Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
1 AS 1
2 Optics 2
2.1 Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.1 Curvature of Wavefronts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.2 Power of lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.3 The Lens Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.4 Types of Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.5 Magnication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.6 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2.1 Reection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2.2 Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2.3 Total Internal Reection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3 Communications 5
3.1 Digital Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1.1 Digital Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1.2 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2 Digital Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2.1 Mean Smoothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2.2 Median Smoothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2.3 Edge Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3 Digitisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3.1 Digitisation & Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3.2 Sampling Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3.3 Number of Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.4 Signal Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.4.1 Multiple Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
i
ii CONTENTS
4 Electricity 11
4.1 Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.1.1 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2 Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2.1 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.3 Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.3.1 Electromotive Force (EMF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.3.2 Potential Dierence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.3.3 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.4 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.4.1 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.5 Resistance and Conductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.5.1 Ohms Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.5.2 In Series Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.5.3 In Parallel Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.5.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.6 Internal Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.6.1 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.7 Potential Dividers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.7.1 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.8 Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.8.1 Temperature Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.8.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.8.3 Signal Amplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.8.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.9 Resistivity and Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.9.1 Symbols and Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.9.2 Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.9.3 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.10 Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.10.1 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.10.2 See Also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5 Material Structure 19
5.1 Stress, Strain & the Young Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.1.1 By Micheore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
CONTENTS iii
5.1.2 Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.1.3 Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.1.4 Youngs Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.1.5 Stress-Strain Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.1.6 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.2 Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.2.1 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.3 Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.3.1 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.3.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.3.3 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.3.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6 Waves 24
6.1 What is a wave? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.1.1 Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.1.2 The nature of a wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.1.3 Velocity, frequency and wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.1.4 The problem of explaining the nature of light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.1.5 Types of Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.1.6 Superposition / Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.1.7 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.2 Phasors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.2.1 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.3 Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.3.1 Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.3.2 Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.3.3 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.4 Youngs Slits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.4.1 Calculating the angles at which fringes occur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.4.2 Calculating the distances angles correspond to on the screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.4.3 Diraction Grating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.4.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.5 Diraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.5.1 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.6 Finding the Distance of a Remote Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.6.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7 Quantum Physics 32
7.1 Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.1.1 Evidence for the Quantum Behaviour of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.1.2 The Relationship between Energy and Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
iv CONTENTS
7.1.3 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.2 Quantum Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.2.1 Many Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.2.2 Calculating Probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.2.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.3 Electron Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.3.1 Frequency and Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.3.2 De Broglie Wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
7.3.3 Potential Dierence and Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
7.3.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
8 Mechanics 38
8.1 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8.1.1 What is a vector? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8.1.2 Vector Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8.1.3 Vector Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8.1.4 Vector Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8.1.5 Predicting Parabolas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
8.1.6 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
8.2 Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
8.2.1 Distance-time Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
8.2.2 Position-time Graphs or Displacement - Time Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
8.2.3 Velocity-time Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
8.2.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
8.3 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
8.3.1 Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
8.3.2 Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
8.3.3 Derivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
8.3.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
8.4 Forces and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
8.4.1 Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
8.4.2 Work Done . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
8.4.3 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
8.4.4 Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
8.4.5 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9 A2 44
10 Decay 45
10.1 Exponential Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10.1.1 Growth and Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10.1.2 Exponential Relationships in the Real World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
CONTENTS v
11 Gravity 50
11.1 Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
11.1.1 Gravitational Force Inside an Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
11.1.2 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
11.2 Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
11.2.1 Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
11.2.2 Field Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
11.2.3 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
11.3 Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
11.3.1 Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
11.3.2 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
11.4 Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
11.4.1 Equipotentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
11.4.2 Summary of Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
11.4.3 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
12 Mechanics 54
12.1 Simple Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
12.1.1 Angular Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
12.1.2 Time Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
12.1.3 Velocity and Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
12.1.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
12.2 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
12.2.1 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
vi CONTENTS
12.3 Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
12.3.1 Critical Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
12.3.2 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
12.4 Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
12.4.1 Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
12.5 Conservation of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
12.5.1 Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
12.5.2 Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
12.5.3 Explosions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
12.5.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
12.6 Forces and Impulse in Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
12.6.1 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
12.7 Rockets, Hoses and Machine Guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
12.7.1 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
12.8 Circular Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
12.8.1 Angular Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
12.8.2 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
13 Astrophysics 61
13.1 Radar and Triangulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
13.1.1 Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
13.1.2 Triangulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
13.1.3 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
13.2 Large Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
13.2.1 Light Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
13.2.2 Astronomical Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
13.2.3 Parsecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
13.2.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
13.3 Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
13.3.1 Keplers Third Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
13.3.2 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
13.4 Doppler Eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
13.4.1 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
13.5 The Big Bang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
13.5.1 Hubbles Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
13.5.2 The Age of the Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
13.5.3 More Doppler Eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
13.5.4 Evidence for the Big Bang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
13.5.5 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
13.5.6 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
14 Thermodynamics 66
CONTENTS vii
15 Magnetic Fields 71
15.1 Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
15.1.1 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
15.2 Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
15.2.1 Flux Linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
15.2.2 Faradays Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
15.2.3 Lenzs Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
15.2.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
15.3 Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
15.3.1 Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
15.3.2 Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
15.3.3 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
15.4 Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
15.4.1 Ideal Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
15.4.2 Eddy Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
15.4.3 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
15.5 Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
15.5.1 Simple DC Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
15.5.2 Three-phase Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
15.5.3 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
15.6 Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
15.6.1 Moving Coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
viii CONTENTS
16 Electric Fields 78
16.1 Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
16.1.1 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
16.2 Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
16.2.1 Special Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
16.2.2 Field Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
16.2.3 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
16.3 Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
16.3.1 Relationship to Electric Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
16.3.2 Relationship to Electric Field Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
16.3.3 Equipotentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
16.3.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
16.4 Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
16.4.1 The Electronvolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
16.4.2 Summary of Electric Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
16.4.3 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
17 Particle Physics 82
17.1 The Standard Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
17.1.1 Bosons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
17.1.2 Fermions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
17.1.3 Generations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
17.1.4 Antiparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
17.1.5 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
17.2 Quarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
17.2.1 Generations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
17.2.2 Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
17.2.3 Hadrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
17.2.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
17.3 Bosons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
17.3.1 Feynman Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
17.3.2 Photons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
17.3.3 W and Z Bosons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
17.3.4 Gluons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
17.3.5 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
17.4 Leptons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
17.4.1 Electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
17.4.2 Neutrinos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
17.4.3 Lepton Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
CONTENTS ix
17.4.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
17.5 Millikans Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
17.5.1 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
17.6 Pair Production and Annihilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
17.6.1 Pair Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
17.6.2 Annihilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
17.6.3 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
17.7 Particle Accelerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
17.7.1 Linear Accelerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
17.7.2 Cyclotrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
17.7.3 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
17.8 Cloud Chambers and Mass Spectrometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
17.8.1 Cloud Chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
17.8.2 Mass Spectrometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
17.8.3 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
18 Nuclear Physics 90
18.1 Quantum Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
18.1.1 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
18.1.2 Pauli Exclusion Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
18.2 Radioactive Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
18.2.1 Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
18.2.2 Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
18.2.3 Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
18.2.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
18.3 Energy Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
18.3.1 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
18.4 Fission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
18.4.1 Chain Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
18.4.2 Binding Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
18.4.3 Neutron Moderator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
18.4.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
18.5 Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
18.5.1 Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
18.5.2 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
18.5.3 Binding Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
18.5.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
18.6 Binding Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
18.6.1 The Unied Atomic Mass Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
18.6.2 Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
18.6.3 The Binding Energy Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
18.6.4 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
x CONTENTS
19 Appendices 96
19.1 Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
19.2 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
19.3 Delta - 'dierence in' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
19.4 Sigma - 'sum of' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
19.5 Derivation of Equations for Simple Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
20 Worked Solutions 98
20.1 Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
20.2 Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
20.3 Digital Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
20.4 Digital Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
20.5 Digitisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
20.6 Signal Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
20.7 Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
20.8 Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
20.9 Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
20.10Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
20.11Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
20.12Resistance and Conductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
20.13Internal Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
20.14Potential Dividers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
20.15Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
20.16Resistivity and Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
20.17Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
20.18Stress, Strain & the Young Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
20.19Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
20.20Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
20.21What is a wave? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
20.22Phasors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
20.23Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
20.24Youngs Slits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
20.25Diraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
20.26Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
20.27Electron Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
20.28Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
CONTENTS xi
20.29Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
20.30Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
20.31Forces and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
20.32Exponential Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
20.33Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
20.34Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
20.35Half-lives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
20.36Gravitational Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
20.37Gravitational Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
20.38Gravitational Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
20.39Gravitational Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
20.40Simple Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
20.41Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
20.42Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
20.43Conservation of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
20.44Forces and Impulse in Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
20.45Rockets, Hoses and Machine Guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
20.46Circular Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
20.47Radar and Triangulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
20.48Large Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
20.49Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
20.50Doppler Eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
20.51The Big Bang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
20.52Heat and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
20.53Specic Heat Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
20.54Ideal Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
20.55Kinetic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
20.56Boltzmann Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
20.57Magnetic Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
20.58Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
20.59Magnetic Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
20.60Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
20.61Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
20.62Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
20.63Electric Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
20.64Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
20.65Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
20.66Electric Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
20.67The Standard Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
20.68Quarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
20.69Bosons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
xii CONTENTS
20.70Leptons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
20.71Millikans Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
20.72Pair Production and Annihilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
20.73Particle Accelerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
20.74Cloud Chambers and Mass Spectrometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
20.75Radioactive Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
20.76Energy Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
20.77Fission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
20.78Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
20.79Binding Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
20.80Risks, Doses and Dose Equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
AS
1
Chapter 2
Optics
The curvature of a wavefront is given as: where v is the distance between the lens (its centre) and
the in-focus image formed, u is the distance between the
C = v1 , lens (its centre) and the object which the in-focus image
where v is the distance from the wavefront to the in-focus is of, and f is the focal length of the lens. The power of
image depicted by the light. Curvature is measured in the lens can be substituted in for the reciprocal of f, as
dioptres (D). they are the same thing.
