
2
(1 cos (4x + 6)) dx
1
Recall: cos (ax + b) dx =
a
sin (ax + b) + c
x 1 cos (4x + 6) + c
sin (2x
2
+ 3) dx = 1
2
4
7 4
sin2 ( 12 x) dx
0
4 4
sin2 ( 12 x) dx = 1
2 (1 cos 2x
2 ) dx [Double angle]
0 0
= 1
2[x sin x ] 4
0
= 1
2 (4 0)
= 2
58.10.1 Example:
1
sin x dx
3
Find:
Solution:
cos x sin x dx
n
Recognise standard type [from a previous section]
= cos x + 1
3 cos3x + c
2
sin x dx
5
Find:
Solution:
cos x sin x dx
n
Recognise standard type
2 3 1
= cos x + cos x cos5x + c
3 5
519
My A Level Maths Notes
d
dx
(cosec x) = cosec x cot x cosec x cot x dx = cosec x + c
d
(cot x) = cosec2 x cosec
2
x dx = cot x + c
dx
58.11.1 Example:
1
cos 3x
sin2 3x
Solution:
cos 3x 1 cos 3x
Rewrite integral as: sin
2 3x
= sin 3x sin 3x
dx
= cosec 3x cot 3x dx
1
= cosec 3x + c
3
2
cot
2
x dx
Solution:
Recognise identity: 1 + cot 2 x = cosec2 x
cot (cosec
2 2
x dx = x 1) dx
= cot x x + c
tan x sec x dx
m n
If the power of Tan m is ODD, use tan2A = sec2A 1 and substitution u = sec x
If the power of Sec n is EVEN, use sec2A = 1 + tan2A and substitution u = tan x
(If Tan is ODD & Sec is EVEN, use either of the above)
If Tan is EVEN & Sec is ODD, try converting tans to secs & integrate by parts (long).
However, if m is 1 or n is 2 we can use the standard integrals:
1
tan x sec x dx tanm + 1x + c
m 2
=
m + 1
1
sec x tan x dx
n
= secnx + c
n
From the standard derivative of these functions, the integral can be found by reversing the process. Thus:
d
(1) (tann + 1x) = (n + 1) tannx sec2x
dx
1
tan x sec x dx tann + 1x + c
n 2
Reversing the derivative gives: =
n + 1
d
(2) (secn x) = n secn 1 x (secnx tan x) = n secnx tan x
dx
1 n
sec x tan x dx
n
Reversing the derivative gives: = sec x + c
n
58.12.1 Example:
1
tan x sec x dx
2 2
Find:
Solution:
Since the power of Sec is 2, use the standard integral.
1 3
tan x sec x dx
2 2
= tan x + c
3
2
tan x dx
2
Find:
Solution:
Since the power of Tan is EVEN, convert to sec, and use the standard integral.
tan x dx = (sec
2 2
1) dx
= tan x x + c
521
My A Level Maths Notes
3
tan x dx
3
Find:
Solution:
Since the power of Tan is ODD, use tan2A = sec2A 1, and recognise the standard integral.
This avoids any substitution.
tan x (sec x 1) dx
2
=
= 1
2 tan2x + ln (cos x) + c
4 Alternatively:
= 1 sec2x + ln (cos x) + c
2
5
tan x sec x dx
3
Find:
Solution:
Although this fits the standard integral, try substitution. Since tan is ODD, use u = sec x.
In doing substitutions like this, substitute dx first and cancel any trig functions before further
substitutions.
sec x
2
= du
u
2
= du
1 3
= u + c
3
1
= sec3x + c
3
6
tan x sec x dx
3 3
Find:
Solution:
Let u = sec x du = sec x tan x dx Recall: tan2A = sec2A 1
du
tan x sec x dx = tan x sec x sec x tan x
3 3 3 3
tan x sec x du
2 2
=
(sec x 1) sec
2 2
= x du
(u 1) u2 du
2
=
(u u2) du
4
=
1 5 1 3
= u u + c
5 3
1 1
= sec5x sec3x + c
5 3
7
tan
4
Find: x dx
Solution:
Since the power of Tan is EVEN, use tan2A = sec2A 1, and convert to sec, and then recognise
the standard integral.
This avoids any substitution.
= 1 tan3x tan x + x + c
2
523
My A Level Maths Notes
58.13.1 Example:
1
(2x sin 4x)
2
Find: dx
Solution:
4x3
1) 4x2 dx =
3
2) 4x sin 4x dx
Integration by parts:
u dv = uv
v du
du
Let u = 4x (easy to dif f erentiate) = 4
dx
cos 4x
dv = sin 4x v = sin 4x dx =
4
cos 4x cos 4x
4x sin 4x dx = 4x
4
4
4 dx
sin 4x
= x cos 4x +
4
3) sin
2
4x dx = 1
2 (1 cos 8x) dx =
x
2
sin 8x
16
[ sin2A 1
2 (1 cos 2A)]
Solution:
4x3 x sin 4x sin 8x
0
(2x sin 4x)2 dx =
3
+
2
+ x cos 4x
4
16 0
43
= + + 1 0 0 [ 0 + 0 + 0 0 0]
3 2
43
= + +
3 2
43 3
= +
3 2
3
sin x cos x e
sin x
Find: dx
Solution:
The key to unlocking this integral is to recognise this standard integral:
f (x) e
f (x)
dx = ef (x) + c
cos x e
sin x
From this see that: dx = esin x
sin x cos x e e
sin x
dx = sin x . esin x sin x
. cos x
4
sin x dx
5
Find:
Solution:
u = cos x du = sin x dx & recall sin2A = 1 cos2A
sin x (1 cos2x) dx
2
sin5x dx = sin x . sin4x dx =
du
sin x (1 u )
2 2
=
sin x
(1 u2) du = (1 2u + u4) du
2 2
=
2 3 1
= u + u u5 + c
3 5
2 1
= cos x + cos3x cos5x + c
3 5
525
My A Level Maths Notes
1
sin sin sinn + 1 x + c
n n
x cos x dx x cos x dx =
n + 1
1
cosn x sin x dx cosn x sin x dx =
n + 1
cosn + 1 x + c
sin cos
even even
x dx or x dx Use sin2A 1
2 (1 cos 2A) or cos2x 1
2 (1 + cos 2A) respectively
sin cos
odd odd
x dx or x dx Use sin2x = 1 cos2x or cos2x = 1 sin2x
1
sin sinn + 1 x + c
n
then x cos x dx =
n + 1
1
cos cosn + 1 x + c
n
or x sin x dx =
n + 1
sin x cos x dx
m n
If the power of Sine m is ODD, use sin2A = 1 cos2A and substitute u = cos x
If the power of Cosine n is ODD, use cos2A = 1 sin2A and substitute u = sin x
If m & n both ODD, use the one with the smallest power & proceed as above.
If m & n are both EVEN, we use the double angle identities:
sin2A 1
2 (1 cos 2A) cos2A 1
2 (1 + cos 2A) sin A cos A = 1
2 sin 2A
tan x sec x dx
m n
If the power of Tan m is ODD, use tan2A = sec2A 1 and substitute u = sec x
If the power of Sec n is EVEN, use sec2A = 1 + tan2A and substitute u = tan x
(If Tan is ODD & Sec is EVEN, use either of the above)
If Tan is EVEN & Sec is ODD, try converting tans to secs & integrate by parts (long).
However, if m is 1 or n is 2 we can use the standard integrals:
1
tan x sec x dx tanm + 1x + c
m 2
=
m + 1
1
secnx tan x dx =
n
secnx + c
527
My A Level Maths Notes
d
dx
(cos x) = sin x sin x dx = cos x + c
d
(tan x) = sec2 x sec
2
x dx = tan x + c
dx
d
dx
(sec x) = sec x tan x sec x tan x dx = sec x + c
d
dx
(cosec x) = cosec x cot x cosec x cot x dx = cosec x + c
d
(cot x) = cosec2 x cosec
2
x dx = cot x + c
dx
d 1
dx
(sin (ax + b)) = cos (ax + b) cos (ax + b) dx =
a
sin (ax + b) + c
d 1
dx
(cos (ax + b)) = sin (ax + b) sin (ax + b) dx =
a
cos (ax + b) + c
d 1
(tan (ax + b)) = sec2 (ax + b) sec (ax + b) dx
2
= tan (ax + b) + c
dx a
d
dx
(sin f (x)) = f (x) cos f (x) f (x) cos f (x) dx = sin f (x) + c
d
dx
(cos f (x)) = f (x) sin f (x) f (x) sin f (x) dx = cos f (x) + c
d
(tan f (x)) = f (x) sec2 f (x) f (x) sec
2
f (x) dx = tan f (x) + c
dx
cos x
cot x dx = sin x dx = ln | sin x | + c
1
sin x cos x dx sinn + 1x + c
n
=
n + 1
1
cos x sin x dx cos n + 1x + c
n
=
n + 1
1
sec x tan x dx
n
= secnx + c
n
1
tan x sec x dx tann + 1x + c
n 2
=
n + 1
k f (x)
j Integrals of the form
f (x) dx
k f (x) [ f (x)] dx
j Integrals of the form n
f (x)
j Integrals of the form
k f (x) e dx
Integration of these types is often called integration by inspection or integration by recognition, because once
proficient in using this method, you should be able to just write down the answer by inspecting the function.
It is derived from reversing the function of a function rule for differentiation, i.e. the chain rule.
The key to using this method is recognising that one part of the integrand is the differential (or scalar multiple)
of the other part.
There are several methods of integrating fractions and products, depending of the form of the original function,
and recognition of this form will save a good deal of calculations. A common alternative to this method is
integration by substitution.
E.g.
4x 2 differential of the denominator
2 dx
x + 1 a function with a differential of 2x
4 sin x 4 differential of the denominator
dx
cos x + 1 a function with a differential of sin x
529
My A Level Maths Notes
k f (x) dx k ln | f (x) | + c
f (x)
Note that the modulus sign indicates that you cannot take the natural log of a negative number.
Following our method, our first guess should, therefore, be: (guess) = ln | denominator |.
Note that the numerator has to be an exact derivative of the denominator and not just a derivative of a function
inside the denominator.
E.g. x
dx ln | x + 2 | + c
x + 2
In this case use substitution to evaluate the integral.
1 dx = ln | x | + c
x
1 1
dx = ln | ax + b | + c
ax + b a
k k
dx = ln | ax + b | + c
ax + b a
d
dx
([ f (x)] ) = n f (x) [ f (x)]
n n1
[chain rule]
59.3.3 Example:
1
x2
1 + x3
dx
Solution:
Guess: ln | 1 + x3 |
d 1 3x2
Test: ln | 1 + x |
3
= 3x 2
=
dx 1 + x3 1 + x3
3x2
Reverse: dx = ln | 1 + x3 | + c
1 + x3
x2 1
Adapt: dx = ln | 1 + x3 | + c Note: Adjustment is a number only.
1 + x3 3
2
cos x sin x dx
sin x + cos x
Solution:
Guess: ln | sin x + cos x |
[ ]
d 1 cos x sin x
Test: ln | sin x + cos x | = (cos x sin x) =
dx sin x + cos x sin x + cos x
cos x sin x dx = ln | sin x + cos x | + c
Reverse:
sin x + cos x
Adapt: Not required because the numerator is the exact differential of the denominator.
3
2ex
ex + 4
dx
Solution:
Guess: ln | ex + 4 |
d 1 ex
Test: ln | e x
+ 4 | = e x
=
dx ex + 4 ex + 4
ex
Reverse:
ex + 4
dx = ln | ex + 4| + c
2ex
Adapt:
ex + 4
dx = 2 ln | ex + 4| + c
= ln (ex + 4) + c
2
Squared term is +ve
4
2x dx
x2 + 9
Solution:
f (x)
Of the form
f (x) dx
2x dx = ln | x2 + 9 | + c
x2 + 9
= ln (x2 + 9) + c
Note: for all real values of x, (x2 + 9) > 0, hence modulus sign not required.
5
tan x dx Often comes up in the exam!
Solution:
sin x d
Think tan x = and (cos x) = sin x
cos x dx
Guess: ln | cos x |
d 1 sin x
Test: ln | cos x | = ( sin x) =
dx cos x cos x
sin x dx = ln | cos x | + c
Reverse:
cos x
sin x dx = ln | cos x | + c
Adapt:
cos x
tan x dx = ln | cos x | + c
= ln | cos x |1 + c
= ln | cos1 x | + c
= ln | sec x | + c
531
My A Level Maths Notes
6
cot 2x dx
Solution:
1 cos 2x d
Think cot 2x = = and (sin 2x) = 2 cos 2x
tan 2x sin 2x dx
Guess: ln | sin 2x |
d 1 2 cos 2x
Test: ln | sin 2x | = (2 cos 2x) =
dx sin 2x sin 2x
2 cos 2x dx = ln | sin 2x | + c
Reverse:
sin 2x
cos 2x dx = 1 ln | sin 2x | + c
Adapt:
sin 2x 2
cot 2x dx = 1 ln | sin 2x | + c
2
7
x3
x4 + 9
dx
Solution:
Guess: ln | x4 + 9 |
d 1 4x3
Test: ln | x4 + 9 | = 4 4x3 = 4
dx x + 9 x + 9
4x3
Reverse: dx = ln | x4 + 9 | + c
x4 + 9
x3 1
Adapt: dx = ln | x4 + 9 | + c
x + 9
4 4
1
= ln (x4 + 9) + c x term is +ve
4
E.g.
x (x2 + 1) dx
2
f (x) = x2 + 1 f (x) = 2x
x (3x3 + 1) dx
2 4
f (x) = 3x3 + 1 f (x) = 9x2
2
x ex f (x) = x2 f (x) = 2x
3x
4 x5 + 6
e dx f (x) = x5 + 6 f (x) = 5x4
[ ]
n dy n1
If y = f (x) then = n f (x) f (x)
dx
dy
If y = e f (x) then = f (x) e f (x)
dx
Reversing the differentials by integrating we get:
n+1
f (x) f (x) n dx 1
(x) + c
f
n + 1
f (x) f (x)
f (x) e dx e + c
59.4.2 Example:
1 x (x2 + 1)2 dx
Solution:
2+1
( x2 + 1) ( x2 + 1)
3
Guess:
d 2
(x + 1) = 3 (x2 + 1) 2x = 6 x (x2 + 1)
3 2 2
Test:
dx
Reverse: 6 x (x2 + 1)2 dx = (x2 + 1)3 + c
x (x2 + 1)2 dx = 1 (x2 + 1)3 + c
Adapt:
6
533
My A Level Maths Notes
2
cos x sin x dx
3 3
cos x (sin x) dx
Solution:
Guess: (sin x)4
Test:
d
dx
[ (sin x)4] = 4 (sin x)3 cos x = 4 cos x (sin x)3
Reverse: 3 4
4 cos x (sin x) dx = (sin x) + c
cos x sin3x dx = 1 sin4x + c
Adapt:
4
3
x2 (x3 + 5) dx x2 ( x3 + 5)2
1
dx
Solution:
3
Guess: ( x3 + 5)2
d 3 2
3
3 3 1
9 2 3 1
(x + 5) = (x + 5) 3x = x (x + 5)
2 2 2
Test:
dx 2 2
9 2( 3
1 3
x x + 5) dx = ( x3 + 5)2 + c
2
Reverse:
2
2( 3
1 3
2
Adapt: x x + 5)2 dx = ( x3 + 5)2 + c
9
4
x 2
x e dx
Solution:
2
Guess: ex
Test:
d x2
dx
e [ ]
2
= ex 2x = 2x ex
2
x 2 x 2
Reverse: 2x e dx = e + c
x ex2dx = 1 ex2 + c
Adapt:
2
5
cos x e
sin x
dx
Solution:
Guess: esin x
d sin x
Test: [ e ] = esin x cos x = cos x esin x
dx
Reverse:
cos x e
sin x
= esin x + c
6 x
dx x (3x2 4) dx
5
(3x 4)
2 5
Solution:
(3x2 4)
4
Guess:
Test:
d
dx
[ 4
]
(3x2 4) = 4 6x (3x2 4) = 24x (3x2 4)
5 5
7 After a while it becomes easier to write the answer down, but always check the possible answer by
differentiating.
ex (6ex 5)2 dx
Solution:
Note: f (x) = 6ex 5 f (x) = 6ex
ex (6ex 5)2 dx = 1 6ex (6ex 5)2 dx
Adapt:
6
1 x x 1 1
6e (6e 5) dx = (6ex 5)
2 3
Inspect:
6 6 3
1
(6ex 5)
3
=
18
d 1
(6ex 5) = 1 6ex 3 (6ex 5) = ex (6ex 5)
3 2 2
Test:
dx 18 18
535
My A Level Maths Notes
[ ]
d 1
ln f (x) = ( f (x))
dx f (x)
k f (x) dx = k ln | f (x) | + c
f (x)
f (x) cos f (x) dx = sin f (x) + c
sinnx cos x dx = 1
sinn + 1 + c
n + 1
d
[ ( f (x)) ] = n f (x) [ f (x)]
n n1
dx
n+1
f (x) [ f (x)] n dx
1
n + 1
[ f (x)] + c
[ e ] = f (x) e f (x)
d f (x)
dx
e
x
dx = ex + c
f (x) f (x)
f (x) e dx e + c
uv = v du d
dv
u dx +
dx dx
Rearranging to put the unknown part on the left gives us:
u dv dx = uv v du dx
dx
dx
u dv = uv
v du (short version)
537
My A Level Maths Notes
v =
du dv
= 1 = cos x + k
dx dx
where k is the constant from the first integration and c is the constant from the second
integrations.
Recall:
u dv = uv
v du
1 Find: x cos x dx
Solution:
dv
Let: u = x & = cos x Note: u = x becomes simpler when differentiated.
dx
v = =
du dv
= 1 cos x = sin x
dx dx
x2 x2
=
2
sin x +
2
sin x dx etc etc
As you can see, this gives a more involved solution, that has to have another round of integration
by parts. This emphasises the importance of choosing u wisely. In this case it would be prudent to
start again with u = x.
