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LORRIE
A. SHEPARD
4 EDUCATIONALRESEARCHER
ofIQ
Theory I\
&
Cognitive
Associationist
& s ent Instruction tin i i Classroom
Constructivist
Behaviorist / Learning AI Assessment
Learning / ' Theories V
Theories
"according to his capabilities." These views led to a highly States from the beginning of the century to the present day.
differentiated curriculum and a largely utilitarian one that Recognizing the common paternity of behaviorist learning
disdained academic subjects for any but college prepara- theory and objective testing helps us to understand the con-
tory students. tinued intellectual kinship between one-skill-at-a-time test
Alongside these curriculumtheories,Edward Thomdike's items and instructional practices aimed at mastery of con-
(1922) associationism and the behaviorism of Hull (1943), stituent elements.
Skinner (1938, 1954) and Gagne (1965) conceived of learn- Looking at any collection of tests from early in the cen-
ing as the accumulation of stimulus-response associations. tury, as shown in Figure 3, one is immediately struck by
The following quotation from B. F. Skinner is illustrative: how much the questions emphasized rote recall. To be fair,
at the time, this was not a distortion of subject matter
The whole process of becoming competent in any field caused by the adoption of objective-item formats. One hun-
must be divided into a very large number of very small dred years ago, various recall, completion, matching, and
steps, and reinforcementmust be contingentupon the ac- multiple-choice test types, along with some essay ques-
complishmentof each step. This solution to the problem tions, fit closely with what was deemed important to learn.
of creating a complex repertoireof behavior also solves
the problem of maintainingthe behavior in strength..... However, once curriculum became encapsulated and rep-
resented by these types of items, it is reasonable to say that
By making each successive step as small as possible, the these formats locked in a particular and outdated concep-
frequencyof reinforcementcan be raised to a maximum, tion of subject matter.
while the possibly aversiveconsequencesof being wrong
are reduced to a minimum. (Skinner,1954,p. 94) The dominance of objective tests in classroom practice
has affected more than the form of subject-matterknowl-
Note that this viewpoint promotes a theory of motivation edge. It has also shaped beliefs about the nature of evidence
as well as one of cognitive development. and principles of fairness. In a recent assessment project,for
Several key assumptions of the behavioristic model had example, both teachers and researchers were surprised to
consequences for ensuing conceptualizations of teaching find that despite our shared enthusiasm for developing al-
and testing: ternatives to standardized tests we nonetheless operated
1. Learning occurs by accumulating atomized bits of from different assumptions about how "standardized" as-
knowledge; sessments needed to be in classrooms. More surprising
2. Learning is tightly sequenced and hierarchical; still, it was teachers who held beliefs more consistent with
3. Transferis limited, so each objective must be explicitly traditional principles of scientific measurement. From the
taught; perspective of our teacher colleagues, assessment needed
4. Tests should be used frequently to ensure mastery be- to be an official event, separate from instruction (Bliem &
fore proceeding to the next objective; Davinroy, 1997). To ensure fairness, teachers believed that
5. Tests are isomorphic with learning (tests = learning); assessments had to be uniformlyadministered, so they were
6. Motivation is external and based on positive rein- reluctant to conduct more intensive individualized assess-
forcement of many small steps. ments with only below-grade-level readers. Because of the
It is no coincidence that Thorndike was both the origina- belief that assessments had to be targeted to a specific in-
tor of associationist learning theory and the "father"of "sci- structional goal, teachers felt more comfortable using two
entific measurement," a name given him by Ayers in 1918. separate assessments for separate goals, "running records"
Thorndike and his students fostered the development and to assess fluency and written summaries to assess compre-
dominance of the "objective"test, which has been the single hension ratherthan, say, asking students to retell the gist of
most striking feature of achievement testing in the United a story in conjunction with running records. Most signifi-
OCTOBER2000 5
cantly, teachers wanted their assessments to be "objective," other, I predict that it will be something like this merged,
and this was the word they used. They worried often about middle-ground theory that will eventually be accepted as
the subjectivity involved in making more holistic evalua- common wisdom and carried into practice.) The three-part
tions of student work and preferred formula-based meth- figure (Figure4) was developed in parallel to the three-part
ods, such as counting miscues, because these techniques historical paradigm to highlight, respectively, changes in
were more "impartial." curriculum,learning theory,and assessment. In some cases,
Any attempt to change the form and purpose of class- principles in the new paradigm are the direct antitheses of
room assessment to make it more fundamentally a part of principles in the old. The interlocking circles again are in-
the learning process must acknowledge the power of these tended to show the coherence and inter-relatednessof these
enduring and hidden beliefs. ideas taken together.