2
2.2. REFRACTION 3
2.1.5 Magnication
The lens equation, applied to a single pixel. where v and u are the image and object distances. There-
fore:
h2 v
M= h1 = u
The Cartesian Convention
An easy way to remember this in the middle of an exam
is the formula:
If we were to place a diagram of the lens on a grid, la-
belled with cartesian co-ordinates, we would discover that I = AM
measuring the distance of the object distance is negative, where I is image size, A is actual size of the object M is
in comparison to the image distance. As a result, the the magnication factor.
value for u must always be negative. This is known as
the Cartesian convention.
This means that, if light enters the lens with a positive 2.1.6 Questions
curvature, it will leave with a negative curvature unless
the lens is powerful enough to make the light leave with a 1. A lens has a focal length of 10cm. What is its power,
positive curvature. in dioptres?
2. Light reected o a cactus 1.5m from a 20D lens forms
an image. How many metres is it from the other side of
2.1.4 Types of Lens the lens?
3. A lens in an RGB projector causes an image to focus
on a large screen. What sort of lens is it? Is its power
positive or negative?
4. What is the focal length of a 100D lens?
5. The lm in a camera is 5mm from a lens when au-
tomatically focussed on someones face, 10m from the
camera. What is the power of the lens?
6. The light from a candle is enlarged by a factor of 0.5
by a lens, and produces an image of a candle, 0.05m high,
on a wall. What is the height of the candle?
2.2 Refraction
Types of lens
2.2.1 Reection
There are two types of lens:
Reection is when light 'bounces o a material which is
Converging lenses add curvature to the wavefronts, dierent to the one in which it is travelling. You may
causing them to converge more. These have a positive remember from GCSE (or equivalent) level that we can
power, and have a curved surface which is wider in the calculate the direction the light will take if we consider a
middle than at the rim. line known as the 'normal'. The normal is perpendicular
Diverging lenses remove curvature from the wavefronts, to the boundary between the two materials, at the point at
causing them to diverge more. These have a negative which the light is reected. The angle between the normal
power, and have a curved surface with a dip in the middle. and the ray of light is known as the angle of reection (r).
4 CHAPTER 2. OPTICS
Critical Angle
Angles of reection and incidence In word form, in a material with refractive index n, light
will be totally internally reected at angles greater than
the inverse sine of the reciprocal of the refractive index.
The ray of light will be reected back at the same angle as
it arrived at the normal, on the other side of the normal.
2.2.4 Questions
Communications
ratios, the base of the log does not matter, now we have
Pixels
evaluated log 2 using base 10 log N must be base 10 as
well.
A pixel may be represented by values for red, green and
blue, in which case each colour channel will have to be
encoded separately. When dealing with text, the number
of values is equal to the number of possible characters.
Overall, for an image:
Amount of information in an image (bits) = number of
pixels x bits per pixel.
5
6 CHAPTER 3. COMMUNICATIONS
0 - 255. How many bits should each character be encoded of it. If the result is negative, we treat it as 0. So, taking
with? the median-smoothed image above, edge detection gives
4. A page contains 30 lines of text, with an average of the following result:
15 characters on each line. Each character is represented
by 4 bits. How many megabytes of uncompressed stor-
age will a book consisting of 650 pages like this ll on a 3.2.4 Questions
computers hard disk?
1. How could the above methods be applied to a digital
5. A 10cm wide square image is scanned into a computer. sound sample?
Each pixel is encoded using 3 channels (red, green and
blue), and each channel can take on 256 possible values. 2. Which of the above methods would be suitable for
One pixel is 0.01 mm wide. How much information does smoothing sharp edges? Why?
the scanned image contain? Express your answer using 3. Use median smoothing to remove noise from the fol-
an appropriate unit. lowing image of a white cat in a snowstorm (the black
Worked Solutions pixels have a value of 255):
4. Why would mean sampling not be appropriate for
smoothing the image given in question 3?
3.2 Digital Processing 5. Use mean smoothing to remove noise from the follow-
ing image of a black cat in a coal cellar:
As we have already seen, a digital image consists of pix-
Worked Solutions
els, with each pixel having a value which represents its
colour. For the purposes of understanding how digital
images are manipulated, we are going to consider an 8-
bit grayscale image, with pixel values ranging from 0 to 3.3 Digitisation
255, giving us 256 (28 ) levels of grey. 0 represents white,
and 255 represents black. This is the image we are going Digitisation of a signal is the process by which an ana-
to consider: logue signal is converted to a digital signal.
The image consists of an edge, and some random noise.
There are two methods of smoothing this image (i.e. re-
moving noise) that you need to know about: 3.3.1 Digitisation & Reconstruction
+5 +5
+1 +1
+1 +5 +1+10 +5 x +10
-1 -1
-5 -5
3.5.1 Questions
1. A broadband internet connection has a bit rate of
8Mbit s1 when downloading information. What is the
minimum bandwidth required to carry this bit rate?
2. The same connection has a bandwidth of 100 kHz re-
served for uploading information. What is the maximum
bit rate that can be attained when uploading information
using this connection?
3. A lighthouse uses a ashing light and Morse Code to
communicate with a nearby shore. A 'dash' consists of the
light being on for 2s. The light is left o for 1s between
dots and dashes. What is the bandwidth of the connec-
tion?
4. The broadband connection in question two is used to
upload a 1Mbyte image to a website. How long does it
take to do this?
Worked Solutions
Chapter 4
Electricity
4.1 Charge
Electrons, like many other particles, have a charge. While
some particles have a positive charge, electrons have a
negative charge. The charge on an electron is equal to
approximately 1.6 x 1019 coulomb. The coulomb
(commonly abbreviated C) is the SI unit of charge. One
coulomb is dened as the electric charge carried by 1 am-
pere (amp) of current in 1 second. It is normal to ignore
the negative nature of this charge when considering elec-
tricity.
If we have n particles with the same charge Q , then
the total charge Q is given by:
Q = n Q
By a simple rearrangement:
Qtotal
n= Qparticle
i1 + i4 = i2 + i3
4.1.1 Questions
where I is current (in A), Q is charge (in C) and t is the
1. How much charge do 1234 electrons carry?
time it took for the charge to ow (in seconds).
2. How many electrons does it take to carry 5 C of
In a series circuit, the current is the same everywhere in
charge?
the circuit, as the rate of ow of charged particles is con-
3. The total charge on 1 mole of electrons (6 x 1023 stant throughout the circuit. In a parallel circuit, however,
particles) is equal to 1 Faraday of charge. How many the current is split between the branches of the circuit, as
coulombs of charge are equal to 1 Faraday? the number of charged particles owing cannot change.
4. The mass of a ball is 50 mg. It is supplied 5 C of This is Kirchos First Law, stating that:
charge. Will there be any change in the mass of the ball? In mathematical form:
If so, calculate the change of the mass.
Iin = Iout (The character that resembles a side-
Worked Solutions ways M is the Greek letter sigma, meaning 'sum of'.)
11
12 CHAPTER 4. ELECTRICITY
Series Circuits
Worked Solutions
4.3.3 Questions
4.3 Voltage 1. A battery has an EMF of 5V. What is the total potential
dierence across all the components in the circuit?
Charge moves through a circuit, losing potential energy as 2. The voltages (relative to the voltage of the battery) on
it goes. This means that the charge travels as an electric either side of a resistor are 6V and 5V. What is the
current. Voltage is dened as the dierence in potential potential dierence across the resistor?
energy per. unit charge, i.e.