2
x sec x dx
2
Find:
Solution:
dv
Let: u = x & = sec2x
dx
v =
du dv
= 1 = tan x Standard tables
dx dx
x sec x dx tan x 1 dx
2
= x tan x
539
My A Level Maths Notes
4
x
2
Find: sin x dx
Solution:
dv
Let: u = x2 & = sin x
dx
v =
du dv
= 2x = cos x
dx dx
x cos x . 2x dx
2
sin x dx = x2 ( cos x)
= x2 cos x + 2x cos x dx
Now integrate by parts again and then one final integration to give
dv
Now let u = 2x & = cos x
dx
du
= 2 v = sin x
dx
x sin x 2 dx
2
sin x dx = x2 cos x + 2x sin x
Note: Integrating any function of the form xn sin x or xn cos x, will require n rounds of integration
by parts.
5
Find: 0
x2 cos x dx
Solution:
dv
Let: u = x2 & = cos x
dx
v =
du dv
= 2x = sin x
dx dx
0
x2 cos x dx = x2 sin x
0 0
sin x . 2x dx
= [ 0 0] 2x sin x dx
0
Now integrate by parts again, and then one final integration to give
dv
Now let: u = 2x & = sin x
dx
du
= 2 v = cos x
dx
{[ }
]
0
x2 cos x dx = 0 2x ( cos x)
0
0
cos x . 2 dx
{[ }
]
= 0 2x cos x + 2 cos x dx
0 0
{ }
= [ 2 0] + 2 cos x dx
0
= 2 0
2 cos x dx
= 2 [ 2 sin x ] 0
= 2 [0 0] = 2
2x sin (3x 1) dx
1
(
= 2x cos (3x 1)
3 ) 1
3 cos (3x 1) . 2 dx
2 2
=
3
x cos (3x 1) +
3 cos (3x 1) dx
2 2 1
= x cos (3x 1) + sin (3x 1) + c
3 3 3
2 2
= x cos (3x 1) + sin (3x 1) + c
3 9
2 2
= sin (3x 1) x cos (3x 1) + c
9 3
541
My A Level Maths Notes
7
x (2x + 3)
5
Solve by parts dx
Recall:
u dv = uv
v du
1 1
x (2x + 3) 12 (2x + 3)
5
dx = x . (2x + 3)6 6
1 dx
12
x 1
(2x + 3)6 (2x + 3)
6
= dx
12 12
x 1 1
= (2x + 3)6 (2x + 3)7 + c
12 12 2 7
x 1 1
= (2x + 3)6 (2x + 3)7 + c
12 12 14
8
xe
3x
Find: dx
Solution:
dv
Let: u = x & = e3x
dx
du 1
= 1 v = e3x
dx 3
1 1
xe
3x
dx = x . e3x e3x 1 dx
3 3
1 3x 1
xe
3x
dx = x e e3x + c
3 9
=
1 3x
3
e x
1
3( 1
)
+ c = e3x (3x 1) + c
9
9
x
2 4x
Find: e dx
Solution:
dv
Let: u = x2 & = e4x
dx
du 1
= 2x v = e4x
dx 4
1 1
x2 e4x dx = x2 . e4x e4x . 2x dx
4 4
1 2 4x 1 4x
=x e x e dx
4 2
1 1 dv
= x2 e4x u dx
4 2 dx
Now integrate by parts again and then one final integration to give
dv
Now let: u = x & = e4x
dx
du 1
= 1 v = e4x
dx 4
4 2 4 (
x2 e4x dx = 1 x2 e4x 1 1 x e4x 1 e4x + c
16 )
1 1 1 4x
= x2 e4x x e4x + e + c
4 8 32
1
= e4x x2 x +
4 (
1
8
1
32
+ c )
x2 e4x dx = 1 e4x ( 8x2 4x + 1) + c
32
543
My A Level Maths Notes
10
Infinite integral example. Find: 0
x eax dx
Solution:
dv
Let: u = x & = eax
dx
du 1
= 1 v = eax
dx a
( )
x 1
x eax dx = eax 1 eax dx
0 a 0 0 a
x 1
= eax + eax dx
a 0 a 0
= eax +
x
a
1
a
eax
1
a 0
( )
= eax 2 eax
x 1
a a 0
1
= ax 2 ax
x
ae a e 0
x 1
As x , 0 and 0
aeax a2eax
x eax dx = [ 0 0] 0 2
1
0 a
1
=
a2
Alternatively, you can evaluate the bracketed part early, thus:
x 1
x eax dx = eax + eax dx
0 a 0 a 0
x 1
= ax + eax dx
ae 0 a 0
1
= [ 0 0] + eax dx
a 0
1
0
x eax dx =
a 0
eax dx
1
= 2 ax
a e 0
1
= [ 0] 2
a
1
0
x eax dx =
a2
60.7.1 Example:
1 Integrating ln x
dv
Let: u = ln x & = 1
dx
du 1
= v = x
dx x
1
ln x 1 dx = x ln x x dx
x
= x ln x
dx
= x ln x x + c
ln x = x (ln x 1) + c
2
x
4
Find: ln x dx
Solution:
Following the guidelines on choice of u & dv, then we would let u = x and dv
dx = ln x
However, ln x is difficult to integrate, so choose u = ln x
dv
Let: u = ln x & = x4
dx
du 1 1
= v = x5
dx x 5
1 5 1 1
x 5x
4 5
ln x dx = ln x . x dx
5 x
1 5 1
x
4
= x ln x dx
5 5
1 5 1 1
= x ln x x5 + c
5 5 5
1 5 1 5
x
4
ln x dx = x ln x x + c
5 25
=
1 5
5 (
x ln x
1
5
+ c)
1 5
= x (5 ln x 1) + c
25
545
My A Level Maths Notes
8
3 Evaluate: 2
x ln x dx
Solution:
As above, choose u = ln x
dv
Let: u = ln x & = x
dx
du 1 x2
= v =
dx x 2
8 8 8
x2 x2 1
2
x ln x dx = ln x
2 2 dx
2 2 x
8 8
x2 x
= ln x
2 2 22
dx
8
x2 x2
= ln x
2 4 2
= (32 ln 8 16) (2 ln 2 1)
= 32 ln 8 2 ln 2 15
= 32 ln 23 2 ln 2 15
= 96 ln 2 2 ln 2 15
8
2
x ln x dx = 94 ln 2 15
4 Find: x ln x dx
Solution:
dv
Let: u = ln x & = x
dx
du 1 2 23
dx
=
x
v = x =
3
x
2 23 2 1
3x
3
x ln x dx = ln x . x 2 dx
3 x
2 23 2
1
= x ln x x 2 dx
3 3
2 23 2 2 3
= x ln x x2 + c
3 3 3
2 3
= x ( 3 ln x 2) + c
9
60.8.1 Example:
1 ln x dx
Find:
x
Solution:
dv 1
Let: u = ln x & =
dx x
du 1
= v = ln x
dx x
ln x dx = ln x . ln x ln x . 1 dx
x
x
= (ln x)
2 ln x
x
dx
2
ln x 2
dx = (ln x)
x
ln x 1 2
dx = (ln x) + c Note: (ln x)2 is not the same as ln x2
x 2
2
e sin x dx
x
Find:
Solution 1:
dv
Let: u = sin x & = ex
dx
du
= cos x v = ex
dx
e sin x dx e cos x dx
x
= sin x . ex x
e sin x dx e
x
= ex sin x ex cos x x
sin x dx
e sin x dx
x
2 = ex (sin x cos x) + c
e sin x dx
x
= 1
2 ex (sin x cos x) + c
547
My A Level Maths Notes
Solution 2:
dv
Let: u = ex & = sin x
dx
du
= ex v = cos x
dx
e sin x dx cos x . e dx
x
= ex ( cos x) x
e sin x dx cos x . e dx
x
= ex cos x + x
dv
Integrate by parts again: u = ex & = cos x
dx
du
= ex v = sin x
dx
e sin x dx sin x . e
x
= ex cos x + ex. sin x x
dx
e sin x dx
x
2 = ex sin x ex cos x + c
e sin x dx
x
= 1
2 ex (sin x cos x) + c
3
e cos x dx
x
Find:
Solution:
dv
Let: u = cos x & = ex
dx
du
= sin x v = ex
dx
e cos x dx e
x
= cos x . ex x
(sin x) dx
e cos x dx e sin x dx
x
= ex cos x + x
dv
Integrate by parts again: u = sin x & = ex
dx
du
= cos x v = ex
dx
e cos x dx e
x
= ex cos x + sin x . ex x
cos x dx
e cos x dx e
x
= ex (cos x + sin x) x
cos x dx
e cos x dx
x
2 = ex (cos x + sin x) + c
e cos x dx
x
= 1
2 ex (cos x + sin x) + c
4
e
2x
Find: sin 4x dx
Solution:
dv
Let: u = sin 4x & = e2x
dx
du 1
= 4 cos 4x v = e2x
dx 2
e2x sin 4x dx = sin 4x . 1 e2x
1
e2x . 4 cos 4x dx
2
2
e2x sin 4x dx = 1 e2x sin 4x 2 e2x cos 4x dx
2
Now integrate by parts again and then one final integration to give
dv
u = cos 4x & = e2x
dx
du 1
= 4 sin 4x v = e2x
dx 2
2x 1 2x 1 2x 1 2x
e sin 4x dx = e sin 4x 2 cos 4x . e e . ( 4 sin 4x) dx
2 2 2
2x 1 2x 1 2x 2x
e sin 4x dx = e sin 4x 2 e cos 4x + 2 e sin 4x dx
2 2
e2x sin 4x dx = 1 e2x sin 4x e2x cos 4x 4 e2x sin 4x dx
2
5
1
e2x sin 4x dx = e2x sin 4x e2x cos 4x + c
2
1 2
= e2x sin 4x e2x cos 4x + c
2 2
5
1
e2x sin 4x dx = e2x (sin 4x 2 cos 4x) + c
2
1 2x
e2x sin 4x dx = e (sin 4x 2 cos 4x) + c
10
549
My A Level Maths Notes
x x x
n n n ax
sin ax dx cos ax dx e dx
e e
ax ax
sin bx dx cos bx dx
x
n
ln x dx
Let: u = ln x , and dv = xn dx
u dv dx = uv v du dx
dx
dx
u dv = uv
v du (Short version easy to recall!)
b b b
dv du
u dx = uv v dx
a dx a a dx
If y = f (x) dx
dy
& = f (x)
dx
From the chain rule, if u is a function of x
dy dy dx
=
du dx du
dy dx
= f (x)
du du
dy dx
du du = f (x) du du
dx
y = f (x) du du
dx
f (x) dx = f (x) du du
551
My A Level Maths Notes
(ax + b)n dx = 1
(ax + b)n + 1 + c
a (n + 1)
1 1
dx = ln | ax + b | + c
ax + b a
e(ax + b) dx = 1 e(ax + b) + c
a
Solution:
Let: u = 5x 3
du dx 1
= 5 =
dx du 5
dx
f (x) dx = f (x)
du
du
Substituting:
(5x 3)3 dx = (u)3 1 du 1 (u)3 du
5 5
1 1
= u4 + c
5 4
1
= (5x 3)4 + c
20
Solution:
Let: u = 4x + 2
du dx 1
= 4 =
dx du 4
Substituting
1 dx =
1 1
du =
1 1
4x + 2
u 4 du
4 u
1
= ln u + c
4
1
= ln (4x + 2) + c
4
This is a standard result:
1 1
dx = ln (ax + b) + c
ax + b a
dx
The integration process can be streamlined somewhat if we find dx in terms of u and du, rather that find du
specifically each time, as in the following examples.
Solution:
1
Let: u = x, u = x2
du 1 1 du 1
= x 2 =
dx 2 dx 2 x
1
du = dx dx = 2 x du
2 x
but we still have x involved, so substitute for x dx = 2u du
Substituting into the original:
1
dx =
1
2u du
2u
du
2
du
x + x
u + u
2
u (u + 1)
(u + 1)
= 2 ln | u + 1 | + c
= 2 ln | x + 1 | + c
3x 1 + x2 dx
Solution:
Let: u = x2
du du
= 2x dx =
dx 2x
Substituting:
3x 1 + x2 dx = 3 x (1 + u)12 du 3 (1 + u)12 du
2x 2
3 2 3 3
= (1 + u)2 + c = (1 + u)2 + c
2 3
3
= ( 1 + x 2) 2 + c
Alternative solution:
1
Let: u = 1 + x2 x2 = u 1 x = (u 1)2
du du du
= 2x dx = = 1
dx 2x 2 (u 1)2
Substituting:
3x 1 + x2 dx = 3 (u 1)12 (u)12 du 3 12
1 (u) du
2 (u 1)2 2
3 2 3 3
= (u)2 + c = (u)2 + c
2 3
3
= ( 1 + x 2) 2 + c
553
My A Level Maths Notes
5
Use substitution to find: 3x (1 + x2) dx
5
Solution:
du du
Let: u = (1 + x2) = 2x dx =
dx 2x
Substituting:
3x (1 + x2)5 dx = 3 x (u)5 du 3 (u)5 du
2x 2
3 1 1
= u6 + c = u6 + c
2 6 4
= ( 1 + x 2) + c
6
6
Use substitution to find:
6x
2x + 1
dx
Solution:
du du
Let: u = (2x + 1) = 2 dx =
dx 2
Substituting
6x
dx =
6x du
3x
1 du
2x + 1 u 2 u2
We have an x left, so go back to the substitution and find x
u 1
u = 2x + 1 x =
2
3x 1 u 1 1 du
12 du = 3 x 1 du = 3 1
u u 2 2 u2
3 u 1 3 u 1
= du = 1 1 du
2
1
u2
2 u2 u2
=
3 + 12
2
1
[
u u 2 du ]
3 2u 2 1
3
= 2u 2 + c
2 3
= u 2 [ u 3] + c
3 1 1
= u 2 3u 2 + c
1
= (2x + 1)2 (2x + 1 3) + c
1
= 2 (x 1) (2x + 1)2 + c
7
x 2
Find: 2x e dx
Solution:
du du
Let: u = x2 = 2x dx =
dx 2x
du
2x e 2x e
x2 u
dx =
2x
e
u 2
= du = eu + c = ex + c
8 ex
Find: dx
(1 ex)2
Note ex is a derivative of 1 ex not (1 ex)2, so use substitution.
Solution:
Let: u = 1 ex
du du
= ex dx =
dx ex
Substituting
ex ex du 1
dx = 2 x 2 du
(1 ex)2 (u) e u
= 2
u du
= u1 + c
1
= + c
1 ex
(x + 5) (3x 1) dx
5
Solution:
du du
Let: u = 3x 1 = 3 dx =
dx 3
Substituting
1
(x + 5) (3x 1) dx
5
= (x + 5) (u)5 du
3
We have an x left, so go back to the substitution and find x
u + 1
u = 3x 1 x =
3
(x + 5) (3x 1) dx
5
= (
1 u + 1
3 3 )
+ 5 u5 du
3 ( ) u du
1 u + 1 + 15 5
=
3
1 1 6
(u + 16) u5 du = (u + 16u ) du
5
=
9 9
1 u7 16u6 1 u7 8u6
= + + c = + + c
97 6 97 3
1 3u7 + 56u6 1
= + c = (3u7 + 56u6) + c
9 21 189
u6
= (3u + 56) + c
189
(3x 1)6
= [ 3 (3x 1) + 56] + c
189
(3x 1)6
= (9x + 53) + c
189
555
My A Level Maths Notes
Solution:
Let: x = 2 sin u
dx
= 2 cos u dx = 2 cos u du
du
Substituting
cos u du
2
= 4
= 4
1
(1 + cos 2u) du
2
= 2
(1 + cos 2u) du
= 2 u + sin 2u + c
1
2
= 2u + sin 2u + c
Substituting back:
Given: x = 2sin u
Identity: sin2u = 1 cos2u
Identity: sin 2u = 2 sin u cos u
Need to find sin u & cos u
x x2
sin u = & sin2u =
2 4
sin1 ( 2x ) = u
cos2u = 1 sin2u
x2 4 x2
cos2u = 1 =
4 4
1
cos u = 4 x2
2
Substituting: = 2sin1 ( 2x ) + 2 ( 2x ) 12 4 x 2 + c
4 x2 dx = 2sin1 ( 2x ) + ( 2x ) 4 x + c
2
61.5.1 Example:
Solution:
Let: x = 2sin u
dx
= 2 cos u dx = 2 cos u du
du
Limits:
x 2sin u sin u u
1 1 1
2 6
0 0 0 0
From previous example
4 x2 dx = 2u + sin 2u + c
( )
u = 6
1
3
4 x2 dx = 2u + sin 2u = + 0
0 0 3 2
3 + 3
= + =
3 2 6
Solution:
Let: x = tan u
dx
= sec2 u dx = sec2 u du
du
Limits:
x tan u u
1 1 0
0 0
4
Substituting:
1 x=1
1 1
01 + x
2
dx = 0 1 + tan2u
sec2 u du
x=1
= 0
1 du Since: 1 + tan2u = sec2 u
u = 4
= u [] u=0
=
4
557
My A Level Maths Notes
3 2
0
x (2x 1)6 dx
Solution:
Let: u = 2x 1 x = 1
2 (u + 1)
du
= 2 dx = 1
2 du
dx
Limits:
x u = 2x 1
2 3
1 1
Substituting:
2 u=3
x (2x 1)6 dx = 1
2 (u + 1) (u6) 12 du
0 u = 1
3
1
=
4 1
u7 + u6 du
1 1 8 1 7 3
= u + u 1
4 8 7
1 1 8 1 7 1 8 1 7
= 3 + 3 (1) + (1)
4 8 7 8 7
1 6561 + 2187 1 1
= 8
4 7 8 7
= (820 + 31257) = (113257) = 28314 (2dp)
4 2
1
x2 (x3 + 1) dx
Solution:
du 1
Let: u = x3 + 1 = 3x2 dx = du
dx 3x2
Limits:
x u = x3 + 1
2 9
1 0
Substituting:
2 u=9
1
1
x2 (x3 + 1) dx = x 2u 2 du
1 u=0 3x2
9
1
1
= u 2 du
3 0
9 9
1 1 3 1 2 3
= 3 u 2 = u 2
3 2 0 3 3 0
1 2 23 2 3
= 9 0 = 9 2
3 3 9
= 6
61.6.1 Example:
1 1 ln x dx
Use substitution to find:
x
Solution:
Let: x = eu u = ln x
dx
= eu dx = eu du
du
Substituting
1 ln x dx = 1 ln eu eu du ln eu du u ln e du
x
eu
u2
= u du = + c (since ln e = 1)
2
(ln x)2
= + c (since u = ln x)
2
2
6x
Find:
1 + x2
dx
Solution:
Let: u = 1 + x2
du du
= 2x dx =
dx 2x
6x
dx =
6x
du
=
3
1 + x2
u 2x
u
du
1
1
=
3u 2
3u 2 du = 1 + c
2
1
= 6u 2 + c
1
= 6 ( 1 + x 2) + c 6 1 + x2 + c
2
Solution:
Let: u = 1 + x3
du du
= 3x2 dx =
dx 3x2
x2 1 + x3 dx = x2 u du = 1 u 12 du
3x2 3
= u 2 + c
1 2 3
3 3
2 3 2
3
= (1 + x ) + c
9
559
My A Level Maths Notes
4 Consider:
7x
dx
(1 + 2x2)3
Solution:
Let: u = 1 + 2x2
du du
= 4x dx =
dx 4x
7x 7x . du = 7 du
( )3 dx =
1 + 2x 2 (u)3 4x 4u3
7 3 7 3
=
u du = u du
4 4
= u2 + c = u2 + c 2 + c
7 1 7 7
4 2 8 8u
7 2 7
= (1 + 2x2) + c + c
8 8 1 + 2x2)2
(
In the following two questions, note that we have a fraction, of which the top is the differential of the
denominator, or a multiple thereof.