The cognitive revolution reintroduced the concept of
Conceptual Framework: New Theories of Curriculum, mind. In contrast to past, mechanistic theories of knowl-
Learning, and Assessment edge acquisition, we now understand that learning is an ac-
To consider how classroom assessment practices might be tive process of mental construction and sense making. From
reconceptualizedto be more effective in moving forward the cognitive theory we have also learned that existing knowl-
teaching and learning process, I elaborated the principles of edge structures and beliefs work to enable or impede new
a "social-constructivist"conceptual framework, borrowing learning, that intelligent thought involves self-monitoring
from cognitive, constructivist, and sociocultural theories.1 and awareness about when and how to use skills, and that
(Though these camps are sometimes warring with each "expertise"develops in a field of study as a principled and
6 EDUCATIONALRESEARCHER
coherent way of thinking and representing problems, not other should help students gain experience with the ways
just as an accumulation of information. of thinking and speaking in academic disciplines. School
At the same time, rediscovery of Vygotsky (1978)and the learning should be authentic and connected to the world
work of other Soviet psychologists led to the realization that outside of school not only to make learning more interest-
what is taken into the mind is socially and culturally deter- ing and motivating to students but also to develop the abil-
mined. Fixed, largely hereditarian theories of intelligence ity to use knowledge in real-world settings. In addition to
have been replaced with a new understanding that cogni- the development of cognitive abilities, classroom expecta-
tive abilities are "developed" through socially supported tions and social norms should foster the development of
interactions. Although Vygotsky was initially interested in important dispositions, such as students' willingness to
how children learn to think, over time the ideas of social persist in trying to solve difficult problems.
mediation have been applied equally to the development of To be compatible with and to support this social-con-
intelligence, expertise in academic disciplines, and meta- structivist model of teaching and learning, classroom as-
cognitive skills, and to the formation of identity. Indeed, a sessment must change in two fundamentally important
singularly important idea in this new paradigm is that both ways. First, its form and content must be changed to better
development and learning are primarily social processes. represent important thinking and problem solving skills in
These insights from learning theory then lead to a set of each of the disciplines. Second, the way that assessment is
principles for curriculum reform. The slogan that "all stu- used in classrooms and how it is regarded by teachers and
dents can learn" is intended to refute past beliefs that only students must change. Furthermore,to enable this latter set
an elite group of students could master challenging subject of changes within classrooms, I argue that teachers need
matter. A commitment to equal opportunity for diverse help in fending off the distorting and de-motivating effects
learners means providing genuine opportunities for high- of external assessments.
quality instruction and "ways into" academic curriculathat
are consistent with language and interaction patterns of
home and community (Au & Jordan, 1981; Brown, 1994; Improving the Content and Form of Assessments
Heath, 1983;Tharp & Gallimore, 1988). Classroom routines The content of assessments should match challenging sub-
and the ways that teachers and students talk with each ject matter standards and serve to instantiate what it
OCTOBER2000 7
caring co unity
FIGURE4. Sharedprinciples of curriculumtheories, psychological theories and assessment theory characterizingan emer-
gent, constructivistparadigm.
means to know and learn in each of the disciplines. There- cause this aspect of reform has received the most attention
fore, a broader range of assessment tools is needed to cap- to date. Although I cannot claim that common practice has
ture important learning goals and processes and to more moved significantly beyond the end-of-chapter test, there
directly connect assessment to ongoing instruction. The are nonetheless already promising models being developed
most obvious reform has been to devise more open-ended and used in literacy, mathematics, science, history, and so
performance tasks to ensure that students are able to rea- forth. Forexample, Pat Thompson (1995)provided the set of
son critically,to solve complex problems, and to apply their questions in Figure5 to illustratehow non-algorithmicprob-
knowledge in real-world contexts. In addition, if instruc- lems can help students "see" a mathematical idea. Two ad-
tional goals include developing students' metacognitive ditional open-ended tasks are shown in Figure 6 and serve
abilities, fostering important dispositions, and socializing to illustrate the point that good assessment tasks are inter-
students into the discourse and practices of academic dis- changeable with good instructional tasks.
ciplines, then it is essential that classroom routines and
corresponding assessments reflect these goals as well. This Protecting Classroom Assessment From the Negative
means expanding the armamentariumfor data gathering to Effects of High-Stakes Accountability Testing
include observations, clinical interviews, reflectivejournals, The arguments advanced thus far-in support of social-
projects, demonstrations, collections of student work, and constructivist learning theory, challenging curriculum for
students' self-evaluations, and it means that teachers must all students, and imaginative new forms of assessment-
engage in systematic analysis of the available evidence. follow closely the rhetoric of standards-based reform. I
In this article, I do not elaborate further on needed have avoided using that term, however, because, from the
changes in the content and form of assessment primarilybe- beginning, standards-based reform has additionally placed
8 EDUCATIONALRESEARCHER
FIGURE6. Examplesof open-ended assessment tasks intended to engage students in thinkingand reasoning about important
content.
2000
OCTOBER 9
10 EDUCATIONALRESEARCHER
OCTOBER2000 11
12 EDUCATIONALRESEARCHER
exclusively on the features of state and district accountabil- erature review are provided in Shepard (in press).
OCTOBER2000 13
14 EDUCATIONAL
RESEARCHER