E 3. At a given point in a circuit, 5C of charge have 10 kJ
V =Q of potential energy. What is the voltage at this point?
where V is voltage (in V), E is the dierence in potential 4. Why do the electrons move to a point 1cm further
energy (in joules) and Q is charge (in coulombs). along the wire?
There are two electrical properties which are both mea- Worked Solutions
sured in volts (commonly abbreviated V), and so both are
known under the somewhat vague title of 'voltage'. Both
are so called because they change the potential energy of
the charge. 4.4 Power
Power is a measure of how much potential energy is dis-
4.3.1 Electromotive Force (EMF)
sipated (i.e. converted into heat, light and other forms of
Keep in mind, that EMF as the name suggests is not energy) by a component or circuit in one second. This is
an electrical force, it is basically the potential dierencedue to a drop in the potential energy, and so the voltage,
across the terminals when the key is open i.e. when no of charge. Power is measured in Watts (commonly ab-
current is drawn from the cell. EMF is named so by the breviated W), where 1 W is 1 Js1 . It can be calculated
scientists who performed faulty experiments and named by nding the product of the current owing through a
component / circuit and the potential dierence across
it so, hence, just a tribute to their contribution to physics
it is still called EMF but the denition has changed with the component / circuit. This gives us the equation:
E
time. P = t = IV
4.5. RESISTANCE AND CONDUCTANCE 13
1
where P is the power dissipated (in W), E is the drop in R = G and G = R1
potential energy (in Joules, J), t is the time taken (in s), I
is the current (in A) and V is either potential dierence or
electromotive force (in V), depending on the component 4.5.1 Ohms Law
being measured.
Since power is the amount of energy changing form per. Ohms Law states that the potential dierence across an
second, the amount of energy being given out each second artefact constructed from Ohmic conductors (i.e. con-
will equal the power of the component giving out energy. ductors that obey Ohms Law) is equal to the product of
the current running through the component and the resis-
You should be able to substitute in values for I and V from tance of the component. As a formula:
other formulae (V=IR, Q=It) in order to relate power to
resistance, conductance, charge and time, giving formu- V = IR
lae like these: where V is potential dierence (in V), I is current (in A)
P = I 2R and R is resistance (in ).
V2
P = R
QV In terms of Resistance
P = t
V
= V1
+ V2 1. A 12 k resistor and a 20 k resistor are connected to
I I I
a 9V battery. A voltmeter is connected across the 12k
Multiply by current (I): resistor. What is the reading on the voltmeter? (Assume
V = V1 + V2 negligible internal resistance.)
So, just as the resistances in series add up to the total 2. A potential divider consists of 100 5 resistors, with a
resistance, the potential dierences add up to the total wiper which moves on one resistor for every 3.6 a handle
16 CHAPTER 4. ELECTRICITY
Resolution
4.8 Sensors
This is the smallest change in the physical property de-
tectable by the sensing system. Sometimes, the limiting
A sensor is a device which converts a physical property factor is the number of decimal places the voltmeter can
into an electrical property (such as resistance). A sensing display. So if, for example, the voltmeter can display the
system is a system (usually a circuit) which allows this voltage to 2 decimal places, the smallest visible change in
electrical property, and so the physical property, to be voltage is 0.01V. We can then use the sensitivity of the
measured. sensor to calculate the resolution.
0.01
S = 1.59 = R
R= 0.01
1.59 0.006 C
4.8.1 Temperature Sensor
Response Time
1. Across which resistor should the multimeter be con- You should be able to rearrange these two formulae to be
nected in order to ensure that, as the distance from the able to work out resistance, conductance, cross-sectional
light source to the sensor increases, the potential dier- area and length. For example, it all makes a lot more
ence recorded increases? sense if we write the rst formula in terms of , A and L:
L
2. In complete darkness, what voltage is recorded on the R = A
multimeter? From this, we can see that the resistance of a lump of
3. When a light source moves 0.5m away from the sensor, material is higher if it has a higher resistivity, or if it is
the voltage on the multimeter increases by 2V. What is longer. Also, if it has a larger cross-sectional area, its
the sensitivity of the sensing system when using this light resistance is smaller.
source, in V m1 ?
4. When the same light source is placed 0m from the sen- 4.9.3 Questions
sor, the potential dierence is 0V. When the light source
is 1m away, what voltage is displayed on the multimeter? 1. A material has a conductivity of 106 S m1 . What is
5. What is the resolution of the sensing system? its resistivity?
6. Draw a circuit diagram showing a similar sensing sys- 2. A pure copper wire has a radius of 0.5mm, a resistance
tem to this, using a Wheatstone bridge and amplier to of 1 M, and is 4680 km long. What is the resistivity of
improve the sensitivity of the system. copper?
7. What is the maximum potential dierence that can 3. Gold has a conductivity of 45 MS m1 . What is the
reach the amplier using this new system (ignore the am- resistance of a 0.01m across gold connector, 0.05m long?
plication)? 4. A strand of metal is stretched to twice its original
8. If this signal were to be amplied 3 times, would it length. What is its new resistance? State your assump-
exceed the maximum voltage of the system? What would tions.
the limits on the signal be? 5. Which has the greater resistivity: a plank or a piece of
Worked Solutions sawdust, made from the same wood?
18 CHAPTER 4. ELECTRICITY
4.10 Semiconductors
Si Si Si Si Si
e-
Si P Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si
4.10.1 Questions
Material Structure
5.1 Stress, Strain & the Young of the bar, the dierence between these two lengths.
Modulus
5.1.4 Youngs Modulus
5.1.1 By Micheore
Youngs Modulus is a measure of the stiness of a mate-
5.1.2 Stress rial. It states how much a material will stretch (i.e., how
much strain it will undergo) as a result of a given amount
Stress is a measure of the internal force an object is ex- of stress. The formula for calculating it is:
periencing per unit cross sectional area. The formula for E =
calculating stress is the same as the formula for calculat-
ing pressure: but The values for stress and strain must be taken at as low
a stress level as possible, provided a dierence in the
=F A length of the sample can be measured. Strain is unitless so
where is stress (in Newtons per square metre or, equiva- Youngs Modulus has the same units as stress, i.e. N/m
lently, Pascals). F is force (in Newtons, commonly abbre- or Pa.
viated N), and A is the cross sectional area of the sample.
5.1.5 Stress-Strain Graphs
Tensile Strength
Yield Stress
5.1.3 Strain
Stresses lead to strain (or deformation). Putting pressure
on an object causes it to stretch. Strain is a measure of Stressstrain curve for low-carbon steel.
how much an object is being stretched. The formula for
strain is: Stress () can be graphed against strain (). The tough-
ness of a material (i.e., how much it resists stress, in J
l0 = l0 = l0 1 ,
ll0
= l l
m3 ) is equal to the area under the curve, between the
where l0 is the original length of a bar being stretched, and y-axis and the fracture point. Graphs such as the one on
l is its length after it has been stretched. l is the extension the right show how stress aects a material. This image
19
20 CHAPTER 5. MATERIAL STRUCTURE
shows the stress-strain graph for low-carbon steel. It has 5.1.6 Questions
three main features:
1. 100N of force are exerted on a wire with cross-
sectional area 0.50mm2 . How much stress is being
Elastic Region exerted on the wire?
In this region (between the origin and point 2), the ratio 2. Another wire has a tensile strength of 70MPa, and
of stress to strain (Youngs modulus) is constant, meaning breaks under 100N of force. What is the cross-
that the material is obeying Hookes law, which states that sectional area of the wire just before breaking?
a material is elastic (it will return to its original shape) if
force is directly proportional to extension of the material 3. What is the strain on a Twix bar (original length
10cm) if it is now 12cm long?
1 2
2 kx 5.2 Metals
Plastic Region
Fracture Point
Arrangement of atoms
5.2.1 Questions
Elasticity
5.3.4 References
In some polymers, such as polyethene, the chains are
folded up. When they are stretched, the chains unravel, [1] C. A. Heaton, The Chemical industry, page 113.
stretching without breaking. When the stress ceases, they
will return to their original shape. If, however, the bonds
between the molecules are broken, the material reaches
its elastic limit and will not return to its original shape.
Stiness
Plasticity
Conductivity
Boiling Point
5.3.3 Questions
1. Dierent crystalline structures have dierent refrac-
tive indexes. Why does this mean that a polycrystalline
polymer is translucent?
Chapter 6
Waves
6.1.1 Denitions
A wave, at its most basic level, is a repeated disturbance
that spreads out and transfers energy as it moves forwards. distance
Water ripples, light and sound all do this. = wavelength
y = amplitude
The image below shows a waveform. It plots distance
through the medium on the x-axis (e.g. distance along Features of a wave
the surface of water), and the amount of disturbance on
the y-axis (e.g. distance from where the surface would be
if the water was not disturbed by ripples). The amount of
disturbance is known as the displacement. Waves tend
to keep the same maximum displacement. This is known 6.1.3 Velocity, frequency and wavelength
as the amplitude.