f (x) dx = ln | f (x) | + c
f (x)
5 Try:
cos x sin x dx
sin x + cos x
Solution:
Let: u = sin x + cos x
du du
= cos x sin x dx =
dx cos x sin x
cos x sin x dx = cos x sin x du
sin x + cos x
u cos x sin x
=
1
u
du
= ln u + c
= ln | sin x + cos x | + c
6 Try:
ex ex
ex + ex
dx
Solution:
Let: u = ex + ex
du du
= ex ex dx =
dx ex ex
ex ex ex ex du 1
dx = x = du
ex + ex u e e x u
= ln u + c
= ln (ex + ex) + c ( ex + ex) is always +ve
7 Try:
sec2 x
tan3 x
dx
Solution:
Note that sec2 x is the derivative of tan x not tan3 x
Let: u = tan x
du du
= sec2 x dx =
dx sec2 x
sec2 x sec2 x du
dx =
tan x
3 u 3 sec2 x
=
1
u3
du
= 3
u du
1 2
= u + c
2
1
= + c
2 u2
1
= + c
2 tan2 x
f (x)
The common trig functions that are of the form
f (x) dx are:
561
My A Level Maths Notes
61.7.1 Example:
1
1
25 + 16x2 dx
i.e. a = 5, b = 4
5 dx 5
Let: x = tan u = sec2 u
4 du 4
5
dx = sec2 u du
4
1
dx =
1 5
sec2 u du
2
25 + 16x 2 25 + 16 ( 4 tan u)
5 4
=
1 5 2
25 + 25 tan2u 4 sec u du
=
1 5
sec2 u du
25 (1 + tan2u) 4
=
1 5 2
25sec 2u 4 sec u du
= 1
1 1
5 4 du = 20 du
1
= u + c
20
=
1
20
tan1( )
4x
5
+ c
tan u =
4x
5
; u = tan1 ( )
4x
5
2 1
0
(1 x2) dx
dx
Let: x = sin u = cos u dx = cos u du
du
Limits: u = sin1x
x u
1 sin1 x = 2
0 sin1 0 = 0
1 u = 2
0
(1 x2) dx = 0
(1 sin2u) cos u du
2
= (cos 2u) cos u du
0
2
= cos2 u du
0
1
2
= (1 + cos 2u) du
2 0
1 1 2
= u + sin 2u
2 2 0
=
1
2 2
1
( 1
+ sin 0 + sin 0
2 2 ) ( )
=
4
For : Try :
(ax + b)n u = ax + b
n (ax + b) un = ax + b
a bx2 x = a sin u
b
a + bx2 x = a tan u
b
bx2 a x = a sec u
b
ex u = ex : x = ln u
ln (ax + b) ax + b = eu : x = 1a eu ba
563
My A Level Maths Notes
Solution:
du du
Let: u = ax + b = a dx =
dx a
u b
ax = u b x =
a
Substituting:
x (ax + b)n dx = u b (u)n du
a a
1
= 2 (u b) un du
a
1 n+1
= (u bun) du
a2
1 un + 2 bun + 1
= + c
a2 n + 2 n + 1
1 (ax + b)n + 2 b (ax + b)n + 1
= + c
a2 n + 2 n + 1
2 1
Use substitution to find: dx
ax + b
Solution:
du du
Let: u = ax + b = a dx =
dx a
Substituting:
1 dx = 1 du = 1 ln u + c
ax + b
u a a
1
= ln (ax + b) + c
a
3 1
Use substitution to find: dx
(ax + b)2
Solution:
du du
Let: u = ax + b = a dx =
dx a
Substituting:
1
dx =
1 du
(ax + b)2
u2 a
=
du
u2
a
1
= u1 + c
a
1
= + c
a (ax + b)
The process is often called decomposition of a fraction. To do this, we create an identity that is valid for all
values of x and then find the missing constants of the partial fractions.
To decompose a fraction we need to start with a proper fraction. Improper fractions (see later) have to be
converted into a whole number part with a proper fraction remainder. Later on, partial fractions will be useful in
integration, differentiation and the binomial theorem.
There are four different types of decomposition based on the sort of factors in the denominator. These are:
To solve for the unknown constants, A, B & C etc., we can use one or more of the following four methods:
j Equating coefficients
j Substitution in the numerator
j Separating the unknown by multiplication and substituting
j Cover up method (only useful for linear factors)
565
My A Level Maths Notes
62.3.1 Example:
The first task is to factorise the denominator:
7x 8 7x 8
=
2x2 5x + 2 (2x 1) (x 2)
Then set up the identity with the correct number of partial fractions:
7x 8 A B
+
(2x 1) (x 2) 2x 1 x 2
Add the fractions on the RHS to give:
7x 8 A B A (x 2) + B (2x 1)
+
(2x 1) (x 2) 2x 1 x 2 (2x 1) (x 2)
7x 8 A (x 2) + B (2x 1)
7x 8 Ax 2A + 2Bx B
Equate the terms in: x : 7x = Ax + 2Bx 7 = A + 2B A = 7 2B
Equate the Constants : 8 = 2A B 2A + B = 8
Substituting or using simultaneous equations:
2 (7 2B) + B = 8
14 4B + B = 8 3B = 6
3B = 6 B = 2 & A = 3
7x 8 3 2
= +
(2x 1) (x 2) 2x 1 x 2
62.4.1 Example:
7x 8 A B A (x 2) + B (2x 1)
+
(2x 1) (x 2) 2x 1 x 2 (2x 1) (x 2)
7x 8 A (x 2) + B (2x 1)
Find B by choosing x = 2 (to make the A term zero)
14 8 = B (4 1)
3B = 6 B = 2
1
Find A by choosing x = (to make 2nd (B) term zero)
2
7
2
8 = A (1
2
2 )
9 3
= A A = 3
2 2
7x 8 3 2
= +
(2x 1) (x 2) 2x 1 x 2
62.5.1 Example:
4x A B
+
x2 4 x + 2 x 2
Multiply both sides by one of the factors, say (x + 2)
4x (x + 2) A (x + 2) B (x + 2)
+
2
x 4 x + 2 x 2
Cancel common terms:
4x B (x + 2)
A+
x 2 x 2
4x B (x + 2)
A =
x 2 x 2
Now substitute a value for x such that the B term is zero:
8
If x = 2 : A = 0 = 2
4
Now multiply both sides by one of the other factors, (x 2) in this case:
4x (x 2) A (x 2) B (x 2)
+
x2 4 x + 2 x 2
Cancel common terms:
4x A (x 2)
+ B
x + 2 x + 2
4x A (x 2)
B = +
x + 2 x + 2
Now substitute a value for x such that the A term is zero:
8
If x = 2 : B = = 2
4
Hence:
4x 2 2
+
x2 4 x + 2 x 2
Test this by substituting a value for x on both sides. Dont use the values chosen above, as we need to
check it is valid for all values of x.
4 2 2
If x = 1 : +
1 4 1 + 2 1 2
4 2 2
3 3 1
2 6 4
=
3 3 3
567
My A Level Maths Notes
62.6.1 Example:
1 4x A Bx + C A (x2 3) + (Bx + C) (x + 1)
+
(x + 1) (x2 3) x + 1 x2 3 (x + 1) (x2 3)
4x A (x2 3) + (Bx + C) (x + 1)
To eliminate the (Bx + C) term, let x = 1
4 = A (1 3) + 0 A = 2
Equate the terms in x
4x A (x2 3) + (Bx + C) (x + 1)
4x Ax2 3A + Bx2 + Bx + Cx + C
4 = B + C
Equate the constants terms :
0 = 3A + C
But A = 2
C = 6
B = 4 C = 4 6 = 2
Hence:
4x 2 6 2x
= + 2
(x + 1) (x 3)
2 x + 1 x 3
Check result by substituting any value for x, except 1 used above. So let x = 1
4 2 6 2
= +
(1 + 1) (1 3) 1 + 1 1 3
4 2 4
= +
(2) (2) 2 2
1 = 1 2 = 1
Similarly, factors of (x + 2)4 would be split into fractions with (x + 2)4, (x + 2)3, (x + 2)2, (x + 2)
x A B C D
e.g. = + + +
(x + 2)4 (x + 2)4 (x + 2)3 (x + 2)2 (x + 2)
The general rule is that the number of unknowns on the RHS must equal the degree of the denominators
polynomial on the left. In the example below, the degree of the expression in the denominator is four. Hence:
x A B C D
e.g. = + + +
(x + 1) (x + 4) (x + 2)2 (x + 1) (x + 4) (x + 2) (x + 2)2
The reasoning behind the use of different powers of a factor requires an explanation that is really beyond the
scope of these notes. Suffice it to say that anything else does not provide a result that is true for all values of x,
which is what we require. In addition, we need the same number of equations as there are unknowns in order to
find a unique answer.
An alternative way to view this problem, is to treat the problem in the same way as having a squared term in the
denominator. For example:
x Ax + B
=
(x + 2) 2 (x + 2)2
However, the whole point of partial fractions is to simplify the original expression as far as possible, ready for
further work such as differentiation or integration. In the exam, repeated linear factors need to be solved as
discussed above.
62.7.1 Example:
1 x
(x + 1) (x + 2)2
Solution:
x A B C
+ +
(x + 1) (x + 2)2 x + 1 (x + 2)2 x + 2
x A (x + 2)2 + B (x + 1) + C (x + 1) (x + 2)
x = 2 B = 2 B = 2
x = 1 A = 1 A = 1
Look at x2 term: A+ C = 0 C = 1
x 1 2 1
= + +
(x + 1) (x + 2)2 x + 1 (x + 2)2 x + 2
569
My A Level Maths Notes
3
x2 + 7x + 5 A B C
+ +
(x + 2)3 x + 2 (x + 2)2 (x + 2)3
Solution:
Compare numerators:
x2 + 7x + 5 A (x + 2)2 + B (x + 2) + C
Let: x = 2 4 14 + 5 = C C = 5
Compare coefficients: x2 1 = A
Compare coefficients: constants 5 = 4A + 2B + C
5 = 4 + 2B 5
B = 3
x2 + 7x + 5 1 3 5
+
(x + 2)3 x + 2 (x + 2)2 (x + 2)3
62.8.1 Example:
1 6x 8 A B
+
(x 1) (x 2) x 1 x 2
To find A, we cover up its corresponding factor (x 1) and then set x = 1
6x 8 A
=
() (x 2) ()
6 8 2
= = 2 = A
1 2 1
Similarly, to find B, we cover up its corresponding factor (x 2) and then set x = 2
6x 8 B
=
(x 1) () ()
12 8 4
= = 4 = B
2 1 1
Hence:
6x 8 2 4
+
(x 1) (x 2) x 1 x 2
Why does this work? If we did it the long way by multiplying by one factor, say (x 1), we get:
(6x 8) (x 1) A (x 1) B (x 1)
+
(x 1) (x 2) x 1 x 2
Cancelling terms we get:
(6x 8) B (x 1)
A+
(x 2) x 2
When x = 1 the B term becomes zero, so we have:
(6x 8)
A
(x 2)
So the Cover Up Method is just a short cut method for multiplying out by one of the factors.
571
My A Level Maths Notes
2 The cover up method can be used on the linear parts of other more complex partial fractions.
This speeds up the process, and simplifies the subsequent calculations.
For example, in the problem earlier, we had this to solve:
4x A Bx + C
+ 2
(x + 1) (x 3)
2 x + 1 x 3
To find A: cover up (x + 1) and set x = 1
4x A
() (x 3)
2 ()
4
A
(1 3)
4
A A = 2
2
The other constants can now be found using the other methods.
3 The cover up method can also be used to partly solve problems with repeated linear factors. The
proviso is that only the highest power of the repeated factor can be covered up.
6 A B C
+ +
(x + 2) (x 1)2 x + 2 (x 1)2 x 1
To find A: cover up (x + 2) and set x = 2
6 A
() (x 1)2 ()
6
A
(2 1)2
6 2
A A =
9 3
To find B: cover up (x 1)2 and set x = 1
6 B
(x + 2) () ()
6
B B = 2
3
The cover up method cannot be used to find C, so one of the other methods is required.
To find C set x = 0
6 2 2 C
+ +
(x + 2) (x 1)2 3 (x + 2) (x 1)2 x 1
6 2 2 C
+ +
(2) (1)2 3 (2) (1)2 1
6 2 2 C
= +
2 6 1 1
1
3 = + 2 C
3
2
C =
3
6 2 2 2
= +
(x + 2) (x 1)2 3 (x + 2) (x 1)2 3 (x 1)
1 16 A B C
+ +
x3 4x x x + 2 x 2
Solution:
16 16 16
But = =
x3 4x x (x 4)
2 x (x + 2) (x 2)
16 A (x 2) (x + 2) + Bx (x 2) + Cx (x + 2)
x (x + 2) (x 2) x (x + 2) (x 2)
16 = A (x 2) (x + 2) + Bx (x 2) + Cx (x + 2)
Let x = 0 16 = A (2) (2) = 4A A = 4
Let x = 2 16 = B (2) ( 4) = + 8B B = 2
Let x = 2 16 = C (2) (4) = 8C C = 2
16 4 2 2
= + +
x3 4x x x + 2 x 2
2 13x 6
Express as partial fractions.
x (3x 2)
Solution:
13x 6 A B A (3x 2) + B (x)
= +
x (3x 2) x 3x 2 x (3x 1)
13x 6 A (3x 2) + B (x)
Choose values of x
x = 0 6 = 2A A = 3
2 26 2
x = 6 = B B = 4
3 3 3
3 4
Ans : = +
x 3x 2
3 12x A B C
= + +
(x + 1) (2x + 3) (x 3) x + 1 2x + 3 x 3
A (2x + 3) (x 3) + B (x + 1) (x 3) + C (x + 1) (2x + 3)
=
(x + 1) (2x + 3) (x 3)
12x A (2x + 3) (x 3) + B (x + 1) (x 3) + C (x + 1) (2x + 3)
Choose values of x
x = 3 36 = C (3 + 1) (2 3 + 3) 36C = 36 C = 1
x = 1 12 = A (2 + 3) (1 3) 4A = 12 A = 3
x =
3
2
12
3
2
3
( 3
= B + 1 3
2 2 )( )
9
4
B = 18 B = 8
3 8 1
Ans : = +
x + 1 2x + 3 x 3
573
My A Level Maths Notes
62.10.1 Example:
1
x2
(x 1) (x + 2)
B C
A+ +
x 1 x + 2
Note: A in not divided by another term because the fraction is a top heavy one and dividing out a
top heavy fraction will give a whole number plus a remainder.
x2 A (x 1) (x + 2) + B (x + 2) + C (x 1)
1
x = 1 1 = 3B B =
3
4
x = 2 4 = 3C C =
3
A = 1 (coefficient of x2)
x2 1 4
= 1 +
(x 1) (x + 2) 3 (x 1) 3 (x + 2)
2
3x2 + 6x + 2
e.g. this is NOT top heavy
(2x + 3) (x + 2)2
A B C
+ +
2x + 3 (x + 2)2 x + 2
3x2 + 6x + 2 A (x + 2)2 + B (2x + 3) + C (2x + 3) (x + 2)
x = 2 2 = B B = 2
etc
3
3x2 + 6x + 2
e.g. this IS top heavy
(2x + 3) (x + 2)
B C
A + +
2x + 3 x + 2
4 Here is an alternative method, which splits the numerator into parts that can be divided exactly by
the denominator, giving the whole number part immediately.
x2 + 3x 11 x2 + 3x 11
=
(x + 2) (x 3) x2 x 6
x2 x 6 + 4x 5
=
x2 x 6
x2 + 3x 11 x2 x 6 4x 5
= 2 + 2
(x + 2) (x 3) x x 6 x x 6
4x 5
= 1 +
x2 x 6
A B
= 1 + +
x + 2 x 3
The partial fraction required is based on the remainder and is now:
4x 5 A B
= +
x2 x 6 x + 2 x 3
which can be solved in the normal manner.