The distance between two equivalent points in a wave, You should remember the equation v = f from earlier in
along the direction in which the wave travels, is known as this course, or from GCSE. v is the velocity at which the
the wavelength. The 'peaks or 'troughs (where displace- wave travels through the medium, in ms1 , f (or nu, ) is
ment is at a maximum or minimum) are usually chosen the frequency of the wave, in Hz (how many waves pass
as these are the best points of a wave to measure. This through a point each second), and is the wavelength, in
is the distance a wave needs to travel in order to repeat m.
itself, or the distance of one oscillation. This is analogous to walking. Frequency would be the
number of steps taken in a unit of time, equivalent to
how many times the wave oscillates in a unit of time.
6.1.2 The nature of a wave
The wavelength is equivalent to how long each step is.
This begs the question How can the disturbance itself As most waves have a set speed (e.g. the speed of light
move?" In some cases, this is easy to answer. Lots of or speed of sound), as wavelength goes up the frequency
waves travel through a material, in which case it is the ma- goes down, and vice versa. They are inversely propor-
terial of the medium that is being disturbed. Such waves tional. When walking, if you take steps more often, each
are called mechanical waves, which require a material step must make you travel less distance if you are to con-
medium to travel in in order to exist. The easiest exam- tinue walking at the same speed.
ple to think about is a water wave. One area moves up, This equation applies to electromagnetic waves, but you
pulling the next one up with it. The water in this area should remember that there are dierent wavelengths of
gains potential energy. Eventually, pressure and gravity electromagnetic radiation, and that dierent colours of
pull the water back down, and they gain kinetic energy visible light have dierent wavelengths. You also need to
which is again passed onto the next area. This allows the know the wavelengths of the dierent types of electro-
process to repeat, spread out and keep passing energy on. magnetic radiation:
24
6.1. WHAT IS A WAVE? 25
1. What is wave?
2. Through what medium are sound waves propagated?
3. What aspects of the behaviour of light make it look
like a wave?
4. What aspects of the behaviour of light make it look A phasor
like a particle?
5. Consider the diagram on the right. White light is par- Phasors are a method of describing waves which show
tially reected by the transparent material. Some of the two things: the displacement caused to the medium, and
light, however, is refracted into the transparent material the point in the repeating waveform which is being repre-
and reected back by the opaque material. The result is sented. They consist of a circle. An arrow moves round
two waves travelling in the same place at the same time the circle anticlockwise as the wave pattern passes. For
at the same polarisation(the light is not a single beam). every wavelength that goes past, the arrow moves 360, or
Why does, say, the red light disappear? (Variations on 2c , starting from the right, as in trigonometry. The angle
this question are popular with examiners.) of the arrow from the right is known as the phase angle,
and is usually denoted , and the radius of the circle is
6. What is the wavelength of green light? usually denoted a. The height of the point at the end of
7. The lowest frequency sound wave humans can hear has the arrow represents the displacement caused by the wave
a frequency of approximately 20Hz. Given that the speed to the medium, and so the amplitude of the wave at that
of sound in air is 343ms1 , what is the wavelength of the point in time. The time taken to rotate 360 is known as
lowest frequency human-audible sound? the periodic time, and is usually denoted T.
Worked Solutions Phase dierence is the dierence between the angles ()
6.3. STANDING WAVES 27
6.2.1 Questions
6.3.2 Pipes
6.4.1 Calculating the angles at which However, bright fringes do not only occur when the side
labelled is equal to 1 wavelength: it can equal multiple
fringes occur
wavelengths, so long as it is a whole wavelength. There-
fore
n = d sin ,
where n is any integer.
Now consider the right-hand triangle, which applies to
dark fringes. We know that, in this case:
If we wish to calculate the position of a bright fringe,
0.5
we know that, at this point, the waves must be in phase. sin = d
Alternatively, at a dark fringe, the waves must be in an- 0.5 = d sin
tiphase. If we let the wavelength equal , the angle of the
beams from the normal equal , and the distance between We can generalise this, too, for any dark fringe. However,
the slits equal d, we can form two triangles, one for bright if 0.5 is multiplied by an even integer, then we will get
fringes, and another for dark fringes (the crosses labelled a whole wavelength, which would result in a bright, not a
1 and 2 are the slits): dark, fringe. So, n must be an odd integer in the following
30 CHAPTER 6. WAVES
formula: ence p:
dx
0.5n = d sin p = d sin = L
n = 2d sin So, at bright fringes:
dx
n = L , where n is an integer.
And at dark fringes:
6.4.2 Calculating the distances angles cor- 2dx
n = , where n is an odd integer.
respond to on the screen L
At this point, we have to engage in some slightly dodgy 6.4.3 Diraction Grating
maths. In the following diagram, p is path dierence, L
is the distance from the slits to the screen and x is the A diraction grating consists of a lot of slits with equal
perpendicular distance from a fringe to the normal: values of d. As with 2 slits, when n = d sin , peaks
or troughs from all the slits coincide and you get a bright
fringe. Things get a bit more complicated, as all the slits
have dierent positions at which they add up, but you only
need to know that diraction gratings form light and dark
fringes, and that the equations are the same as for 2 slits
for these fringes.
6.4.4 Questions
1. A 2-slit experiment is set up in which the slits are 0.03
m apart. A bright fringe is observed at an angle 10 from
the normal. What sort of electromagnetic radiation was
being used?
2. Light, with a wavelength of 500 nm, is shone through
2 slits, which are 0.05 m apart. What are the angles to the
normal of the rst three dark fringes?
3. Some X-rays, with wavelength 1 nm, are shone through
a diraction grating in which the slits are 50 m apart. A
screen is placed 1.5m from the grating. How far are the
rst three light fringes from the point at which the normal
intercepts the screen?
Worked Solutions
6.5 Diraction
We have already seen why fringes are visible when light
passes through multiple slits. However, this does not ex-
plain why, when light is only passing through 1 slit, a pat-
tern such as the one on the right is visible on the screen.
The answer to this lies in phasors. We already know that
the phasor arrows add up to give a resultant phasor. By
considering the phasor arrows from many paths which
Here, it is necessary to approximate the distance from the light takes through a slit, we can explain why light and
slits to the fringe as the perpendicular distance from the dark fringes occur.
slits to the screen. This is acceptable, provided that is At the normal line, where the brightest fringe is shown,
small, which it will be, since bright fringes get dimmer as all the phasor arrows are pointing in the same direction,
they get further away from the point on the screen oppo- and so add up to create the greatest amplitude: a bright
site the slits. Hence: fringe.
x
sin = L At other fringes, we can use the same formul as for
If we substitute this into the equation for the path dier- diraction gratings, as we are eectively treating the sin-
6.6. FINDING THE DISTANCE OF A REMOTE OBJECT 31
lected.
6. Explain how the distance to the object is calculated
using the data collected.
7. What limitations does your system have? (e.g. accu-
racy, consistency)
8. What percentage error would you expect these limita-
tions to cause?
9. How might these problems be solved?
6.6.1 Examples
Some example answers to these questions are given in the
following pages:
Radar
gle slit as a row of beams of light, coming from a row of
slits.
Sonar
Now consider the central beam of light. By trigonometry:
W
sin = L ,
where = beam angle (radians), W = beam width and L
= distance from slit to screen. Since is small, we can
approximate sin as , so:
W
L
and since = d sin :
d
6.5.1 Questions
1. What is the width of the central bright fringe on a
screen placed 5m from a single slit, where the slit is 0.01m
wide and the wavelength is 500nm?
And thats all there is to it ... maybe.
Worked Solutions
Quantum Physics
Photoelectric Eect
32
7.1. LIGHT 33
below a specic minimum frequency (dependent on the be achieved experimentally, by exposing the metallic sur-
metal), no current was observed whatsoever. This con- face to light of dierent colours, and hence dierent fre-
fused scientists. No matter how much they increased the quencies. We already know the frequencies of the dier-
intensity with low frequency light, no electrons were emit- ent colours of light, and we can calculate the energy each
ted. This was surprising because even with sucient en- photon carries into the surface, as this is the same as the
ergy the photoelectric eect stopped. energy required to supply enough potential dierence to
This does not t in with a wave model of light. In a wave, cause the electron to move. The equation for the energy
the energy is evenly distributed along the wave front. of the electron is derived as follows:
Higher frequency waves deliver more energy, but higher First, equate two formulae for energy:
intensity also means more waves arriving, which can com- P = E = IV
t
pensate. The energy transferred depends on both. De-
spite light showing all of the properties of waves (dirac- Rearrange to get:
tion, refraction, spreading out progressively) the fact met- E = ItV
als need light with a minimum frequency to be able to free
electrons is evidence that light is not a wave. The energy We also know that:
along the wave front should just add up and release the Q = It
electron.
So, by substituting the previous equation into the equation
The minimum frequency threshold suggests there is for energy:
something about the waves themselves that allows elec-
E = QV = eV ,
trons to be released. If energy were evenly distributed
around the wave front then they would. The energy would where P = power, E = energy, t = time, I = current, V =
be evenly shared and build up until electrons could be re- potential dierence, Q = charge, e = charge of 1 electron
leased. Rethinking light as being particles, i.e. photons, = 1.602 x 1019 C, V = potential dierence produced
better explains this. Photons have to have a one-to-one, between anode and cathode at a given frequency of radia-
quantised, particle interaction with electrons. A low en- tion. This means that, given this potential dierence, we
ergy photon never releases an electron. can calculate the energy released, and hence the energy
of the quanta which caused this energy to be released.
This is analogous to how people pay. A wave model of
light freeing electrons would be like people pooling their Plotting frequency (on the x-axis) against energy (on the
cash in order to buy something. If they don't have enough y-axis) gives us an approximate straight line, with a gradi-
money, they can nd more people to agree to contribute ent of 6.626 x 1034 . This number is known as Plancks
to the cost until there is enough money. Higher inten- constant, is measured in Js, and is usually denoted h.
sity light could provide more waves to contribute enough Therefore:
energy to share electrons. However, this is not what hap- E = hf
pens. The photon model is analogous to a group of people
trying to pay for something by credit card. No matter how In other words, the energy carried by each quantum is
many people with insucient credit try to pay, no card is proportional to the frequency of the quantum. The con-
accepted, and no one gets to buy the item. stant of proportionality is Plancks constant.
Key points:
Higher intensity light below the threshold frequency 1. How much energy does a photon with a frequency of
will never release photons despite having the same, 50kHz carry?
or even more, energy.
2. A photon carries 1030 J of energy. What is its fre-
When light is above the minimum frequency, higher quency?
intensity light will give more electrons. 3. How many photons of frequency 545 THz does a 20W
bulb give out each second?
4. In one minute, a bulb gives out a million photons of
7.1.2 The Relationship between Energy frequency 600 THz. What is the power of the bulb?
and Frequency
5. The photons in a beam of electromagnetic radiation
The photoelectric eect allows us to derive an equation carry 2.5J of energy each. How long should the phasors
linking the frequency of electromagnetic radiation to the representing this radiation take to rotate?
energy of each quantum (in this case, photons). This can Worked Solutions
34 CHAPTER 7. QUANTUM PHYSICS
Here, we just need to consider two paths: one through Dierent paths have dierent lengths, and so photons
each slit. We can then calculate two phasor arrows, add take dierent amounts of time to traverse them (these are
them together to gain a resultant phasor arrow, and square known as trip times). In the diagram on the right, the pho-
its amplitude to gain the intensity of the light at the point tons again traverse all possible paths. However, the paths
the two paths went to. When calculated, these intensities with the smallest dierence between trip times have pha-
give a pattern of light and dark fringes, just as predicted sor arrows with the smallest dierence in direction, so the
by the wave theory. paths with the smallest trip times contribute most to the
resultant amplitude. This shortest path is given by Snells
law. Yet again, quantum physics provides a more accurate
picture of something which has already been explained to
some degree.
Diraction
Reection
7.3 Electron Behaviour
This situation is very similar to what happens when light So far, we have considered how quantum physics applies
travels in a 'straight line'. The only dierence is that we to photons, the quanta of light. In reality, every other
consider the paths which involve rebounding o an obsta- particle is also a quantum, but you only need to know
cle. The results are more or less the same, but the paths about photons and electrons.
from which they were obtained are dierent. This means The image on the right shows what happens when you re
that we can assume the same conclusions about these dif- electrons through a pair of slits: it arrives in lumps, but
ferent paths: that most of the resultant amplitude comes you get fringes due to superposition as well. The electrons
from the part of the mirror where the angle of incidence are behaving as both waves and particles. Actually, they
equals the angle of reection. In other words, the likeli- are behaving as quanta. The equations describing quan-
hood is that a photon will behave as if mirrors work ac- tum behaviour in electrons are similar to those describing
cording to wave theory. it in photons.
If electrons exhibit some wavelike properties, they must 1. An electron moves at 30,000 ms1 . What is its de
also have a 'wavelength', known as the de Broglie wave- Broglie wavelength?
7.3. ELECTRON BEHAVIOUR 37
Mechanics
8.1 Vectors
38
8.1. VECTORS 39
s s
v = t = 1 = s
Adding lots of vectors tip-to-tail. Copy this vector, and connect its tail to the tip of the
rst vector. This new vector represents the velocity
and displacement that the ball would have had over
In algebra:
the next second, if gravity did not exist.
|a|n = ( |i|n )2 + ( |j|n )2 and =
arctan |j| Draw another vector to represent the change in ve-
|i|n ,
n
An object travels at a constant rate for 6 seconds, stops for 5 sec- A velocity-time graph plots the velocity of an object, rel-
onds, returns to its original position in the next 7 seconds, travel- ative to a certain point, with time on the x-axis and ve-
ling more slowly in the middle section of its return journey. locity on the y-axis. We already know that velocity is the
gradient (derivative) of the distance function. Since in-
A distance-time graph plots the distance of an object away tegration is the inverse process to dierentiation, if we
from a certain point, with time on the x-axis and distance have a velocity-time graph and wish to know the distance
on the y-axis.There are several types of graphs of motion travelled between two points in time, we can nd the area
you need to be able to use and understand: distance-time under the graph between those two points in time. In gen-
graphs, position-time graphs, and velocity-time graphs. eral:
8.3. KINEMATICS 41
If v = f (t)
t
s = t12 f (t) dt
where v is velocity (in ms1 ), t is time (in s), and s is the
distance travelled (in m) between two points in time t1
and t2 .
Also, by dierentiation, we know that the gradient (or
derivative of v = f(t)) is equal to the acceleration of the
object at any given point in time (in ms2 ) since:
dv
a= dt
8.2.4 Questions
8.3 Kinematics
Kinematics is the study of how objects move. One needs
to understand a situation in which an object changes
speed, accelerating or decelerating, and travelling a cer-
tain distance. There are four equations you need to be
able to use which relate these quantities.
2
(v+u)(vu) 2
u 2
s = u+v
2
vu
a = 2a = v 2a Gravitational Potential Energy = mgh
2as = v 2 u2 The amount of energy converted by a force is equal to the
v 2 = u2 + 2as (4) work done, which is equal (as you already know) to the
8.4. FORCES AND POWER 43
8.4.3 Power
Power is the rate of change of energy. It is the amount of
energy converted per. unit time, and is measured in Js1 :
E
P = t ,
where E = energy (in J) and t = time (in s). Since E
= work done, power is the rate at which work is done.
Since:
E = F s
E
t = F s
t
P = Fv ,
where P = power (in Watts, denoted W), F = force and v
= velocity.
8.4.4 Gravity
Gravity is something of a special case. The acceleration
due to gravity is denoted g, and is equal to 9.81359ms2 .
It is uniform over small distances from the Earth. The
force due to gravity is equal to mg, since F = ma. There-
fore:
F mg
a= m = m =g
Therefore, when things are dropped, they all fall at the
same acceleration, regardless of mass. Also, the acceler-
ation due to gravity (in ms2 ) is equal to the gravitational
eld strength (in Nkg1 ).
8.4.5 Questions
1. I hit a ball of mass 5g with a cue on a billiards table
with a force of 20N. If friction opposes me with a force of
14.2N, what is the resultant acceleration of the ball away
from the cue?
2. A 10g ball rolls down a 1.2m high slope, and leaves
it with a velocity of 4ms1 . How much work is done by
friction?
3. An electric train is powered on a 30kV power supply,
where the current is 100A. The train is travelling at 90
kmh1 . What is the net force exerted on it in a forwards
direction?
Worked Solutions
Chapter 9
A2
44
Chapter 10
Decay
45
46 CHAPTER 10. DECAY
I = I0 e RC ,
t
Worked Solutions
10.3.3 Decay
1. A 2 mF capacitor is connected to a 10V DC power
supply. How much charge can be stored by the capacitor? The solution of the dierential equation for activity given
2. What is the highest possible energy stored by this ca- above is an exponential relationship:
pacitor? N = N0 et ,
3. The capacitor is placed in series with a 5 resistor where N is the number of nuclei present at a time t, and
and charged to capacity. How long would it take for the N0 is the number of nuclei present at time t=0. You can
charge in the capacitor to be reduced to 1 mC? dene t=0 to be any point in time you like, provided you
4. After this time has elapsed, how much energy is stored are consistent. Since A = N and therefore A0 = N0 :
in the capacitor? A = A0 et ,
5. What is the capacitance of the equivalent capacitor to where A is the activity of the sample at a time t, and A0
the following network of capacitors? is the activity at time t=0.