575
My A Level Maths Notes
62.11.1 Example:
1 x + 9
Differentiate the following function: f (x) =
2x2 + x 6
Solution:
x + 9 A B
f (x) = = +
(2x 3) (x + 2) (2x 3) (x + 2)
x + 9 = A (x + 2) + B (2x 3)
Let x = 2 : 7 = 7B B = 1
Let x =
3
2
:
2
3
+ 9 = A
3
2 ( )
+ 2 3 + 18 = A (3 + 4) A = 3
3 1
f (x) =
(2x 3) (x + 2)
The denominator on the LHS is a degree 3 polynomial number of constants on the RHS = 3
j Recall that with 3 unknowns we require 3 equations to solve.
j A rational function is one in which both numerator and denominator are both polynomials.
1 1
Find (x 2 1)
dx
Solution:
1 A B A (x 1) + B (x + 1)
= + =
(x2 1) (x + 1) (x 1) (x + 1) (x 1)
1 = A (x 1) + B (x + 1)
1
Let x = 1 1 = 2B B =
2
1
Let x = 1 1 = 2A A =
2
1 1 1
(x 2 1)
dx = 2 (x 1) 2 (x + 1) dx
1 1 1 1
=
2 (x 1) dx 2 (x + 1) dx
1 1
= ln | x 1 | ln | x + 1 | + c
2 2
1 |x 1|
= ln + c
2 |x + 1|
2 5 (x + 1)
Find (x 1) (x + 4) dx
5 (x + 1) A B A (x + 4) + B (x 1)
= + =
(x 1) (x + 4) (x 1) (x + 4) (x 1) (x + 4)
5 (x + 1) = A (x + 4) + B (x 1)
Let x = 4 15 = 5B B = 3
Let x = 1 10 = 5A A = 2
5 (x + 1) 2 3
(x 1) (x + 4) dx = (x 1) dx + (x + 4) dx
1 1
= 2 (x 1) + 3 (x + 4) dx
= 2 ln | x 1 | + 3 ln | x + 4 | + c
577
My A Level Maths Notes
3 4
1
Calculate the value of 1 x (x 5)
dx
1 A B A (x 5) + B (x)
+ =
x (x 5) x x 5 x (x 5)
1 A (x 5) + Bx
1
Let x = 5 5B = 1 B =
5
1
Let x = 0 5A = 1 A =
5
1 1 1
= +
x (x 5) 5x 5 (x 5)
( 1x ) + (x 1 5) dx
4 4
1 1
1 x (x 5)
dx =
5 1
[ ]
1 4
= ln | x | + ln | x 5 |
5 1
=
1
5
[
( ln | 4 | + ln | 4 5 | ) ( ln | 1 | + ln | 1 5 | ) ]
1
= ( ln | 4 | + ln | 1 | ) + ln | 1 | ln | 4 | (but: ln 1 = 0)
5
1 2
= ( 2 ln 4) = ln 4 = ln
5 5
2
5
1
4
= ln
1
5
1
16 () ( )
4
1
Calculate the value of 0 (x + 1) (2x + 3)
dx
1 A B A (2x + 3) + B (x + 1)
+
(x + 1) (2x + 3) (x + 1) (2x + 3) (x + 1) (2x + 3)
1 A (2x + 3) + B (x + 1)
3 1
x = B = 1 B = 2
2 2
x = 1 2A + 3 = 1 A = 1
1 2
=
(x + 1) (2x + 3)
1 1 2
0 (x + 1) (2x + 3)
dx = 0 (x + 1)
(2x + 3)
dx
= ln (x + 1) ln (2x + 3)
2
2 0
(
x + 1
) ( )
= ln ln
x 1
= 2x + 3 +
2x + 3 0 2x + 3 0
= ln
2
1
ln
1
3 () () = ln ( 23 )
578 ALevelNotesv8Fbb 18-May-2015
64 C4 Binomial Series
64.1 The General Binomial Theorem
In C2, the Binomial Theorem was used to expand (a + b)n for any +ve integer of n, and which gave a finite
series that terminated after n + 1 terms. This was given as:
2 3 n1 n
(a + b)n = nC0 an + nC1 an 1b + nC2 an 2b + nC3 an 3b + + nCn 1 ab + nCn b
The coefficient of each of the above terms can be found using a calculators nCr button, however, this is only
valid when n and r are positive integers, because they involve factorials.
n!
So the formula nCr = cannot be used for fractional or negative values of n and r.
r! (n r)!
Because the expansion is finite, the RHS exactly equals the LHS of the equation. Plotting both sides of the
equation as separate functions would give identical graphs.
Now we want to be able to use the Binomial Theorem, for any rational value of n.
In fact, restricting n to +ve integers is a just a special case of the general Binomial Theorem, in which n can take
any rational value (which of course includes fractional and ve values of n).
Rearranging the binomial (a + b)n into the form (1 + x)n; the general Binomial Theorem now becomes:
n (n 1) 2 n (n 1) (n 2) 3 n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) 4
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + x +
2! 3! 4!
n (n 1) (n r + 1) r
+ x +
r!
The big change here, is that the expansion has an infinite number of terms, (except for the special case
mentioned above) and the RHS is now only an approximation of the function on the LHS (unless you can
calculate all the infinite terms:-).
We must also determine if the expansion diverges or converges towards the value of the LHS.
a
S = |r| < 1
(1 r)
579
My A Level Maths Notes
[Note: do not confuse the choice of variable letters used here with those used for a GP]
Another way of looking at the validity of the expansion is to plot both the LHS and RHS of the equation as two
separate functions.
The two graphs will only have a close match when | x | < 1.
The example below shows how the expansion of (1 + x)1 compares when plotted on a graph.
(1 + x)1 = 1 x + x2 x3 + x4 +
The RHS matches the LHS most closely between the valid values of: 1 < x < 1 or | x | < 1
The best approximation is when x is small and close to 0. In this region the expansion converges quickly, with
fewer terms required. When x is closer to 1, but still in the valid range, the convergence is slow, and many more
terms are required.
Note the difference between the expansion to 5 terms and the one to 8 terms.
y = 1 x + x2 x3 + x4
5 terms
y = (1 x)1
3 2 1 O 1 2 x
y = 1 x + x2 x3 + x4 x5 + x6 x7
8 terms
-1 < x < 1
Some confusion can also be caused by the way the general theorem is stated with x as the variable and then being
asked to evaluate something like (1 3x)n.
The x term can take any coefficient b, which is also raised to the same power as the x term, thus:
n (n 1) n (n 1) (n 2)
(1 bx)n = 1 + n (bx) + (bx)2 + (bx)3 +
2! 3!
Stating the theorem with u as the variable, or even using a different symbol may help in your understanding:
n (n 1) 2 n (n 1) (n 2) 3 n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) 4
(1 + u)n = 1 + nu + u + u + u +
2! 3! 4!
n (n 1) 2 n (n 1) (n 2) 3 n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) 4
(1 + )n = 1 + n + + + +
2! 3! 4!
Evaluating (1 3x)n becomes more obvious as u or is replaced everywhere with 3x.
In evaluating the coefficients, note the pattern that they form. Each succeeding value in the bracket is one less
that the previous.
581
My A Level Maths Notes
64.4.2 Example:
1 1
Expand up to the term in x3
(1 + x)2
Solution:
2 (2 1) 2 2 (3) (4) 3
(1 + x)2 = 1 + (2x) + x + x
2! 3!
2 (3) 2 2 (3) (4) 3
(1 + x)2 = 1 + (2x) + x + x
2! 3!
2 (3) 2 (2 3 ) (4) 3
(1 + x)2 = 1 2x + x + x
2 ! 3 !
(1 + x)2 = 1 2x + 3x2 4x3
Valid for | x | < 1
2 3
Expand (1 + 3x)2 up to the term in x3
Replace n with 23 and replace all xs with 3x
Solution:
3 3 ()
3 1
( ) ( 12 )
3 1
(1 + 3x)2 = 1 + (3x) + 2 2 (3x)2 + 2 2
(3x)3
2 2! 3!
3 9 3 3
(1 + 3x)2 = 1 + x + 4 9x2 + 8 27x 3
2 2! 3!
3 9 27 2 27 3
(1 + 3x)2 = 1 + x + x x
2 8 16
3 5 + x
Expand in ascending powers of x up to the term in x3
1 2x
Solution:
5 + x
= (5 + x) (1 2x)1
1 2x
1 (2) 1 (2) (3)
Expand: (1 2x)1 = 1 1 (2x) + (2x)2 + (2x)3
2! 3!
= 1 + 2x + 4x2 + 8x3
(5 + x) (1 2x)1 = (5 + x) (1 + 2x + 4x2 + 8x3)
= 5 + 10x + 20x2 + 40x3 + x + 2x2 + 4x3 + 8x4
= 5 + 11x + 22x2 + 44x3 + 8x4
Ans : = 5 + 11x + 22x2 + 44x3
1
Valid for | 2x | < 1 or |x| <
2
1
Expand (1 2x) in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x3 and hence by
choosing values for x, find an approximation for 2.
Solution:
1
1 1
( 12 ) 1
( 12 ) ( 23 )
(1 2x) = 1 + (2x) + 2
(2x)2 + 2
(2x)3
2
2 2! 3!
1
1 2 1
(1 2x) = 1 x x x3 +
2
2 2
1
To find 2 let (1 2x) = 2 x =
2
1
22 1 +
1
2
1 12
2 2
( )
1 13
2 2
( )
1 +
1
2
1
2
1
4
1
2
1
8 ( )
1 1 1
1 + +
2 8 16
23
14375 ( 2 = 141421 by calculator)
16
2
Using the above expansion find the approximate value of 21 by substituting x = 0.08
Substituting & using the rules for surds:
Solution:
(1 2x) = 1 2 008 = 084
84 4 21 2
= = = 21
100 100 10
2 1 1
21 1 008 (008)2 (008)3 +
10 2 2
09165
09165 10
21
2
21 45827 (5 sf )
21 = 458257 (by calculator)
1
Valid for | 2x | < 1 or |x| <
2
583
My A Level Maths Notes
( ) ( )
n
n bx n bx
n
(a + bx) = a 1 + = a 1 +
a a
( ) ( ) ( )
n (n 1) b
2
n (n 1) (n 2) b
3
n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) b
4
= an 1 + n x +
b
x + x + x
a 2! a 3! a 4! a
1
Expand (4 3x2) up to and including the term in x4.
Solution:
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1
1
= (4 3x ) 4 1 x2 42 1 x2
3 2 2
2 1 3 2 3 2
(4 3x2) 2 1 x2
4 4 4
Now: (1 x ) = 1 + ( x ) +
2! ( 4 )
( ) 3
1 2
1 1
3 1 3 2
2
2 2
x + 2 2
4 2 4
2 (1 x ) = 2 1 x ( x )
1
3 3 1 9
2
2
2 4
4 8 8 16
= 2 1 x2
3 9 4
x
8 128
3 9 4
= 2 x2 x
4 64
2 4 x
Expand up to and including the term in x3
(2 + x)2
Solution:
( )
2
4 x 1
= (4 x) (2 + x)2 = (4 x) . 22. 1 + x
(2 + x)2 2
1
4
=
3 1
(4 x) 1 x + x2 x3 +
4 2 ( )
=
1
4 (
4 4x + 3x2 2x3 x + x2
3 3
4
x + )
=
1
4 (
4 3x + 4x2
11 3
4
x + )
3 11 3
= 1 x + x2 x
4 16
( )
From 1 + 12 x expansion valid for
1
2
x < 1 or | | |x| < 2
1 1
Use partial fractions to expand in ascending powers of x up to the term in x3
(1 + x) (1 2x)
Solution:
1 A B
+
(1 + x) (1 2x) (1 + x) (1 2x)
A (1 2x) B (1 + x)
+
(1 + x) (1 2x)
1 A (1 2x) + B (1 + x)
1 1
Let x = 1 = A (0) + 1 B
2 2
3 2
1 = B B =
2 3
Let x = 1 1 = A (1 + 2) + B (0)
1
1 = 3A A =
3
1 1 2
+
(1 + x) (1 2x) 3 (1 + x) 3 (1 2x)
1 1 x x2 x3 2 4x 8x2 16x3
= + + + + +
(1 + x) (1 2x) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
= 1 + x + 3x2 + 5x3
2 1
Note that (1 2x)1 is valid when |2x | < 1 or when | x | <
3 2
1
Note that (1 + x)1 is valid when | x | < 1
3
1
combined expansion is valid when | x | <
2
585
My A Level Maths Notes
n (n 1) 2 n (n 1) (n 2) 3 n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) 4
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + x +
2! 3! 4!
n (n 1) (n r + 1) r
+ x + Valid for | x | < 1
r!
( ) ( )
n
n bx n bx
n
(a + bx) = a 1 + = a 1 +
a a
( ) ( ) ( )
n (n 1) b
2
n (n 1) (n 2) b
3
n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) b
4
= an 1 + n x +
b
x + x + x
a 2! a 3! a 4! a
( )
n
n b
Therefore, the binomial (a + bx) must be changed to a 1 + x .
n
a
j When n is a positive integer the series is finite and gives an exact value of (1 + x)n and is valid for all
values of x. The expansion terminates after n + 1 terms, because coefficients after this term are zero.
j When n is either a fractional and/or a negative value, the series will have an infinite number of terms.
and the coefficients are never zero.
j In these cases the series will either diverge and the value will become infinite or they will
converge, with the value converging towards the value of binomial (1 + x)n.
j The general Binomial Theorem will converge when | x | < 1 (i. e. 1 < x < 1). This is the
condition required for convergence and we say that the series is valid for this condition.
( ) | |
n
b b
j For binomials of the form an 1 + x , the series is only valid when x < 1, or
a a
a
|x| <
b
j The range must always be stated.
j When the series is convergent it will make a good approximation of (1 + x)n depending on the
number of terms used, and the size of x. Small is better.
(1 + x)1 = 1 x + x2 x3 + x4 +
(1 x)1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 +
(1 + x)2 = 1 2x + 3x2 4x3 + 5x4 +
(1 x)2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + 5x4 +
All valid for | x | < 1
E.g. x = t4 (1)
y = t3 t (2)
The equations (1) & (2) are called the parametric equations of the curve. By eliminating t from both equations
it is possible to find a direct relationship between x and y, which is of course the Cartesian equation of the
3 1
curve. (In this example we obtain y = x 4 x 4 , a very tricky equation to deal with, which nicely illustrates the
reason for using parametric equations).
65.1.2 Example:
t = 2 x = 14 y = 8 25
t = 1 x = 0 y = 1
20
t = 0 x = 2 y = 0
t = 1 x = 4 y = 1 15
t = 2 x = 18 y = 8 10
t = 3 x = 56 y = 27
5
0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-5
-10
t x y 8
3 15 8 7
2 0 3 6
1 3 0
5
0 0 1
1 3 0 4
2 0 3 3
3 15 8
2
0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
-1
587
My A Level Maths Notes
65.2.1 Example:
1 Express the parametric equation x = t 2 & y = t 2 1 in cartesian form and sketch the curve.
Solution:
x = t 2 t = x + 2
2
y = t 1 y = (x + 2)2 1
x y 20
6 15
15
4 3
2 1 10
0 3
5
2 15
4 35 -6 -4 -2
0
0 2 4
-5
6
x y
9 01 5
4 02 4
1 05
05 0666 3
0 1 2
05 2
1 1
15 2 0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
2 1
4 0333 -1
11 02 -2
1
Express the parametric equation x = & y = t 2 + 4 in cartesian form.
1 + t
Solution:
1
x =
1 + t
1
1 + t =
x
1
t = 1
x
( )
2
1
y = 1 + 4
x
1 2
y = 2 + 1 + 4
x x
1 2
y = 2 + 5
x x
4 1 1
Show that the parametric equation x = at + n
and y = at n can be given in the cartesian
t t
form as:
(x y) (x + y)n = 2n + 1an
Solution:
Substitute for x & y in the LHS of the above equation:
( ) ( )
n
at + 1 at 1 at + 1 + at 1
t n t n
tn tn
( t2 ) (2at)
n
n
2
2nant n = 2n + 1an
tn
Solution:
y-axis is cut at: x = 0 1 t = 0 t = 1 y = 3
Co-ordinate of y-axis cut at (0, 3)
589
My A Level Maths Notes
65.5.1 Example:
Solution: Method 1
1
t = x y = 2 x = 2x 2
dy 1 1
= x 2 =
dx x
When t = 3, x = 32 = 9
dy 1 1
Gradient = =
dx 9 3
Method 2
dx
x = t2 = 2t
dt
dy
y = 2t = 2
dt
dy dy dt
=
dx dt dx
dy 1 1
= 2 =
dx 2t t
dy 1 1
When t = 3, = =
dx t 3
2 Find the equation of the normal at the point (8, 4) to the curve given parametrically by:
x = t 3, y = t2
Solution:
1 2
t = x3 y = x3
dy 2 1
= x 3
dx 3
2 1 2 1 1
Gradient: = (8) 3 = . =
3 3 (2) 3
Gradient of normal given by: m1m2 = 1 Gradient = 3
Equation of line given by y y1 = m (x x1)
y 4 = 3 (x + 8)
y = 3x + 28
591
My A Level Maths Notes
Solution:
dx dt
= 1, = 1
dt dx
dy
= 3t 2 3
dt
dy dy dt dy
= = (3t 2 3) 1 = 3t 2 3
dx dt dx dx
dy
At the turning points = 0
dx
3t 2 3 = 0
3t 2 = 3
t2 = 1
t = 1 = 1
From start equations:
When t = 1 x = 1 & y = 2
When t = 1 x = 1 & y = 2
Co-ordinates of turning points are (1, 2) , (1, 2)
x = 1 12 1 0 0 1 2
t = 1 12 1 0 0 1 2
dy
Sign dx + 0 0 +
Shape \ \
4 1
Find the equation of the general tangent to the curve given by x = t, y =
t
Solution:
dx dt
= 1, = 1
dt dx
1 dy 1
y = = t 1 = t 2 = 2
t dt t
dy dy dt dy 1 1
= = 2 1 = 2
dx dt dx dx t t
Solution:
dx dt 1
x = t2 = 2t, =
dt dx 2t
1 dy 1
y = t + = t + t 1 = 1 t 2 = 1 2
t dt t
dy
dx
=
dy
dt
dt
dx
dy
dx
= 1 2(
1 1
t 2t )
= ( t2 )
t2 1 1
2t
t2 1
=
2t 3
dy 22 1 4 1 3
When t = 2 = = =
dx 2 23 16 16
1 5
When t = 2 x = 22 = 4, y = 2 + =
2 2
6 If x = t 2 3t & y = 4t 3 3t 2 18t + 5
dy
Find when t = 2
dx
Solution:
dx dy
= 2t 3, = 12t 2 6t 18
dt dt
dy dy dt dy 12t 2 6t 18
= =
dx dt dx dx 2t 3
48 12 18
Ans : = = 18
4 3
593
My A Level Maths Notes
7 Take the parametric curve defined by x = 2t 2 & y = 4t with two points with the following co-
ordinates, P (2p2, 4p) & Q (2q2, 4q).
a) Find the gradient of the normal to the curve at P
b) Find the gradient of the chord PQ
c) Show that p2 + pq + 2 = 0 when chord PQ is normal to the curve at P
d) The normal to a point U (8, 8) meets the curve again at point V. The normal to point V crosses
the curve at point W. Find the co-ordinates of W.