10.4. HALF-LIVES 49
1 mole = 6.02 x 1023 atoms You can also use this formula for other forms of decay
simply by replacing the decay constant with the constant
1u = 1.66 x 1027 kg
that was in front of the t in the exponential relationship.
1. Americium-241 has a decay constant of 5.07 x So, for the charge on a capacitor, given by the relation-
1011 s1 . What is the activity of 1 mole of americium- ship:
241? t
Qt = Q0 e RC
1
2. How many g of lead-212 ( = 18.2s ) are required
to create an activity of 0.8 x 1018 Bq? So, substitute:
1
3. How long does it take for 2kg of lead-212 to decay to = RC
1.5kg of lead-212? Therefore, the half-life of a capacitor is given by:
4. Where does the missing 0.5kg go? t 12 = RC ln 2
5. Some americium-241 has an activity of 3kBq. What
is its activity after 10 years? 10.4.3 Time Constant of a Capacitor
6. This model of radioactive decay is similar to taking
some dice, rolling them once per. second, and removing However, when dealing with capacitors, it is more com-
the dice which roll a one or a two. What is the decay mon to use the time constant, commonly denoted ,
constant of the dice? where:
t1
7. If you started out with 10 dice, how many dice would = RC = ln22
you have left after 10s? What is the problem with this
At t = :
model of radioactive decay? RC
Qt = Q0 e RC = Qe0
Worked Solutions
So, the time constant of a capacitor can be dened as
the time taken for the charge, current or voltage from the
capacitor to decay to the reciprocal of e (36.8%) of the
10.4 Half-lives original charge, current or voltage.
10.4.1 Half Life of a Radioisotope 2. Uranium-238 has a half-life of 4.5 billion years. How
long will it take for a 5 gram sample of U-238 to decay
The most common use of half-lives is in radioactive de- to contain 1.25 grams of U-238?
cay. The activity is given by the equation: 3. How long will it be until it contains 0.5 grams of U-
A =A e t 238?
t 0
Gravity
50
11.2. FIELD 51
Fgrav =
Gm 43 r 3
r2 = 43 Gmr 11.2 Field
In other words, inside a sphere of uniform mass, the grav-
itational force is directly proportional to the distance of The gravitational eld, or gravitational eld strength is the
an object from the centre of the sphere. Incidentally, this force exerted by gravity on an object per. unit mass of the
results in a simple harmonic oscillator such as the one on object:
the right. This means that a graph of gravitational force g=
Fgrav
m
against distance from the centre of a sphere with uniform
density looks like this: As gravitational eld strength is a measure of the force
exerted on each unit of mass, its unit is Nkg1 . If we
consider a planet, Body A, the gravitational eld strength
experienced by another object, Body B, is given by:
GM m
r2 GM
g= m = r2
Dimensions :- [g] = M
L2 = M L 2
This is the total force exerted on Body B divided by the
mass of Body B. Inside the planet, force is proportional
to the distance from the centre, so the eld is also propor-
tional to distance.
11.2.1 Acceleration
The gravitational eld can be represented using eld lines. energy is 0 in a way which makes the maths easy.
These run in the direction that a mass would be acceler- The diculty with this simple formula is that g does not
ated in initially. The object will not necessarily fall along remain the same over large distances:
the eld lines, but the acceleration will always be in the
GM
direction of the eld lines. The closer the eld lines are g= r2
together, the denser the gravitational eld. So, over a distance r, x becomes r and so:
GM mr GM m
Egrav = r2 = r
11.2.3 Questions So, if you're dealing with gravitational potential energy
over large distances, use this formula. If you're deal-
G = 6.67 x 1011 m3 kg1 s2 ing with gravitational potential energy over short dis-
tances, such as with ramps on the Earths surface, where
1. A 15kg object has a weight of 8000N. What is the
g=9.81ms2 , use E = mgh.
gravitational eld strength at this point?
2. Draw a graph of gravitational eld strength against dis-
tance. 11.3.1 Graphs
3. What is the gravitational eld strength of the Sun (mass
2 x 1030 kg) on the Earth (mass 6 x 1024 kg, mean orbital
radius 15 x 1010 m)?
4. What is the dierence in the acceleration due to gravity
over a vertical distance d?
5. How far would one have to travel upwards from the
Earths surface to notice a 1Nkg1 dierence in gravita-
tional eld? (The Earth has a radius of 6400 km.)
Worked Solutions
11.4 Potential
11.4.1 Equipotentials
Mechanics
54
12.2. ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 55
12.2.1 Questions
12.3.2 Questions
12.5.2 Elasticity
I = p = mv mu = F t
In a collision where a certain change in momentum (im-
pulse) occurs, a force is exerted. If the collision time is
12.5.3 Explosions small, a larger force is exerted. If the collision time is
long, a smaller force is exerted. If you have a graph of
force against time, impulse is the area under the graph,
In an explosion, two particles which are stuck together are since:
no longer stuck together, and so gain separate velocities:
I = F dt
(M + m)u = M v1 + mv2
The impulse on one particle in a simple collision is the
negative impulse on the other particle.
12.5.4 Questions
If I have a tank of water and a hose, with a pump, and I Very rarely, things move in circles. Some planets move in
pump the water out of the tank, a similar thing occurs - roughly circular orbits. A conker on a string might move
a force pushes me away from the direction of ow of the around my head in a circle. A car turning a corner might,
water. This force is equal to the ow rate (in kgs1 ) of briey, move along the arc of a circle. The key thing to
the water multiplied by its velocity. Bear in mind that 1 note about circular motion is that there is no force pulling
litre of water has a mass of about 1kg. outwards from the circle, and there is no force pulling the
Rockets work on this principle - they pump out fuel, caus- moving object tangential to the circle. Centrifugal force
ing it to gain momentum. This results in a thrust on the does not exist. There is only one force acting in circular
rocket. When designing propulsion systems for rockets, motion, which is known as centripetal force. It always
the aim is to give the fuel as high a velocity per. unit mass acts towards the centre of the circle. The object does not
as possible in order to make the system fuel-ecient, and follow a circular path because two forces are balanced.
to get a high enough change in momentum. Instead, the centripetal force accelerates the object with
60 CHAPTER 12. MECHANICS
a constant magnitude in an ever-changing direction. The 2. A planet orbits a star in a circle. Its year is 100 Earth
object has a velocity, and will continue moving with this years, and the distance from the star to the planet is 70
velocity unless acted on by the centripetal force, which Gm from the star. What is the mass of the star?
is perpetually adding velocity towards the centre of the 3. A 2000kg car turns a corner, which is the arc of a
circle. circle, at 20kmh1 . The centripetal force due to friction
If you were to subject a stationary object to the centripetal is 1.5 times the weight of the car. What is the radius of
force, it would simply fall. If you gave it a little bit of ve- the corner?
locity, it would still fall, but it would not land directly be- 4. Using the formulae for centripetal acceleration and
neath its starting position. If you kept increasing the ve- gravitational eld strength, and the denition of angular
locity and dropping it, there would come a point when it velocity, derive an equation linking the orbital period of
would land innitely far away - it would go into orbit. The a planet to the radius of its orbit. 5.A planet of 1.5g re-
relationship between this 'magic' velocity and the magni- volves around the earth at a radius if 0.5cm at a of fre-
tude of the centripetal force is as follows: quency of 2Hz. Find force.
mv 2
F = r , Worked Solutions
where m is the mass of the object in circular motion, v is
the magnitude of its velocity, and r is the distance from
the centre of the circle to the object. Since F=ma, the
centripetal acceleration is:
v2
a= r
The centripetal force may manifest itself as many things:
the tension in a string, friction, gravity or even an electric
or magnetic eld. In all these cases we can equate the
equation for centripetal force with the equation for the
force it really is.
12.8.2 Questions
Astrophysics
Essentially, radar is a system which uses a radio pulse to 4. Divide the distance calculated in step 2 by the time cal-
measure the distance to an object. The pulse is transmit- culated in step 3 to nd the average velocity of the object
ted, reected by the object, and then received at the site between the transmission of the two pulses:
of the transmitter. The time taken for all this to happen d
v= t
is measured. This can be used to determine the distance
to a planet or even the velocity of a spaceship.
13.1.2 Triangulation
Distance
61
62 CHAPTER 13. ASTROPHYSICS
from the plane of the Earths orbit to the star, as shown less commonly used, but may be calculated in a similar
in the diagram on the right. By simple trigonometry: fashion.
d d d(tan a+tan b)
2r = tan a + tan b = tan a tan b
Therefore: 13.2.2 Astronomical Units
2r tan a tan b
d= tan a+tan b
1 astronomical unit (denoted AU) is the mean average
distance from the Earth to the Sun. This is approximately
13.1.3 Questions 150 x 109 m.
This result was derived for the special case of a circular 0 (v+vs )
= v+vr
orbit as the fourth circular motion problem. The semi-
major axis is the distance from the centre of the ellipse In this case, v is the speed of light, so v = c. Relative to
(the midpoint of the foci) to either of the points on the us, we are stationary, so v = 0. So:
edge of the ellipse closest to one of the foci. = 0 (c+vs )
c
(c+vs ) vs
0 = c =1+ c
13.3.2 Questions
If we call the change in wavelength due to Doppler shift
1. The semi-major axis of an elliptical orbit can be ap- , we know that = 0 + . Therefore:
proximated reasonably accurately by the mean distance 0 + 0 = 1 +
0 = 1 + c
vs
of the planet for the Sun. How would you test, using the
So, the important result you need to know is that:
data in the table above, that the inner planets of the Solar
vs
System obey Keplers Third Law? 0 = c = z
2. Perform this test. Does Keplers Third Law hold? This value is known as the red-shift of a star, denoted
z. If z is positive, the star is moving away from us - the
3. If T2 R3 , express a constant C in terms of T and R. wavelength is shifted up towards the 'red' end of the elec-
4. Io, one of Jupiters moons, has a mean orbital radius tromagnetic spectrum. If z is negative, the star is moving
of 421600km, and a year of 1.77 Earth days. What is the towards us. This is known as blue shift. Note that we have
64 CHAPTER 13. ASTROPHYSICS
Rnow
Rthen =z+1
13.5.5 Questions
1. What is the Hubble Constant in s1 ?
2. How old is the universe?
3. What eect might gravity have had on this gure?
4. Polaris is 132pc away. What is its velocity of recession,
according to Hubbles Law?
Worked Solutions
13.5.6 Footnotes
[1] Arp, Halton C.,Quasars, Redshifts and Controversies
(ISBN 0-521-36314-4)
Chapter 14
Thermodynamics
Enthalpy of system
the particles are moving. The higher the average speed of
the particles, the hotter something is. Gas
Va
Note that there is a technical dierence between 'heat' pori
za
Co tio
and 'temperature'. Heat is energy in transit, also known as nd
en
n
sa
work. Temperature is the internal energy of a substance. Sublimation tio
Deposition
n
We feel heat, not temperature, for if the energy did not
Liquid
move from an object, we would not be able to measure it.
g
If we had some matter which was made of stationary par- e zin
Fre
g
ticles, then we would not be able to make the particles ltin
Me
more stationary. The concept is meaningless. When mat-
ter is in this state, it is at the coldest temperature possi- Solid
ble. We call this temperature 0K. This corresponds to
273.15C. If the temperature rises by 1K, the temper-
ature rises by 1C. The only dierence between the two
The relationships between the states of matter.
scales is what temperature is dened as 0 - in Kelvin, 0 is
absolute zero. In Celsius, 0 is the freezing point of water.
In both scales, 1 is one hundredth of the dierence in stay at its boiling point until it has all changed into wa-
temperature between the freezing and boiling points of ter vapour since the energy being taken in is being used
water. to change state, instead of to increase the temperature
Some matter of temperature T consists of many particles. of the water. The average energy per. particle required
Their motion is essentially random - they are all moving to change state can be approximated using the formula
at dierent speeds, and so they all have dierent kinetic above, where T is the temperature at which the substance
energies. The temperature is related to the average energy changes state.
per. particle E by the following approximate relationship:
E kT , 14.1.2 Activation Energy
where k is a constant known as the Boltzmann constant.
k = 1.38 x 1023 JK1 . T must always be measured in Many things have an activation energy. In order for a
Kelvin. chemical reaction to start, for example, the average en-
ergy per. particle must reach a certain level. However,
most of the time, chemical reactions start at a lower aver-
14.1.1 Changes of State age energy per. particle than the activation energy. This
is because there is always a chance that some particles
Dierent substances change state at dierent tempera- have the required activation energy, since the particles
tures. In other words, when the average energy per. are moving at random. If the reaction is exothermic (this
particle reaches a certain level, the substance changes means that it gives out heat, raising the average energy
state. The situation complicates itself since, in order to per. particle), then, once one reaction has happened,
change state, additional energy is required (or is given more of the particles have the activation energy, and so
out). When liquid water reaches its boiling point, it will the reaction accelerates until all the reagants are used up.
66
14.3. IDEAL GASES 67
The activation energy can be related to the temperature 14.3 Ideal Gases
of the substance using the formula E=kT.
14.1.3 Questions
Worked Solutions
V T pV = 13 N mc2 ,
T must be measured in kelvin, where a rise of 1K is equal where p is the pressure of the gas, V is its volume, N is
to a rise 1C, and 0C = 273K. If we double the temper- the number of molecules, m is the mass of each molecule,
ature of a gas, the particles move around twice as much, and c2 is the mean square speed of the molecules. If you
and so the volume also doubles. knew the speeds of all the molecules, you could calculate
the mean square speed by squaring each speed, and then
taking the mean average of all the squared speeds.
14.3.3 Amount Law
This law states that the pressure of an ideal gas is propor- 14.4.1 Derivation
tional to the amount of gas. If we have twice the number
of gas particles N, then twice the pressure is exerted on
the container they are in:
pN
A mole is a number of particles. 1 mole = 6.02 x 1023
particles. So, the pressure of a gas is also proportional to
the number of moles of gas present n:
pn
2. The argon is in a 0.5m long cylindrical tank with radius where t is the time between collisions. Therefore:
10cm. What volume does it occupy? t= 2l
c
3. The argon is then squeezed with a piston so that in Each collision exerts a force on the wall. Force is the rate
only occupies 0.4m of the tanks length. What is its new of change of momentum, so:
pressure? 2 2
F = p t = 2l
2mc
= 2mc
2l = mcl
4. What is its new temperature? c
F N mc2
p= A = 3Al
molecules have mass m. Let the number of particles in
the chunk be N.
But area multiplied by length is volume, so:
N N
N mc2 n= V = A dh
p= 3V
Therefore:
Therefore:
V = A dh (which makes sense, if you think about it)
pV = 13 N mc2
By denition:
N = nV = nA dh
14.4.2 Questions
The total mass m is the mass of one molecule (m) mul-
1. Five molecules are moving at speeds of 1,5,6,8, and tiplied by the number of molecules (N):
36ms1 . What is their mean square speed? m = mN = mnA dh
2. What is the mass of one molecule of N2 (atomic mass Then work out the weight of the chunk:
14, 1u = 1.66 x 1027 kg)?
W = gm = nmgA dh
3. Atmospheric pressure is 101,325 Pa. If one mole of
Nitrogen takes up 2.3 m3 at about 10C, what is the mean The downwards pressure P is force per. unit area, so:
square speed of the molecules in the air outside, assuming P = W nmgA dh
A = A = nmg dh
that the atmosphere is 100% nitrogen (in reality, it is only
We know that, as we go up in the atmosphere, the pressure
78%)?
decreases. So, across our little chunk there is a dierence
4. What is the average speed of a nitrogen molecule under in pressure dP given by:
the above conditions?
dP = nmg dh (1) In other words, the pressure is de-
5. The particles in question 1 are duplicated 3000 times. creasing (-) and it is the result of the weight of this little
If they have a completely unrealistic mass of 1g, what is chunk of atmosphere.
their pressure when they are crammed into a cube with
We also know that:
side length 0.5m?
P V = N kT
Worked Solutions
So:
N kT
P = V
14.5 Boltzmann Factor But:
N
Particles in a gas lose and gain energy at random due to n= V
collisions with each other. On average, over a large num- So, by substitution:
ber of particles, the proportion of particles which have
P = nkT
at least a certain amount of energy is constant. This is
known as the Boltzmann factor. It is a value between 0 So, for our little chunk:
and 1. The Boltzmann factor is given by the formula: dP = kT dn (2)
n
n0 =e kT , If we equate (1) and (2):
where n is the number of particles with kinetic energy dP = nmg dh = kT dn
above an energy level , n0 is the total number of particles
Rearrange to get:
in the gas, T is the temperature of the gas (in kelvin) and
23 1 dn nmg
k is the Boltzmann constant (1.38 x 10 JK ). dh = kT
This energy could be any sort of energy that a particle can dndh
= kT
nmg
have - it could be gravitational potential energy, or kinetic
Integrate between the limits n0 and n:
energy, for example. n 1
kT kT n
h = mg n0 n dn = mg [ln n]n0 =
kT kT
mg (ln n ln n0 ) = mg ln n0
n
14.5.1 Derivation
mgh
ln nn0 = kT
In the atmosphere, particles are pulled downwards by n mgh
14.5.3 Questions
1u = 1.66 x 1027 kg
g = 9.81 ms2
1. A nitrogen molecule has a molecular mass of 28u.
If the Earths atmosphere is 100% nitrous, with a tem-
perature of 18C, what proportion of nitrogen molecules
reach a height of 2km?