Step 1 ----- Draw a sketch!!!!!!
()
2
y y
t = x = 2 y2 = 8x
4 4
y
P (2p2, 4p)
20
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 x
-20
Q (2q2, 4q)
Co-ordinates of W = 2 ( ( )
11 2
3
, 4
11
3 ( )) = ( 2429 , 443)
(8
= 26 , 14
9
2
3 )
595
My A Level Maths Notes
Typical examples of implicit functions are found in the equations of circles, ellipses and hyperbolae.
2 1 0 1 2 x
597
My A Level Maths Notes
66.2.1 Example:
dy
Find dx if: x2 + 2y y2 = 5
Solution:
Differentiate both sides of the equation & consider each term:
d 2
(x ) + d (2y) d (y2) = 0
dx dx dx
d 2
Term 1: (x ) = 2x
dx
d
Term 2: (2y) =? Use the chain rule to differentiate a y term w.r.t x:
dx
d d dy dy
(2y) = (2y) 2
dx dy dx dx
d 2
Term 3: (y ) = d (y2) dy 2y dy
dx dy dx dx
dy
Combining the resulting terms and rearrange to give
dx
dy dy dy dy
2x + 2 2y = 0 x + y = 0
dx dx dx dx
dy dy
y = x
dx dx
dy dy x
(1 y) = x =
dx dx (1 y)
dy x
=
dx (y 1)
66.3.1 Example:
1 Differentiate w.r.t to x: x2 + y2 + 3y = 8
Solution:
Differentiate both sides of the equation & consider each term:
d 2
2x + (y ) + d (3y) = 0
dx dx
d 2
Assign chain rule to the y2 term: (y ) = d (y2) dy 2y dy
dx dy dx dx
dy dy
2x + 2y + 3 = 0
dx dx
dy
Rearrange: (2y + 2) = 2x
dx
dy 2x
=
dx 2y + 2
2 Differentiate w.r.t to x: x2 + y2 6x + 2y = 0
Solution:
dy dy
2x + 2y 6 + 2 = 0
dx dx
dy
Rearrange: 2x + (2y + 2) 6 = 0
dx
dy 6 2x
=
dx 2y + 2
Solution:
dy dy 6x x
6x 6y2 = 0 = 2
= 2
dx dx 6y y
4 Differentiate w.r.t to x: y = ax
Solution:
Take logs both sides: ln y = ln ax = x ln a
1 dy
Differentiate w.r.t to x: = ln a
y dx
dy
= y ln a
dx
dy
but: y = ax = ax ln a
dx
dy x
Hence: (a ) = ax ln a
dx
599
My A Level Maths Notes
Solution:
Differentiate both sides of the equation & consider each term:
d d
[ sin (x + y)] = (cos 2y)
dx dx
d d d
Assign chain rule to LHS: [ sin (x + y)] = [ sin (x + y)] (x + y)
dx dy dx
d
dx (
[ sin (x + y)] = cos (x + y) 1 +
dy
dx )
d d
Use chain rule on the RHS: (cos 2y) = sin (2y) (2y)
dx dx
d dy
(cos 2y) = sin (2y) 2
dx dx
(
1 +
dy
dx )
cos (x + y) = 2 sin (2y)
dy
dx
(1)
dy dy
cos (x + y) + cos (x + y) = 2 sin (2y)
dx dx
dy dy
2 sin (2y) + cos (x + y) = cos (x + y)
dx dx
dy cos (x + y)
=
dx 2 sin (2y) + cos (x + y)
It is not necessary to find the expression for gradient unless asked for. To find a gradient from
dy
given coordinates just substitute into equation (1), then rearrange for dx .
6 Find the co-ordinates for the two stationary points of the equation 2x2 + xy + y2 = 64:
Solution
Differentiating each term to find the dy / dx:
dy dy
4x + + 2y
dx dx
dy
(1 + 2y) = 4x
dx
dy 4x
=
dx (1 + 2y)
Stationary point exists when gradient = 0
dy 4x
= = 0
dx (1 + 2y)
4x = 0 x = 0
Now solve original equation for y
0 + 0 + y2 = 64
y = 64 = 8
Co-ordinates are: (0, 8) & (0, 8)
The examples 1 & 3 below show the product and chain rule used in full. Once mastered, we can generally
dy
differentiate powers of y normally w.r.t y and append dx .
66.4.1 Example:
Solution:
du
Let u = x = 1
dx
dv dv dy dy
Let v = y2 = = 2y Use chain rule
dx dy dx dx
d
(xy2) = u dv + v du = x . 2y dy + y2. 1
dx dx dx dx
dy
= 2xy + y2
dx
Solution:
3x2 + y2 +
dy
[ 2xy 3y2] = 0
dx
dy
[ 2xy 3y2] = 3x2 y2
dx
dy 3x2 y2 3x2 + y2
= =
dx [ 2xy 3y2] [ 3y2 2xy]
3 Differentiate w.r.t to x: y = xey
Solution:
du
Let u = x = 1
dx
dv dv dy dy
Let v = ey = = ey
dx dy dx dx
dy dy
= x ey + ey
dx dx
601
My A Level Maths Notes
4
d 2y dy
If exy = sin x show that: 2
+ 2 + 2y = 0
dx dx
Solution:
Differentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t to x :
dy
ex + yex = cos x Product rule: u = ex v = y
dx
d 2y dy dy x
2nd Differentiation ex 2
+ ex + yex + e = sin x
dx dx dx
But sin x = exy
d 2y dy dy
2
+ + y + = y
dx dx dx
d 2y dy
2
+ 2 + 2y = 0
dx dx
Solution:
Differentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t to x :
d 2 3
20x3 + (x y ) + d (5y2) = 0
dx dx
Product rule: u = x2 v = y3
Now: (x y ) = x2 3y2 dy + y3 2x
d 2 3 du
= 2x
dv
= 3y2
dy
dx dx dx dx dx
d
and (5y2) = 10y dy
dx dx
6 Differentiate w.r.t x: xy
Solution:
Differentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t to x (2 methods):
1 1 1
xy (xy)2 x 2 y2
( )
1 1
(1)
dx
(
d 12 12
)
1 1 1 dy
x y = x2 y 2
2 dx
1 1 1
+ y2 x 2 =
2
1 x 2 dy
1
2 y2 dx
y2
+ 1
x2
1 x 2 dy y2
1 1
1 Find the equation of the tangent at (x1, y1) to the curve: x2 + 2y2 6y = 0
Solution:
Differentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t to x :
dy dy
2x 4y 6 = 0
dx dx
dy
2x = (4y + 6) = 0
dx
dy 2x
=
dx 4y + 6
dy x
=
dx 2y + 3
dy x1
At (x1, y1) =
dx 2y1 + 3
x1
Equation of tangent is: y y1 = (x x1)
2y1 + 3
2 Find the gradient for the curve x2 + 2xy 2y2 + x = 2 at the point ( 4, 1).
Solution:
Differentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t to x :
d d
2x + (2xy) (2y2) + 1 = 0
dx dx
(2xy) = 2x + 2y
d dy
But: Product rule: u = 2x v = y
dx dx
d
and (2y2) = 4y dy
dx dx
2x + 2x + 2y 4y
dy dy
+ 1 = 0
dx dx
dy dy
2x + 2x + 2y 4y + 1 = 0 (1)
dx dx
dy dy
2x 4y = 2x 2y 1
dx dx
dy
(2x 4y) = 2x 2y 1
dx
dy 2x 2y 1 2x + 2y + 1
= =
dx (2x 4y) 4y 2x
dy 2 (4) + 2 (1) + 1 5
When at ( 4, 1) = =
dx 4 (1) 2 (4) 12
Alternatively, save time by substituting the given coordinates in the earlier equation (1)
dy dy
8 8 + 2 4 + 1 = 0
dx dx
dy dy 5
12 = 5 =
dx dx 12
603
My A Level Maths Notes
3 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve 3x2 xy 2y2 + 12 = 0 at the point (2, 3)
Solution:
Differentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t to x :
dy dy
6x x y 4y = 0
dx dx
dy dy
x 4y = y 6x
dx dx
dy 6x y
=
dx x + 4y
dy 6 (2) 3 9
Gradient at point (2, 3) = =
dx 2 + 4 (3) 14
Equation of the tangent at point (2, 3)
9
y 3 = (x 2)
14
14y = 9x + 24
4 ( )
Find the gradient of the curve x3y 7 = sin 2 y at the point where y = 1
Solution:
Find the x-coordinate to start with:
When y = 1, x3 7 = sin ( 2 )
x3 = 1 + 7
x = 3
8 = 2
Differentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t to x :
d 3
dx
(x y) 0 = d sin y
dx 2 ( )
Now:
d 3
(x y) = x3 dy + y3x2 Product rule: u = x3 v = y
dx dx
and: () ( )d
sin
dx
2
= cos y
2
d
dx 2
y = cos y
2 ( )
dy
2 dx ( ) Chain rule
+ 3x y = cos ( y)
dy
3 2 dy
x
dx 2 2 dx
dy
When x = 2, y = 1, 8 + 3 4 1 = 0
dx
dy
8 = 12
dx
dy 12 3
= =
dx 8 2
aeqfal
1 Find the gradient for the curve y2 xy + 4x2 = 6 at the point where x = 1.
Solution:
Differentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t to x :
d 2
(y ) d (xy) + 8x = 0
dx dx
d 2
Now: (y ) = 2y dy
dx dx
(xy) = x + y
d dy
and: Product rule: u = x v = y
dx dx
x + y + 8x = 0
dy dy
2y
dx dx
dy dy
2y x y + 8x = 0 (1)
dx dx
dy
(2y x) = y 8x
dx
dy y 8x
=
dx (2y x)
When x = 1 y2 y + 4 6 = 0 y2 y 2 = 0
(y + 1) (y 2) = 0 y = 1 y = 2
dy 1 8 9
(1, 1) = = = 3
dx ( 2 1 ) 3
dy 2 8 6
(1, 2) = = = 2
dx ( 4 1) 3
Show that at the stationary points: 10x2 1 = 0
dy y 8x
= = 0
dx (2y x)
y 8x = 0
y = 8x
Substitute into the original function:
(8x)2 x (8x) + 4x2 = 6
64x2 8x2 + 4x2 6 = 0
60x2 6 = 0
10x2 1 = 0
dy
Alternatively, recognise that dx = 0 and substitute into the differential at (1)
dy dy
2y x y + 8x = 0
dx dx
0 0 y + 8x = 0
y = 8x etc.
605
My A Level Maths Notes
2 Find an expression for the x-coordinates of the stationary points of the equation:
ax2y + by3 = cx + 6
Solution:
Differentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t to x :
d
(ax2y) + d (by3) = c
dx dx
Now:
d
(ax2y) = ax2 dy + y2ax Product rule: u = ax2 v = y
dx dx
d
and: (by3) = 3by2 dy
dx dx
ax2 dy + y 2ax + 3by2 dy = c
dx dx
dy dy
ax2 + 2axy + 3by2 = c (1)
dx dx
dy
At the stationary point dx = 0, so substitute this into the differential at (1).
Then find an expression for y and substitute that into the original equation.
0 + 2axy + 0 = c 2axy = c
c
y = (2)
2ax
( )
3
c c
ax2 + b = cx + 6 Sub (2) into original equation
2ax 2ax
c bc3
x + = cx + 6
2 8a3x3
bc3 c bc3 c
3 3
= cx x + 6 3 3
= x + 6
8a x 2 8a x 2
2bc3
The x-coordinate given by: (cx + 3) x3 =
8a3
aeqfal
dy
Function f (y) Dif f erential dx = f (x) Function f (y) Dif f erential
dy
= f (x)
dx
a 0 dy
sin (ky) k cos (ky)
dx
ax ax ln a
dy
cos (ky) k sin (ky)
akx k akx ln a dx
dy uv uv + vu
xy x + y
dx
dy u vu uv
x2y x2 + 2xy v v2
dx
dy
= 6x
dx
c=4
dy
dx
dx = 6x dx
c=2
c=0 x
y = 3x2 + c
c = 2
607
My A Level Maths Notes
dy
But: dx = dy
dx
f (y) dy = g (x) dx
dy
[Recall that dx is not really a fraction, but can often be handled as if it were one, which is very convenient].
67.2.1 Example:
1 dy 1
Solve: = xy2 dy = x dx
dx y2
1
2 dy =
y x dx
1 x2
= + c
y 2
If x = 0, and y = 05, c = 0 2 = 2
1 x2
= 2
y 2
2 1 dy 2y
Find the general solution of = 2
x dx x + 1
Solution:
dy 2xy 2xy 1 2x
= 2 dy = dx dy = 2 dx
dx x + 1 x2 + 1 y x + 1
Tip: it is good practise to keep any constant (2 in the above case) in the numerator.
1 dy = 2x dx f (x)
y x2 + 1 Recall:
f (x) dx = ln | f (x)| + c
ln y = ln (x2 + 1) + c
Rearrange: ln y ln (x2 + 1) = c ln ( x y+ 1 ) = c
2
y
= ec
x2 + 1
y = ec ( x 2 + 1 ) where ec is a constant, k
y = k ( x2 + 1)
2y dy = cos x dx
y2 = sin x + c (general solution)
Find c using point (0, 2):
4 = sin 0 + c c = 4
Ans : y2 = sin x + 4 (particular solution)
Recall that the phrase y is inversely proportional to the cube of x can be written as:
1 1
y y = k
x3 x3
E.g. A curve is such that the gradient of the curve is proportional to the product of the x & y
coordinates. If the curve passes through the points (2, 1) & (4, e2), find the equation.
Solution:
dy dy 1
xy = kxy dy = kx dx
dx dx y
1 dy = kx dx
y
kx2
ln y = + c
2
Find k & c using the given co-ordinates: (4, e2) 2 = 8k + c
(2, 1) 0 = 2k + c
1 2
6k = 2 k = c =
3 3
x2 2 x2 4
substituting: ln y = ln y =
6 3 6
x2 4
Ans : y = e 6
609
My A Level Maths Notes
67.4.1 Example:
1 If y = 4 cos 2 and increases at 5 radians per second, find the rate at which y is increasing when
= 2.
Solution:
d
Given: y = 4 cos 2, = 5
dt
dy
Required: when = 2
dt
dy dy d
Connection (chain rule): =
dt d dt
dy
y = 4 cos 2 = 8 sin 2
d
dy
= 8 sin 2 5 = 40 sin 2
dt
dy
When = 2, = 40 sin 4 = 0
dt
In this case, y is not increasing or decreasing. (Stationary point)
2 A spherical balloon is inflated, such that its volume is increasing at a steady rate of 20 cm3 per
second. Find the rate of change of the surface area when the radius is 10 cm.
Solution:
dV
Given that the volume increases: = 20
dt
4 dV
Volume of a sphere is: V = r3 = 4r2
3 dr
dA
Surface area of a sphere is: A = 4r2 = 8r
dr
dA
We require the rate of change of area:
dt
dA dA dr dV
From the chain rule: =
dt dr dV dt
dA 1
= 8r 20
dt 4r2
dA 40
=
dt r
dA 40
When r = 10 = = 4 cm2 sec1
dt 10
y y
A
y = Aekt
y = Aekt
O t O t
611
My A Level Maths Notes
67.5.1 Example:
1 A wonder worm experiment has found that the number of wonder worms, N, increases at a rate that
is proportional to the number of worms present at the time.
Solution:
dN
The rate of change in population is
dt
dN
N
dt
dN
= kN where k is a positive constant
dt
1 dN
= k
N dt
2 A chemical reaction produces two chemicals A and B. During the reaction, x grams of chemical A
is produced, during the same time as y grams of chemical B. The rate at which chemical A is
produced is proportional to ex, whilst the production rate for chemical B is proportional to ey.
Show how A & B change w.r.t each other.
Solution:
dx dy
Given: ex ey
dt dt
dy dy dt
=
dx dt dx
dy 1
= kyey = key x
dx k x ex
1 At each point P of a curve for which x > 0, the tangent cuts the y-axis at T. N is the foot of the
perpendicular from P to the y-axis. If T is always 1 unit below N, find the equation of the curve.
y
Not really to scale
N P
1
{
T
x x
Solution:
Gradient of tangent = 1x
dy 1
Gradient of tangent =
dx x
y = ln x + c
2 A rat has a mass of 30gms at birth. It reaches maturity in 3 months. The rate of growth is modelled
by the differential equation:
dm
= 120 (t 3)2
dt
where m = mass of the rat, t months after birth. Find the mass of the rat when fully grown.
Solution:
dm
Given: = 120 (t 3)2
dt
(t 3)
2
m = 120 dt
(t 3)3
m = 120 + c
3
m = 40 (t 3)3 + c
613
My A Level Maths Notes
3 A farmer thinks that the rate of growth of his weeds is proportional to the amount of daylight that
they receive. If t = the time in years after the shortest day of the year, the length of effective
daylight, on any given day, is given by:
12 4 cos (2 t) hours
On the shortest day of one year, the height of the plant is 120cm. 73 days later the weed has grown
to 130 cm. What will the height be on the longest day of the following year?
Solution:
Given: Daylight hours: D (t) = 12 4 cos (2 t)
dh
Let: h = height, & = growth rate
dt
dh
Given: growth rate: 12 4 cos (2 t)
dt
dh
= k [ 12 4 cos (2 t)]
dt
h = k 12 4 cos (2 t) dt
h = 4k 3 cos (2 t) dt
sin (2 t)
= 4k 3t + c
2
Substitute the starting conditions to find c
When t = 0 (shortest day), h = 120
120 = 4k (0 0) + c
Hence: c = 120
sin (2 t)
h = 4k 3t + 120
2
Substitute to find k
73 1
When t = = , h = 130
365 5
3 5 )
sin ( 2
130 = 4k + 120
5 2
130 = 4k (0600 0151) + 120
130 120 = 1795k
10
k = = 5572
17945
Assume that t = 0.5 on the longest day.
sin (2 05)
h = 4 5572 3 05 + 120
2
h = 22290 [ 15 0] + 120
h = 33435 + 120
h = 153 cm (3 sf)
4 A spherical balloon is inflated and when the diameter of the balloon is 10cm its volume is
increasing at a rate of 200 cm3/sec.
Find the rate at which its surface area is increasing at that time.
Solution:
4 3 dV
Given: volume of sphere: V = r = 4r2
3 dr
dS
Given: sfc area of sphere: S = 4r2 = 8r
dr
dS
Required: rate of change of sfc area:
dt
dV dV dr
Connections available: = (1)
dt dr dt
dS dS dr
= (2)
dt dr dt
dr dV dr
Common differential is: = (3) From (1)
dt dt dV
dS dS dV dr
Combining connections: = Sub (3) into (2)
dt dr dt dV
dS
|
dt r = 5
= 8r 200
1
4r2
400
= = 80 cm2 / sec
r
5 A culture of bacteria grows at a rate proportional to the number of bacteria in the culture. The
number of bacteria in the culture is 1000 at lunch time. After 1 hour the number of bacteria is
3300. What is the number of bacteria after 3 hours and 24 hours?
Solution:
dP
Given: P
dt
dP dP
= kP = k dt
dt P
dP
P
= k dt
ln P = kt + c
Find c: At lunchtime t = 0 and population P = 1000
ln 1000 = c c = 69
Find k:
ln 3300 = k + 69
k = 81 69 = 12
After 3 hours: ln P = 12 3 + 6.9 ln P = 105 P 36315
615
My A Level Maths Notes
6 A single super cell starts to divide and grow and after t hours the population has grown to P.
At any given time the population of bacteria increases at a rate proportional to P2.
Find how many hours it takes for the population to reach 10,000, given that after 1 hour the
population is 1000, and after 2 hours the population is 2000.
Solution:
dP
Given: P2
dt
dP dP
= kP2 = k dt
dt P2
dP
k dt P k dt
2
2 = dP =
P
1
P1 = kt + c = (kt + c)
P
1
P =
(kt + c)
Find c:
At time t = 1, P = 1000
1
1000 = 1000 (k + c) = 1
(k + c)
At time t = 2, P = 2000
1
2000 = 2000 (2k + c) = 1
(2k + c)
Use simultaneous equations
1000k + 1000c = 1 (1)
4000k + 2000c = 1 (2)
2000k + 2000c = 2 (3) = (1) 2
2000k = 1 (4) = (3) (2)
1
k =
2000
1000
+ 1000c = 1 Substitute k into (1)
2000
3 3
1000c = c =
2 2000
When population P = 10,000
1
P =
(kt + c)
1 1
kt + c = kt = c
P P
t =
1 1
k P (
c )
t = 2000
1
(
10000
+
3
2000 ) t = ( 2000
10000
+
6000
2000 )
2
t = 3 = 28 hrs
10
7 The population of a small village is 1097 in the year 1566. Assuming the population, P, grows
according to the differential equation below, and where t is the number of years after 1566:
dP
= 0.3Pe 0.3t
dt
i) Find the population of the village in 1576, correct to 3 significant figures.
ii) Find the maximum population the village will grow to, in the long term.
Solution:
dP
= 0.03Pe 0.03t
dt
dP
= 0.03e 0.03t dt Separate variables
P
dP
0.03e
0.03t
= dt
P
0.03 0.03t
ln (P) = e + c
0.03
ln (P) = e 0.03t + c
ln (P) = 8 e 0.03 10
= 8 e 03 = 8 07408
ln (P) = 72592
P = 1420 (3 sf)
617
My A Level Maths Notes
8 dy
Solve = y sin t and assume the starting conditions to be y = 50 when t = secs
dt
Solution:
dy
= y sin t
dt
1
dy = sin t dt
y
1
y dy = sin t dt
ln y = cos t + c
y = ecos t + c y = ec ecos t
Let the constant ec = A
y = A ecos t
To find A:
50 = A ecos
50 = A e(1)
50
A =
e
50 cos t
y = e
e
y = 50 e1 ecos t
y = 50 e(1 cos t)
p = 60 1 e( 4t
)
After T hours, p is 48 cms. Show that:
T = a ln b where a & b are integers
Find a & b.
Solution:
4t
48 = 60 60e
4t
48 60 = 60e
12 t
= e 4
60
1 t
= e 4
5
ln ()
1
5
=
t
4
t = 4 ln ( 15)
t = 4 ln 5 where a = 4 & b = 5 Note the change of sign here!!!
Solution:
4t
p = 60 60e (1) From Q9
dp
dt
1 t
= 60 e 4
4 ( )
4t
= 15 e
But from (1) and rearranging:
60 p
4t p
e == 1
60 60
dp
dt
= 15 1
p
60 ( 15 )
15p
60
dp p
= 15 As required.
dt 4
If the system is growing at a rate of 13 cms per hour, find p:
dp p p
= 15 = 13 = 15 13 = 2
dt 4 4
p = 8
11 The gradient of the tangent at each point P of a curve is equal to the square of the gradient OP.
Find the equation of the curve.
Solution:
y
Gradient of line OP = y
x
P
dy
Gradient of tangent at P =
dx
O x
Now:
dy
dx
=
y2
x () =
y2
x2
1 1
2
dy = 2 dx y2dy = x2dx
y x
y x
2 2
dy = dx
1 1
= + c
y x
1 1 1 1 cx
= c =
y x y x
x
y =
1 cx
619
My A Level Maths Notes
ln ( 125 ) = 14t
t = 14 ln ( 125 ) t = 14 ln ( 125 ) Note the change of sign here!!!
dx 1
Show that: = (15 x)
dt 14
dx
dt
= 12
14( )
1 14t
e
12 14t
14
e
t 15 x
But: e 14 =
12
dx
dt
=
14 (
12 15 x
12
=
1
14 )
(15 x)
13 A spherical balloon is deflating, such that its surface area is decreasing at a steady rate w.r.t time.
(i) Form an equation to describe the decrease in surface area, A.
(ii) Before the balloon was damaged. the radius of the balloon was 100cm.
After 75 hours, the diameter has halved. Form an equation to show this.
(iii) How long does it take for the balloon to be completely deflated.
Solution:
dA
(i) The surface area decreases at a steady rate: = k
dt
dA
Integrating to give an equation for A: dt dt = k dt
A = kt + c
Note that there are two unknown constants to find.
(ii) The starting conditions are: t = 0 r = 100cm
A0 = 4r2 = 41002 = k 0 + c
41002 = c
A = kt + 41002
The next conditions are: t = 75 r = 50cm
A75 = 4502 = k 75 + 41002
75k = 41002 4502 = 4 (1002 502)
4 (1002 502)
k = = 400
75
A = 400t + 41002
A = 400 (100 t)
(iii) The final conditions are: t =? r = 0cm A = 0
0 = 400 (100 t)
t = 100 hours
14
621
My A Level Maths Notes
1 ln (y + 2) = ln (4x 5) + ln 3
You cannot just remove all the lns so: (y + 2) (4x 5) + 3
To solve, put the RHS into the form of a single log first: ln (y + 2) = ln [ 3 (4x 5)]
(y + 2) = 3 (4x 5)
2 ln (y + 2) = 2 ln x
You cannot just remove all the lns so: (y + 2) 2x
To solve, put the RHS into the form of a single log first: ln (y + 2) = ln x2
(y + 2) = x2
3 ln (y + 2) = x2 + 3x
2
You cannot convert to exponential form this way: (y + 2) ex + e3x
2 + 3x
To solve, raise e to the whole of the RHS : (y + 2) = ex
( ) ( )
x
y
5
4
= 5 across; 4 down
where 5 & 4 are the components in the x & y direction. a
4
AB = 45
B (6, 3)
a (bold print) or in hand writing a or a~
as unit vectors AB = 5i 4j (More later)
The translation vector can be calculated from the given co-ordinates: A (1, 7), B (6, 3)
AB = a =
( ) ( ) ( )
Bx Ax
By Ay
=
6 1
3 7
=
5
4
The length of the line in the diagram represents the magnitude of the
vector and vectors are equal if the magnitude and direction are the
same. b b
Vectors are parallel if they have the same direction and are scalar 3b
multiples of the original vector. e.g. the vector 3b is parallel to the b
vector b, and three times longer.
2b
The vector 2b is 2 times the magnitude of b and in the opposite
direction.
Be aware that the notation only tells you in which direction to move a point and absolutely nothing about its
position in space. In effect the translation vector carries two pieces of information, its magnitude and the inverse
of its gradient. Hence these are sometimes called free vectors. (See later for more on Position vectors and
Direction vectors).
ka = ( )
kx
ky
The constant k is called a scalar because it scales up the length of the vector
623
My A Level Maths Notes
E.g. if a = ( )
0
15
and c =
0
5 ()
then a and c are parallel because a = 3
0
5 () = 3c
If
AB = a = ( )
x
y
then
BA = a = ( ) x
y
|
OP | = |( )|
x
y
or for 3-D | OQ |
=
|( )|
x
y
z
|( )| ()
2
|
AB |
2
=
a
= a2 + b2 If AB =
3
b 4
b 4
| AB |
= a2 + b2 = 32 + 42
a
| AB |
= 25 = 5.
(1, 2) A 3
x
68.5.1 Example:
1 A line is drawn between two points A (1, 4, 2) and B (2, 1, 3). Find the distance between the two
points.
|
AB | = (2 1)2 + (1 4)2 + (3 2)2 = 1 + 25 + 1 = 27
|
AB | = 3 3
e.g. () ( ) (
2
3
+
4
9
=
2 + 4
3 9 ) ( )
=
6
6
We can write:
T
RT = RS + ST
c
or c = a + b
b
R
The vector RT is known as the resultant of the two vectors RS and ST
a
S
It can also be shown that: a + b = b + a (commutative rule)
T d For example:
e S
c PT = PQ + QR + RS + ST
P
R e = a + b + c + d
a
b
Q
68.6.1 Example:
625
My A Level Maths Notes
() ()
Any vector can be given as a multiple of
1
0
or
0
1
e.g.
AB = () () ()
4
5
= 4
1
0
+ 5
0
1
e.g.
AB = () () ()
4
5
= 4
1
0
+ 5
0
1
= 4i + 5j
z
k 3-D
y
In 3-D, the unit vectors are i, j & k, where: j
i
i =
() () ()
1
0 ,
0
j =
0
1
0
and k =
0
0
1
Alternative view
y
x
() () () ()
3-D
4 1 0 0 j
e.g. AB = 5 = 4 0 + 5 1 + 6 0 = 4i + 5j + 6k
i
6 0 0 1
x
Any vector can be expressed in terms of i, j & k z
k
B If you know the position vectors of points A & B, then the direction
(2, 12)
a+b vector AB can be found:
AB = AO + OB
b A
(5, 2)
AB = OA + OB
a = a + b
O Origin = ( ) () ( )
2
12
5
2
=
7
10
68.9.1 Example:
1 Points A & B have position vector a and b. Find the position vectors of
a) the midpoint M of AB and
b) the point of trisection T such that AT = 23 AB
Solution:
a)
A
AM = 1 (a
2 + b)
a OM = OA + AM
a+b = a + 1 (a + b)
2
M
= 1a + 1b
2 2
O
= 1 (a + b)
2
b
B
b)
A
OT = OA + AT
a a+b OT = a + 2 (a + b)
3
M = 1a
3 + 23 b
O = 1 (a
3 + 2b)
T
b
B
627
My A Level Maths Notes
2 B
In a triangle ABC, the midpoints of BC, CA, and AB are D, E,
a a+b and F respectively.
D
m Prove that the lines AD, BE and CF meet at a point G, which
F k a+b
is the point of trisection of each of the medians.
a G h C h, k, & m are scalar numbers.
b
E
A b
Find AG via the 3 different medians:
i) via AD:
AG = AC + CD + DG
= 2b + (a b) + m.DA
Where DA = a + b 2b
= a b
AG = 2b + a b + m (a b)
= b + a + m (a b)
= a (1 m) + b (1 m)
ii) via BE:
AG = AE + EG
= b + h.EB
Where EB = b + 2a
AG = b + h (b + 2a)
= a (2h) + b (1 h)
iii) via FC:
AG = AF + FG
= a + k.FC
= a + k (a + 2b)
= a (1 k) + b (2k)
We can say that all the above versions of AG are the same, and therefore equal.
Hence, the coefficients of a must be equal and coefficients of b must also be equal:
Coefficients of a (1 m) = 2h = (1 k) m = k (1)
Coefficients of b (1 m) = (1 h) = 2k (2)
1 1
Subs (1) into (2) (1 m) = 2k (1 k) = 2k k = m =
3 3
2h = (1 k) 2h = 1 ( 1
3 ) h =
1
3
3 A
In a triangle OAB, O is the origin with A having a position
vector of a and B having a position vector of b.
M is the midpoint of OA. Z is a point on AB such that
a Z AZ = 2ZB.
M
P P is a point on OZ such that OP = 3PZ.
B
b
O
a) Find in terms of a and b the position vectors of M & Z.
b) Prove that the MP = 14 (2b a)
c) Hence or otherwise show that M, P, & B are on the same line, i.e. collinear.
a)
1 1
Find OM OM = OA = a
2 2
Find OZ OZ = OB ZB
AB = AO + OB = a + b
1 1
ZB = AB = (a + b)
3 3
OZ = b (a + b) = b + a b = a + b
1 1 1 1 2
3 3 3 3 3
b)
MP = MO + OP
But
3
OP =
4
OZ =
3 1
4 3
a ( +
2
3) 1 1
b = a + b
4 2
MP = a + a + b =
1 1 1 1 1
b a
2 4 2 2 4
1
MP = (2b a)
4
c)
MB = MO + OB
1 1
MB = a + b = b a
2 2
1
MB = (2b a) Rewritten to allow comparison with MP above.
2
1
MP = MB
2
The vectors MB & MP are parallel [same vector part (2b a), with different scalar parts] and both
lines have a common point M.
Therefore, the points M, P, & B are on the same line, i.e. collinear.
629
My A Level Maths Notes
The dot product comes in two forms. The component form of the dot product is shown below:
a b =
()() ( )
ax
ay
bx
by
=
axbx
ayby
= (ax bx) + (ay by) = axbx + ayby
() ()
3
4
2
5
= (3 2) + (4 5) = 26
()()
2
1
4
0
8
3
= (2 0) + (1 8) + (4 3) = 20
68.10.1 Example:
The other definition is the geometric form of the dot product, which uses the angle between vectors directly:
p q = | p | | q | cos
p q
cos =
|p||q|
where is the angle between the two vectors and | p | & | q | are the scalar lengths or magnitudes of the vectors.
Note that is the angle between the two direction vectors of the line (more later).
Observe that the RHS of the equation is made up of scalar quantities, since | p | & | q | are scalars, as is cos .
Hence the dot product is a scalar quantity.
In addition, because | p | & | q | are always +ve values, the dot product takes the sign of cos .
P It is important that the vectors are put tail to tail to get a true idea of
the angle between them.
p
q Q q
O q
Cautions:
j The scalar (dot) product is the product of two vectors, and the result is a scalar
j You cant have a dot product of three or more vectors. This is because if you dot the first two vectors
you get a scalar.
j The scalar product is the product of two vectors, not a scalar and a vector or other combination
j Vectors cannot be cancelled in the same way as algebra terms.
q q
sq
| p | Co
Scalar Projection
631
My A Level Maths Notes
68.11.1 Example:
1 3
4
() ( ) 4
Prove that the vectors p = 2 and q = 8 are perpendicular.
1
Solution:
p q = | p | | q | cos
If = 90 cos = 0 p q = 0 if 2 vectors are perpendicular.
()( )
3
2
4
4
8
1
= (3 4) + (2 8) + (4 1)
where p =
() ()
ax
ay
; q =
bx
by
and p q = axbx + ayby and p = | | (ax)2 + (ay)2 , |q| = (bx)2 + (by)2
68.12.1 Example:
= cos1 ( 33
65 )
= 1205 (1dp)
r = a + tp
or r = a + p
Where: a = the position vector of a given point on the line, (i.e. the starting point A)
p = direction vector of the line which defines the slope, (strictly speaking the inverse gradient).
t = an ordinary number which is a variable (i.e. a scalar). Sometimes this is labelled or
This tells us how much of p must be used to get from A to B.
Think of tp as the translation vector part of the line.
The direction vector is the translation vector when t = 1
A
r
Position Translation
a Vector Vector
i.e. start point + direction moved
O (origin) p = 1/gradient (in 2D case)
An alternative form of the vector equation of a straight line can be written in component form. If
a = ui + vj + wk and p = xi + yj + zk then:
r =
() ()
u
v
w
x
+ y
z
The vector equation of a line that passes through two points A & B can be found thus:
R
B
A
b r
a
O (origin)
The vector r = OR = OA + AR
but AR = t AB
AB = a + b = b a
r = OR = a + t (b a)
633
My A Level Maths Notes
68.13.1 Example:
point ()()()()
2
3
4
4
6
5
8
6
then plot the graph.
Method 2
()
2
1
= the gradient, so plot
2
3 ()
and work out the other points according to the gradient.
Find a vector equation for the line which passes through (3, 1) and which has the gradient 1
2
() ()
2
3 2
r = + t
1 1
3 Find a vector equation for the line which passes through (3, 5) and (9, 2)
r =
3
5 () (
+ t
9 3
2 5
= ) () ( )
3
5
+ t
6
7
4 Find the vector equation for the line which passes through the point A (4, 1, 3) and parallel to the
vector 2i + 3j 2k
r = a + tp
r = (4i j + 3k) + t (2i + 3j 2k)
5 Find the vector equation for the line which passes through the point with position vector 3i + 2j
and parallel to the vector 2i j
r = (3i + 2j) + t (2i j)
6 Find the vector equation for the line parallel to the vector 3i + 4j k and which passes through
the point with position vector 5i 2j + 7k
()
a = 5i 2j + 7k
5
2
7
b = 3i + 4j k
()
3
4
1
r =
()() ()
x
y
z
5
= 2
7
+ t
3
4
1
7 Find the vector equation for the straight line which passes through the points A, B and C, given that
the position vectors of A, B and C, are
1
1
, ( )( ) ( )
2
7
and
3
9
respectively.
Solution:
C
B To obtain the equation we need a direction vector parallel to the line, say
BC (or it could be AB, BA etc.) and a position vector, say A (could be B or
A C).
( 27 ) ( 39 )
( 11)
O (origin)
Position vector a = ( ) 1
1
Direction vector
BC = BO + OC
BC = () () ()
2
7
+
3
9
=
1
2
r = OA + BC
r = ( ) ()
1
1
+
1
2
Observe that the equation of the line can be calculated in several different ways such as:
r = OB + BC or r = OC + BA or r = OA + AB etc.
Although this would give different equations all would be valid, and give the position of any point
on the line for a suitable value of .
1 Show that the point with position vector i + 2j lies on the line L, with vector equation
r = 4i j + (i j)
Solution:
If on the line, the point must satisfy the equation of the line.
i + 2j = 4i j + (i j)
= 4i j + i j
Matching term coefficients:
i term 1 = 4 + = 3
j term 2 = 1 = 3
As = 3 in both cases, the point with position vector i + 2j lies on the line L.
If had not matched, then the point would not have been on the line.
For a 3-D example coefficients of ALL three unit vectors must be equal for the point to be on the
line.
635
My A Level Maths Notes
68.15.1 Example:
Intersection r1 = ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ()
1
2
+ 4
1
1
=
1
2
+
4
4
=
5
6
Intersection r2 = ( ) () ( ) () ()
3
2
+ 2
1
4
=
3
2
+
2
8
=
5
6
Co-ordinate is (5, 6)
2 Find the co-ordinates of the foot of the perpendicular from (5, 8) to the
8
line 4x + y = 6 (using the vector method).
(5, 8)
6
4 4x + y = 6
2
-5 0 5
-2
Solution:
From the equation, the gradient of the line is 4, hence, gradient of perpendicular is 14
r = ( ) ()
5
8
+
18 4
17 1
Co-ordinates = ( 1317, 9 171 )
3 Write down, in parametric form, the co-ordinates of any point on the line which passes through (5,
4) in the direction of
3
5 ()
. Use these equations to find where this line meets x + y = 8
r =
() () ()() ()
5
4
1 3
8 5
5
4
3
8
5
8
4 85
3 83
( 5 3
Co-ordinates = 4 , 3
8 8 )
68.16 Angle Between Two Lines
In the previous examples on angles we took the simple case of finding the angle between vectors. This time we
need the angle between two lines, expressed with a vector equation. In this case we need to consider the two
direction vectors of the lines.
Recall the dot product of two lines is defined by:
p q
cos =
|p||q|
Note that is the angle between the two direction vectors of the lines. Where p is the direction vector of the
line r = a + sp etc.
68.16.1 Example:
1 Find the angle between r1 = (4, 1, 2) + s (2, 2, 5) and r2 = (3, 5, 6) + t (1, 2, 1).
Solution:
4
r1 = 1
2
() ()+ s 2
2
5
3
r2 = 5
6
Direction vectors are used to find the angle:
() () 1
+ s 2
1
p q = 2
2
5
()() 1
2
1
= 2 4 + 5 = 3
Recall that if lines are perpendicular, = 90, hence cos = 0 and therefore p q = 0
Similarly, if lines are parallel, = 0, hence cos = 1 and therefore p q = | p | | q |
637
My A Level Maths Notes
() ()
4
r = 1
2
+ s
2
3
5
Cco-ordinates of a point Q: =
( )
4 + 2s
1 + 3s
2 5s
Note that when s = 0 then point Q coincides with the start point (4, 1, 2).
OM = OA + AM
B a+b
= OA + 1
2 AB
M
But AB = OA + OB
= a + b b A
So OM = a + 1 (a + b)
2 a
= a 12 a + 12 b
= 1a + 1b O Origin
2 2
= 1 (a + b)
2
68.19 3D Vectors
Note the convention that z is up. (Think of the xy-axis as being as normal on the paper, with the z-axis
vertically up from the plane of the paper)
()
z
k 5
4 means 5 in the x-direction, 4 in the y-direction, and 3 in the z-direction and
y
j 3
i can also be written as 5i + 4j + 3k.
x
j The equation of a 3-D line still works the same way as a 2-D line.
j Now have the concept of planes. The horizontal plane is defined by the x-y axes and z will be zero.
Vertical planes are defined by the z-y axes (x = 0), and the z-x axes (y = 0).
j Lines in 3-D can be parallel, but non parallel lines do not necessarily intersect. (Think of railway lines
crossing a road). Lines which are not parallel & do not meet are called skew
j In 2-D, a vector direction can be thought of in terms of gradient. This does not follow in 3-D.
68.19.1 Example:
r =
6
3
4
( ) () 2
+ t 6
1
This cuts the plane where z = 0 4 + t = 0 t = 4
r =
( ) ()( )( )( )
6
3
4
2
+ (4) 6
1
=
r1 =
() ()
6
9
3
2
+ t 3
1
&
1
r2 = 3
1
() () + s
1
4
5
Solution:
a) Equate x components: 6 + 2t = 1 s s = 7 2t
b) Equate y components: 9 3t = 3 + 4s 12 3t = 4s
Substitute for s 12 3t = 4 (7 2t) 12 3t = 28 8t
5t = 40 t = 8, s = 9
Compare co-ords: first line (10, 33, 5)
In second line (10, 33, 44)
Lines do not meet, they are skew.
639
My A Level Maths Notes
Solution:
(1) r1 = 1
0
1
() () 1
+ s 2
1
& (2)
( ) ()
1
r2 = 7
4
1
+ t 0
u
x component: 0 + s = 1 + t
y component: 1 + 2s = 7 s = 3
3 = 1 + t t = 2
1 + s = 4 + tu 2u = 3 + s u = 3
(1) r1 =
( ) () ( ) () ()
0
1
1
1
+ 3 2
1
0
1
1
3
+ 6
3
3
7
2
(2)
1
r2 = 7
4
( ) () ( ) () ()
1
+ 2 0
u
1
7
4
2
+ 0
6
3
7
2
(5, 3, 3) B
Solution:
(a)
AC =
6
5
4
( )()() 4
7
2
1
= 1
2
AB = 3
()()()
5
3
4
7
2
2
= 1
1
Recall: p q = | p | | q | cos
()()
1
1
2
2
1
1
= 6 6 cos
2 1 + 2 = 6 cos
cos =
1
2
= cos1 ( 12 ) = 60
1
(b) Area = ab sin c
2
1 3 3
= 6 6 sin 60 = 3 sin 60 =
2 2
a =
() 2
1
2
;
()
3
b = 2 ;
5
The point D is such that ABCD forms a parallelogram.
c = 5
()
4
Q
Q
q
(3, 2, 5) B A (2, 1, 2)
Solution:
(a) OD = OA + AD and BC = AD
BC =
()()()
4
5
2
3
2
5
=
7
3
7
OD = OA + BC
2
OD = 1
2
() ( ) ( )
+
7
3
7
=
9
4
5
Hence:
9
D = 4
5
()
1
(b) AQ = AC
2
AC =
( ) () ( ) ( )
4
5
2
2
1
2
=
2
4
4
AQ =
1
2
2
() ( ) ()
2
OQ = OA + AQ = 1
2
+ 2
1
2
3
= 3
0
(c)
()()5
1
3
1
2
2
= 35 9 cos
5 + 2 6 = 35 3 cos
9 3
cos = =
3 35 35
= 120
641
My A Level Maths Notes
r1 =
() ()
4
1
1
1
+ s 4
5
r2 =
( ) ()
3
1
6
3
+ t a
b
a) Find the linear relationship between a & b.
As the vectors are perpendicular then the dot product of the vector must be zero, viz:
p q = | p | | q | cos
If = 90 cos = 0 p q = 0
In this case we only consider the directional vector part so:
()()
1
4
5
3
a
b
= 0 (1 3) + (4 a) + (5 b) = 0
3 + 4a + 5b = 0 4a + 5b = 3
b) If the lines also intersect, then find the values s & t as well as a & b.
Rewriting the vectors:
( ) ( )
4 + s
r1 = 1 + 4s
1 + 5s
Since they intersect then:
r2 =
3 + 3t
1 + at
6 + bt
( )( )
4 + s
1 + 4s
1 + 5s
=
3 + 3t
1 + at
6 + bt
Equate x components: 4 + s = 3 + 3t 7 + s = 3t (1)
s
Equate y components: 1 + 4s = 1 + at a = 4 (2)
t
7 + 5s
Equate z components: 1 + 5s = 6 + bt b = (3)
t
4 unknowns require 4 equations to solve the problem.
And from above we have: 4a + 5b = 3 (4)
Substituting (2) & (3) into (4)
( st ) + 5 ( 7 +t 5s ) = 3
4 4
16s
t
+
35 + 25s
t
= 3
41s + 35 = 3t
From (1) 41s + 35 = (7 + s) 42s = 42 s = 1
t = 2, a = 2, b = 1
( )( )
4 + s
1 + 4s
1 + 5s
=
3 + 3t
1 + at
6 + bt
( ) ( )
0
r = 4
5
2
+ t 3
6
(a)
5
AB = 10
10 ( )()( 0
4
5
=
5 0
10 ( 4)
10 (5) )() 5
= 6
15
5
p q = 6
15
( )( )
2
3
6
[ AB (direction vector of r) ]
= (5 2) + ( 6 3) + (15 6) = 10 18 90 = 98
|p| = 25 + 36 + 225 = 286
|q| = 4 + 9 + 36 = 49 = 7
p q = | p | | q | cos 98 = 286 7 cos
98
cos = = 08278 = 1459
286 7
x
(b) sin (180 1459) = sin 341 = x = 286 sin 341 = 949
286
643
My A Level Maths Notes
9 A vector passes through two points A & B with the following co-ordinates:
11
A = 0
1
() ( ) B =
9
4
5
(9, 4, 5) B Find the vector equation of the line AB and the co-ordinates of
N point N if the vector ON is perpendicular to the vector AB.
r Hence, find the length of ON , and the area of the triangle
ABO.
A
O (11, 0, 1)
Solution:
AB = AO + OB =
( )( )( )
11
0
1
+
9
4
5
=
20
4
6
() ( ) 11
0
1
+ s
20
4
6
The vector ON , and the co-ordinates of N, are both given by the equation of the line r, and all that
is required is to find the appropriate value of s. Let t be the value of s at point N.
As the lines are perpendicular then the scalar or dot product is zero. Using the direction vectors of
both vectors we have:
AB ON = 0
( )( )
20
4
6
11 20t
4t
1 + 6t
= 20 (11 20t) + 4 (4t) + 6 (1 + 6t) = 0
Co-ordinates of point N:
( ) ()
11 10
2
1 + 3
1
= 2
2
Length of ON is:
|
ON | = 12 + 22 + 22 = 9 = 3
Length of AB is:
|
AB | = (20)2 + 42 + 62 = 400 + 16 + 36 = 2126
1
Area of triangle ABO is: 3 2126 = 3189 sq units
2
Line L
F A point Q has the co-ordinates (6, 1, 22).
Solution:
If F represents the foot of the perpendicular from Q, then the vector OF is:
OF = OA + AF
1
OF = 2
3 () ()( ) 3
+ 3
3
1 + 3
= 2 + 3
3 + 3
where is the value of s that defines F.
As the lines are perpendicular then the scalar or dot product is zero. Using the direction vectors of
both vectors we have:
AF FQ = 0 Measure angles tail to tail
The vector QF is:
FQ = OQ OF
()( )( )
6
FQ = 1
22
1 + 3
2 + 3
3 + 3
5 3
= 3 3
19 3
( )()
5 3
3 3
19 3
3
3
3
= 3 (5 3) + 3 (3 3) + 3 (19 3) = 0
15 9 + 9 9 + 57 9 = 0
81 27 = 0
= 3
1 + 9
the co-ordinates of F = 2 + 9
3 + 9
( )() =
10
7
12
and
FQ =
( )( )
5 9
3 9
19 9
4
= 6
10
The distance of QF
| QF | =
42 + 62 + 102 = 16 + 36 + 100
| QF | =
152
645
My A Level Maths Notes
L1
Find the angle , the equation of the line A q
L1, and the co-ordinate of point C. (4, 1, 5) u1
u2
B
AB and DC are parallel, and the (9, 3, 9)
magnitudes of AD and BC are equal.
()() 5
AB AD = 2
4
3
2
1
= (5 3) + ( 2 2) + (4 1) = 15 4 + 4 = 15
|
AB | = 25 + 4 + 16 = 45 & |
AD | = 9 + 4 + 1 = 14
15
cos =
45 14
L1 =
() ()
7
1
6
5
+ 2
4
|
DC | = 25s2 + 4s2 + 16s2 = s 45 (1)
cos =
adjacent
=
| Au
1|
| Au1 | = | AD | cos
hypotenuse | AD |
15 15
| Au1 | = | AD | cos = 14 =
45 14 45
| DC | = | AB | 2 | Au1 |
45 2 ( )
15
45
=
15
45
(2)
15 15 15 1
From (1) & (2) s 45 = s = = =
() ()( )()
45 45 45 45 3
7 + 5
3 8 23
7
1 5
the co-ordinate of point C = 1 + 2 = 1 2
3 = 1
3
3
6 4 6 + 4 7 13
3
Hence: | AD | = | BC |
(given)
From above: | AD |
= 14
From above: C =
() ()
7
1
6
5
+ s 2
4
Now
BC =
() ()()( )
7
1
6
5
+ s 2
4
9
3
9
=
2 + 5s
4 2s
3 + 4s
Hence: | BC | =
(2 + 5s)2 + (4 2s)2 + (3 + 4s)2
| BC | =
(4 20s + 25s2) + (16 16s + 4s2) + (9 24s + 16s2)
|
BC | = 45s2 60s + 29
45s2 60s + 29 = 14
45s2 60s + 29 = 14
45s2 60s + 15 = 0
3s2 4s + 1 = 0
(3s 1) (s 1) = 0
1
s = or 1
() ()()
3
8 23
7
1 5
the co-ordinate of point C = 1 + 2 = 1
3
3
6 4 7 13
(s = 1 represents a solution which would be correct if the shape was a parallelogram)
647
My A Level Maths Notes
OA = i + 2j + 2k or
OA =
()
1
2
2
r = 5i + 4j 2k + s (2i + j 2k) or r =
() ()
5
4
2
+ s
2
1
2
r = 5i + 4j 2k + 2si + sj 2sk
r = (5 + 2s) i + (4 + s) j (2 + 2s) k
Comparing the coefficients of OA and r for each unit vector, will give us the value of s at the point
of intersection of the two vectors, (assuming they do intercept).
OA = r
i + 2j + 2k = (5 + 2s) i + (4 + s) j (2 + 2s) k
i component 1 = (5 + 2s) s = 2
j component 2 = (4 + s) s = 2
k component 2 = (2 2s) s = 2
Since s = 2 is true for each component, then point A is on the line L1.
To show that the lines are perpendicular, then it only needs to be shown that the dot product is
zero. (See definition).
Only the direction vectors need be considered.
OA r =
()()
1
2
2
2
1
2
= (1 2) + (2 1) + (2 2) = 2 + 2 4 = 0
r
the scalar s an easy value like 1 and plot
B (4, 1, 6)
B (4, 1, 6).
O
(1, 2, 3) A
AB =
()()
Bx
By
Bz
Ax
Ay
Az
= direction vector slope in 2D (actually inverse gradient)
| OQ |
=
|( )|
a
b
c
= a2 + b2 + c2
r =
()()Sx
Sy
Sz
dx
+ dy
dz ()
dx
dy
dz
= translation vector
a b =
()() ( )
ax
ay
bx
by
=
axbx
ayby
= (ax bx) + (ay by) = axbx + ayby
649
My A Level Maths Notes
((
x1
y1 B A
z1
(( ((
x2 x1
A
y AB = y2 y1 = Direction vector
z2 z1
((
x2
tor
L1 y2
ec B z
nv
((
x1 2
io
sit
OA = y1
Po
z1
O x
Cubic Function
3
f (x) = x y
Domain: x R y = x3
Range: f (x) R
Intercept: (0, 0)
Passes points: (1, 1) and (1, 1)
for k = 1
f (x) = kx3 Passes points: (1, k) and (1, k) y = x2 (1, 1)
k > 0 Increasing: over x R i.e. always
651
My A Level Maths Notes
Reciprocal Function
1
f (x) = = x1 1 y
x Domain: x R, x 0 y= y = x 1
Range: f (x) R, f (x) 0
x
Intercepts: None
Passes points: (1, 1) and (1, 1)
for k = 1 y = x2
k (1, 1)
f (x) = Passes points: (1, k) and (1, k)
x Decreasing: over x R, x 0
x
Symmetry: Rotational about origin -
k > 0 (1, 1)
order 2
Function: odd
Inverse:
Asymptotes: x-axis and y-axis
k
g (x) = Note: y is inversely proportional to x.
x As x doubles, y decreases 2 fold.
Curve called a Hyperbola.
653
My A Level Maths Notes
Exponential Function
x
f (x) = e y
Domain: x R
Range: f (x) > 0
x-intercept: None
y = ex
f (x) = kex y-intercept: (0, 1) or (0, k)
Symmetry: None
k > 0
Increasing function: over x R
Asymptote: x-axis
Inverse
Note: y is proportional to a number
f (x) = k ln (x) (0, 1)
raised to the power x.
As x increases, y increases x
f (x) = k log (x) exponentially.
655
My A Level Maths Notes
( ) ( )
2
sin + = sin
2 2
cos x
Symmetry: Rotational about origin -
order 2
Inverse: Function: odd tan () = tan
x = tan 1 y Symmetry: Rotational about x =
2
etc.
tan ( + ) = tan ( )
Vertical asymptotes: x = + n
2
or: x = (2n + 1)
2
cot x = tan ( x)
657
My A Level Maths Notes
y = sin x
-1
f (x) = sin2 x 1
y = sin x
-1
y = sin2 x
y = cos x
-1
-1 y = cos 2x
y = tan x
f (x) = tan2 x
y = tan x
y = tan 2 x
1
Intercept: (0, 0)
Increasing interval: 1 x 1
Symmetry: Rotational about origin -
order 2 1 O 1 x
Function: odd
y = sin1 x
-p/2
1 O 1 x
Intercept: (0, 0)
Increasing interval: x R O x
Symmetry: Rotational about origin -
order 2
Function: odd
Asymptotes: y =
2 -p/2
659
My A Level Maths Notes
y2 = x y Squared Relation
y
y = x Domain: x R, x 0 y2 = x
+ Range: f (x) R
y = x
Intercept: (0, 0)
x if x 0
f (x) =
x if x < 0
x2 + y2 = r2 Circle
y Q (x, y)
(x a)2 + (y b)2 Domain: x R
Range: f (x) R r
= r2 yb
Centre: (a, b) C
Symmetry: both. (a, b) xa
Function: both
o x
Transformations
y = f (x) + a Translates the curve +a units parallel
to the y-axis. Vertical translation. y y = f(x) + a
a
0
Vector is
a
-2 -1 1 2 x
a
y = f(x)
-2 -1 1 2 x
y = f(x)
a
a
Vector is
0 x
-2 -1 1 2
y = f(x)
a
661
My A Level Maths Notes
-2 -1 1 2 x
y = f(x)
y = f(x)
-2 -1 1 2 x
y = f(x)
( b2 ) ( b2 )
2 2
x2 + bx + c = x + + c
bx + c = (x ) ( )
2 2
b b
x2 + c
2 2
For a quadratic of the form a (x + k)2 + q
y = a (x + k)2 + q
Co-ordinates of vertex (k, q)
Axis of symmetry x = k
If a > 0, graph is shaped, vertex is a minimum point
If a < 0, graph is shaped, vertex is a maximum point
For a quadratic of the form ax2 + bx + c
b b2
Turning point is when x = ; y = + c
2a 4a
ax2 + bx + c = a x2 + x +
b c
a a
( ) ( ) c
2 2
b b
= a x + +
2a 2a a
( )
2
b b2
ax2 + bx + c = a x + + c
2a 4a
Discriminant < 0 Graph does not No real solutions Only complex roots, which involve imaginary
intersect the x-axis numbers ( 1).
663
My A Level Maths Notes
70.2 Series
n n n
(a
r=1
r + br) = a + b
r=1
r
r=1
r
k n n
a
r=1
r +
r=k+1
ar = a
r=1
r r < k < n
n n
ka
r=1
r = k
r=1
a r
c
1
= nc where c is a constant
1
1
= n
r
1
= n (n + 1)
r=1
2
n
r 2 1
= n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
r=1
6
2 2
n
1 n
1
r = n2 (n + 1)2 = n (n + 1) =
3
r
r=1
4 2 r = 1
U n = a + (n 1) d
a + l
Sn = n
n
Sn = [ a + l ]
2
or
2
where l = a + (n 1) d
Sum to Infinity of a Arithmetic Progression
n
Sn = [ 2a + (n 1) d ]
2
U n = a + U n 1d
U n + 1 = a + U nd
U n = ar(n 1)
U n = U 0 rn
Sum of a Geometric Progression:
a (1 rn)
Sn =
(1 r)
a (rn 1)
Sn = r > 1
(r 1)
Sum to Infinity of a Geometric Progression:
a
S = |r| < 1
(1 r)
2 3 r n1 n
(a + b)n = an + nC1 an 1b + nC2 an 2b + nC3 an 3b + + nCr an rb + + nCn 1 ab + b
(a + b)n = an + ()
n n1
1
a b +
n n2 2
2
a b +
3 ()
n n3 3
a b + +
n nr r
r
a b + + ()
n
n 1
ab
n1
+ b
n
() ( )
( )
n n
(a + b)n =
r=0
n nr r
r
a b or =
r=0
n
Cr an rb
r
Where:
n
Cr = ()
n
r
=
n!
r! (n r)!
n
Cr = nCn r
n
C2 = () n
2
=
n (n 1)
2 1
n
C3 = ()
n
3
=
n (n 1) (n 2)
3 2 1
The k-th term:
= nCk 1 an k + 1b
k1
or ( n
k 1 )
an k + 1b
k1
= nCr an rb
r
or ()
n nr r
r
a b
Note: the combination format will only work if n is a positive integer. For n < 1 then the full version of the
Binomial theorem is required.
Where n is a positive integer, the expansion terminates after n + 1 terms, and is valid for all values of x.
The use of the nCr form of combination symbol, is simply that this is the symbology used on calculators.
665
My A Level Maths Notes
( ) ( )
n n
(a + bx)n = a 1 +
bx n bx
= a 1 +
a a
( x) + ( a x) ( )
n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) b
2 3 4
b n (n 1) b n (n 1) (n 2) b
= a 1 + n x +
n
+ x
a 2! a 3! 4! a
j For the general Binomial Theorem any rational value of n can be used (i.e. fractional or negative
values, and not just positive integers).
j For these expansions, the binomial must start with a 1 in the brackets. For binomials of the form
(a + bx)n, the a term must be factored out.
( )
n
b
Therefore, the binomial (a + bx)n must be changed to an 1 + x .
a
j When n is a positive integer the series is finite and gives an exact value of (1 + x)n and is valid for all
values of x. The expansion terminates after n + 1 terms, because coefficients after this term are zero.
j When n is either a fractional and/or a negative value, the series will have an infinite number of terms.
and the coefficients are never zero.
j In these cases the series will either diverge and the value will become infinite or they will
converge, with the value converging towards the value of binomial (1 + x)n.
j The general Binomial Theorem will converge when | x | < 1 (i.e. 1 < x < 1). This is the
condition required for convergence and we say that the series is valid for this condition.
( ) | |
n
b b a
j For binomials of the form an 1 + x , the series is only valid when x < 1, or |x| <
a a b
(1 + x)1 = 1 x + x2 x3 + x4 +
(1 x)1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 +
(1 + x)2 = 1 2x + 3x2 4x3 + 5x4 +
(1 x)2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + 5x4 +
All valid for | x | < 1
Note that when the sign inside the bracket is different from the index, the signs in the expansion alternate, and
when they are the same the signs in the expansion are all positive.
b a
where h = and n = number of strips
n
667
My A Level Maths Notes
70.5 Vectors
AB = (B co-ords) (A co-ords) this is the equivalent of AB = AO + OB
AB =
()()
Bx
By
Bz
Ax
Ay
Az
= direction vector slope in 2D (actually the inverse gradient)
| OQ |
=
|( )|
a
b
c
= a2 + b2 + c2
r =
()()
Sx
Sy
Sz
dx
+ dy
dz ()
dx
dy
dz
= translation vector
((
x1
y1 B A
z1
(( ((
x2 x1
A
y AB = 2 y1 = Direction vector
y
z2 z1
((
x2
tor
L1 y2
ec
B z
nv
((
x1 2
itio
s
OA = y1
Po
z1
O x
Vector Summary
p q = | p | | q | cos
p q
cos =
| p|| q|
a b =
()() ( )
ax
ay
bx
by
=
axbx
ayby
= (ax bx) + (ay by) = axbx + ayby
ax
a b = ay
az ()()( ) bx
by
bz
axbx
= ayby
azbz
= (ax bx) + (ay by) + (az bz) = axbx + ayby + azbz
669
My A Level Maths Notes
sin 0 1 1 3 1 0 1 0
2 2 2
cos 1 3 1 1 0 1 0 1
2 2 2
tan 0 1 1 3 AT 0 AT 0
3
sin2 0 1 1 3 1
4 2 4
cos2 1 3 1 1 0
4 2 4
tan2 0 1 1 3 ND
3
671
My A Level Maths Notes
Second quadrant
sin = sin (180 ) cosec = cosec (180 )
cos = cos (180 ) sec = sec (180 )
tan = tan (180 ) cot = cot (180 )
Third quadrant
sin = sin ( 180) cosec = cosec ( 180)
cos = cos ( 180) sec = sec ( 180)
tan = tan ( 180) cot = cot ( 180)
Fourth quadrant
sin = sin (360 ) cosec = cosec (360 )
cos = cos (360 ) sec = sec (360 )
tan = tan (360 ) cot = cot (360 )
Solutions
Function PV SV 3rd onwards Valid f or
cos sin ( )
or cos sin (90 )
2
sin
tan cos 0
cos
1 cos
cot = tan 0; sin 0
tan sin
1
sec cos 0
cos
1
cosec sin 0
sin
2 tan A
tan 2A
1 tan2A
sin2 A (1 cos A)
cos2 A (1 + cos A)
673
My A Level Maths Notes
Alternative format:
sin (A + B) + sin (A B) = 2sin A cos B
sin (A + B) sin (A B) = 2cos A sin B
cos (A + B) + cos (A B) = 2cos A cos B
cos (A + B) cos (A B) = 2sin A sin B
If t = tan A
2t
sin A
1 + t2
1 t2
cos A
1 + t2
2t
tan A
1 t2
sin tan
2
cos 1 in radians!!!!!!!
2
R = a2 + b2 R cos = a R sin = b
b
tan = 0 < a <
a 2
a b
cos = sin =
a2 + b2 a2 + b2
Recall
sin (A B) sin A cos B cos A sin B
cos (A B) cos A cos B sin A sin B
2
Cosine rule: a2 = b + c2 2bc cos A
b2 + c2 a2
cos A =
2bc
1 1
Area of a triangle: A = ab sin C = bh (Half base vert height)
2 2
71.6 Formul for integrating: cos A cos B, sin A cos B, & sin A sin B
2 sin A cos B sin (A B) + sin (A + B)
2 cos A cos B cos (A B) + cos (A + B)
2 sin A sin B cos (A B) cos (A + B)
2 cos2 A 1 + cos 2A
2 sin2 A 1 cos 2A
The confusion is made worse by the fact that we use: sin2 = (sin )2.
675
My A Level Maths Notes
71.9 Geometry
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0
Circle centre = (g, f ) radius = (g2 + f 2 c)
180 = radians
r
Arc length = r L = ( in degrees)
180
Length of chord = 2r sin ( in degrees or radians)
2
r2
Area of sector = r2 ( in radians) A = ( in degrees)
360
Area of segment = r2 ( sin ) ( in degrees or radians)
71.9.4 Areas
1 1
Area of a triangle: A = ab sin C = bh (Half base vertical height)
2 2
1 2
Area of a sector: A = r ( in radians)
2
Arc length: l = r ( in radians)
677
My A Level Maths Notes
N = bx logb N = x b > 0
b0 = 1 logb 1 = 0
b1 = b logb b = 1
am
an
= a(m n) loga ( MN ) = log M log N
a a
1
an
= a(n) ( )
1 = log N
loga N a
1 1
n
m = mn loga n M = loga M
n
(am)n = a(mn) loga Mn = n loga M
1 ( mn ) 1
(am) n = a loga M n = 1n loga M
logb N
Change of base loga N =
logb a
1
loga b =
logb a
a
b
=
b 1
a () ln
a
b
= ln
b
a
alogam = m
eln x = x ln ex = x
ea ln x = xa a ln ex = ax
Tips:
To solve problems like ax = b take logs on both sides first.
Note:
log x log10 x & ln x lne x
679
My A Level Maths Notes
j log (x + y) is not the same as log x + log y. Study the above table and youll find that theres nothing
you can do to split up log (x + y) or log (x y).
log (x)
()
j log (y) is not the same as log xy . When you divide two logs to the same base, you are in fact using the
log (x)
change-of-base formula backwards. Note that log (y) = logy (x), NOT log xy ! ()
j (log x) (log y) is not the same as log (xy). Theres really not much you can do with the product of two
logs when they have the same base.
1 ln (y + 2) = ln (4x 5) + ln 3
You cannot just remove all the lns so: (y + 2) (4x 5) + 3
To solve, put the RHS into the form of a single log first: ln (y + 2) = ln [ 3 (4x 5)]
(y + 2) = 3 (4x 5)
2 ln (y + 2) = 2 ln x
You cannot just remove all the lns so: (y + 2) 2x
To solve, put the RHS into the form of a single log first: ln (y + 2) = ln x2
(y + 2) = x2
3 ln (y + 2) = x2 + 3x
2
You cannot convert to exponential form term by term like this: (y + 2) ex + e3x
2 + 3x
To solve, raise e to the whole of the RHS : (y + 2) = ex
73.1 Differentiation
General differential of a function:
dy
[ f (x)] [ ]
n n1
y = = n f (x) f (x)
dx
Inverse Rule:
dy 1
= dx
dx dy
Chain Rule:
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
Product Rule:
y = uv y = f (x) g (x)
dy dv du dy
= u + v = f (x) g (x) f (x) g (x)
dx dx dx dx
Quotient Rule:
u f (x)
y = y =
v g (x)
dy v du u dv dy f (x) g (x) f (x) g (x)
= dx 2 dx =
dx v dx {g (x)}2
Trig Rules:
dy
y = sinnx = n sinn 1x cos x
dx
dy
y = cosnx = n cosn 1x sin x
dx
dy
y = tannx = n tann 1x sec2x
dx
dy
y = ax = ax ln a
dx
681
My A Level Maths Notes
73.2 Integration
Standard integrals (useful for substitution or by inspection):
1
f (ax + b) dx =
a
F (ax + b) + c
1
f (x) [f (x)]
n n+1
dx = [ f (x)] + c
n + 1
f (x)
f (x) dx = ln | f (x)| + c
f (x) e
f (x)
dx = ef (x) + c
By Parts:
b b
dv
dx = [ uv] a
du
b
u v dx
a dx a dx
Vol of revolution:
b
Basic Vol of revolution: V = a
(radius)2 dx
b
x-axis vol of revolution: V = a
y2 dx x-axis a & b are x limits
b
y-axis vol of revolution: V = a
x2 dy y-axis a & b are y limits
xn n xn 1 xn + 1
xn + c (n 1)
n + 1
ex ex ex ex + c
eax a eax
eax + b 1 eax + b + c (a 0)
ef (x) f (x) ef (x) a
683
My A Level Maths Notes
dy
Function y = f (x) Dif f erential dx = f (x) y = f (x) Integral f (x) dx
1 f (x)
sin1 x ln | f (x) | + c
1 x2 f (x)
1
cos 1 x 1 1 ln | ax + b | + c
1 x2 ax + b a
1 1 1
tan1 x ln | b ax | + c
x2 + 1 b ax a
sin1 ( ax ) a2
1
x2
1
(ax + b)2
1 1
a (ax + b)
+ c
cos 1 ( ax )
a2
1
x2 x2
1
a2
1
2a
ln | |
x a
x + a
+ c
( ax ) 2a | a x |
1 1 1 a + x
tan 1 ln + c
x2 + a2 a2 x2
sin ( ) + c
1 x
1
a2 x2 a
General differential of a function:
tan ( ) + c
1 1 x
dy 1
y = axn = axn 1 x2 + a2 a a
dx
dy 1
[ ] [ ] tan1 x + c
n n1
y = f (x) = n f (x) f (x)
dx x2 + 1
dy 1 a
= dx
ax dx xn + 1 + C
n
dx =
dy n + 1
b a
Chain Rule:
dy
dx
=
dy
du
du
dx
a
axndx = b
axndx
1
f (x) [f (x)]
Product Rule: n n+1
dx = [ f (x)] + C
n + 1
y = uv
f (x)
dy
= u
dv
+ v
du f (x)
dx = ln | f (x)| + C
dx dx dx
f (x) e
f (x)
Quotient Rule: dx = ef (x) + C
u
y =
v
f (x) cos f (x) dx = sin f (x) + C
dy v du dv
dx u dx
=
dx v2 f (x) sin f (x) dx = cos f (x) + C
y = sinnx
dy
= n sinn 1x cos x
f (x) tan f (x) dx = ln | sec f (x)| + C etc
dx b b
dv
dx = [ uv] a
du
b
dy By Parts: u v dx
y = cosnx = n cosn 1x sin x a dx a dx
dx
b
y = tannx
dy
dx
= n tann 1x sec2x
Basic Vol of revolution: V = a
(radius)2 dx
b
y = ax
dy
dx
= ax ln a x-axis: vol of revolution: V = a
y2 dx x limits
(* means formulae in the exam book) y-axis: vol of revolution: V = x2 dy y limits
a
( Standard integrals for inspection / substitution)
Standard
Integral? Y Integrate normally
(See formula
book)
If n 0 rearrange as Form of
Y
f (x) [f (x)]n f (x) dx
dx [f (x) n
]
685
76 Annex Set Theory Symbols
Universal Set:
The complete set that contains all the
elements being considered.
A Set A:
Includes all the members or elements of
Set A.
A Not Set A:
Includes all those elements that are not
members of Set A. (Also known as the
complement of A).
x x
A B A B
A A'
x x
A B A B
AB AB
x x
A B A B
A' B A' B
x x
A B A B
=
AB=A AB=B
x x
B A
A B
AB AB
x x
A B A B
A A' A A'
687
My A Level Maths Notes
x x
A B A B
C C
ABC ABC
x x
A B A B
C C
(A B)' C (A B C )'
The End