2. What proportion of the molecules in a box of hydrogen
(molecular mass 2u) at 0C have a velocity greater than
5ms1 ?
3. What is the temperature of the hydrogen if half of the
hydrogen is moving at at least 10ms1 ?
4. Some ionised hydrogen (charge 1.6 x 1019 C)is
placed in a uniform electric eld. The potential dierence
between the two plates is 20V, and they are 1m apart.
What proportion of the molecules are at least 0.5m from
the positive plate (ignoring gravity) at 350K?
Worked Solutions
Chapter 15
Magnetic Fields
15.1 Flux we use lines of ux. These obey the following rules:
1. Lines of ux go from the north pole of a permanent
A coil of wire creates magnetic ux. The amount of mag- magnet to the south pole.
netic ux created depends on three things: the number of
2. Lines of ux go clockwise about wires carrying current
coils in the wire, the amount of current owing through
away from you.
the wire, and the permeance of the object through which
the ux is owing. So: 3. Lines of ux never touch, intersect, or cross.
= N I , The direction of the ux is shown with an arrow. Flux is a
bit like electricity in that it must have a complete circuit.
where is ux (in webers, denoted Wb), is permeance
1 The lines of ux always take the route of most permeance.
(in WbA ) and I is current (in A). This is the total ux
Iron has around 800 times as much permeability as air.
induced. NI is the number of current-turns. Perme-
So, ux goes through the iron, and not the air.
ance is related to permeability (a material property) by
the following equation:
A
= L ,
15.1.1 Questions
where is permeability, A is cross-sectional area, and L
is length. A permanent magnet is just like a coil, except 1. A circular steel core has a cross-sectional area of 9
that a current does not need to be generated to maintain cm2 , and a length of 0.5m. If the permeability of steel is
the ux. Over smaller areas, we need to know the ux 875 NA2 , what is the permeance of that core?
density B. This is the amount of ux per. unit area:
2. A coil of insulated wire is wrapped 60 times around
B=A the top of the core, and a 9A direct current is put through
Therefore: the coil. How much ux is induced?
= AB 3. Assuming that all the ux goes through the core, what
is the ux density at any point in the core?
4. Draw a diagram showing the lines of ux within the
core.
Worked Solutions
15.2 Induction
71
72 CHAPTER 15. MAGNETIC FIELDS
F
B
Worked Solutions
15.4 Transformers
15.3.3 Questions
We have already seen that a change in ux induces an emf
in a coil, given by Faradays Law:
= N d dt
1. What force is exerted by a 1T magnetic eld on an
19 We have also seen that a voltage in a coil induces a mag-
electron (of charge 1.6 x 10 C) moving at 5% of the
8 1 netic ux inside the coil. If we were to connect two coils
speed of light (3 x 10 ms )?
with the same core, the ux, and the rate of change of
2. What force is exerted by a 5mT magnetic eld on a ux, would be exactly the same inside both coils. We
20cm wire with resistance 1 attached to a 9V battery? would have created a kind of ux circuit known as a trans-
3. The following diagram shows a positive charge moving former. The ratio between the voltage at the primary coil
through a magnetic eld. Draw an arrow representing the V and the voltage at the secondary coil V would have to
direction of the force on the charge. be (since is the same for both transformers):
74 CHAPTER 15. MAGNETIC FIELDS
Primary
15.4.2 Eddy Currents
Secondary
winding
winding
NP turns
NS turns
In reality, the electrical energy is not all conserved - a lot
Primary Magnetic
current
IP
Flux, of it is converted into heat by eddy currents. In a trans-
Secondary
+ IS current former, the magnetic ux created by the primary coil in-
Primary + duces a current in the core. This occurs in order to oppose
voltage
VP
the charge that produced the magnetic ux (Lenzs Law).
Secondary
voltage The currents owing in the core are called eddy currents.
VS
These currents produce heat, using up energy and so caus-
ing ineciency. One way of minimising the eects of
Transform
Core
er eddy currents is to make the core out of iron laminate.
This is layers of iron separated by thin layers of an insu-
lator such as varnish. The amplitude of the eddy currents
produced is reduced as currents cannot ow through the
An ideal step-down transformer showing magnetic ux in the layers of insulator. (Note: OCR B question papers tend
core.
to have a question on eddy currents.)
Vp Np d Np
15.4.3 Questions
Vs = dt
Ns d
= Ns ,
dt
1. A step-down transformer has 300 coils on one coil, and
where N and N are the numbers of coils in the primary
50 coils on the other. If 30 kV AC is put in, what voltage
and secondary coils respectively.
comes out?
In other words, we can change the voltage of some elec-
2. A step-up transformer has 200 coils on one coil, and
tricity by varying the number of coils in each coil. In
980 coils on the other. If 25 kV AC comes out, what
order for this to work, the current used must be an al-
voltage was put in?
ternating current (AC). This means that the current and
voltage are constantly changing sinusoidally, and so there 3. An ideal transformer transforms a 50A current into
is a sinusoidal change in ux. This means that an emf is a 1A current. It has 40 coils on the primary coil. How
induced in the secondary coil. If the ux did not change many coils are in the secondary coil?
(i.e. we were using direct current), then no emf would be 4. Transformers tend to vibrate. Why is this? What eect
induced, and the transformer would be useless except as does this have on the eciency of the transformer?
a magnet (since it would still have a ux circuit in it).
5. Air does have some permeability. What eect does
this have on the eciency of the transformer? Why?
Worked Solutions
net around with it, causing the magnet to rotate with the
same frequency as the magnetic eld. The disadvantage
of this type of motor is that it goes at one frequency only
- the frequency of the current.
The permanent magnet can be replaced with a coil with
direct current in it. This creates a magnetic eld, the ad-
vantage being that there is no need for a permanent mag-
net which is expensive and heavy. The main disadvan-
tages are that electricity must be used to power the elec-
tromagnet, and that a slip-ring commutator must be used
to prevent the coil getting tangled up and stopping the
motor from running.
4. How could the angular velocity of a three-phase motor If a coil of wire is placed in a magnetic eld and rotated,
be increased? an alternating (sinusoidal) current is induced. As it ro-
5. A squirrel-cage motor relies on eddy currents running tates, sometimes it is 'cutting' through lots of ux, and so
along the rotor to function. However, if eddy currents run lots of current is induced. At other times, it is moving
across the rotor, then the force on the rotor is reduced. parallel to the ux, and so no ux is cut, and no current
How may these eddy currents be reduced without reduc- is induced. In between, some current is induced. This
ing the desired eddy currents? creates an alternating current.
Worked Solutions Either end of the coil can be connected to wires outside of
the generator in order to use the current elsewhere. This
would be ne for the rst few rotations, but after this, the
wires would get tangled up and the generator would be
15.6 Generators useless. To avoid this, we use a commutator. In an AC
generator, this is a pair of rotating conducting 'slip rings
attached to either end of the coil. Carbon brushes bring
these into contact with the outside world.
DC Generator
Simple AC Generator
Three-Phase Generator
15.6.3 Questions
1. Draw diagrams of an alternating current, the 'direct
current' produced by a DC generator, and this current
once it has been smoothed with a capacitor.
2. What is the phase dierence (in radians) between the
voltages produced by a three-phase generator?
3. According to Faradays law, what three things will in-
crease the amplitude of the emf created by a generator?
4. If an albatross touched two power cables carrying AC
in phase, what would happen?
5. What would happen if the two cables carried three-
phase power?
Worked Solutions
Chapter 16
Electric Fields
78
16.2. FIELD 79
1
is proportional to r2 .
16.2.3 Questions
16.3 Potential the same electric potential. They always run perpendic-
ular to electric eld lines. As the eld lines get closer
together, the equipotentials get closer together.
16.3.1 Relationship to Electric Potential
Energy
16.3.4 Questions
You will probably remember from AS (or even GCSE)
that the energy U which ows along a wire is given by: 0 = 8.85 x 1012 Fm1
U =Vq, 1. Draw a diagram of a uniform electric eld between
where V is the potential dierence between either end of two plates, showing the eld lines and the equipotentials.
the wire, and q is the amount of charge which ows. A 2. Do the same for the electric eld around a point charge.
simple rearrangement shows that:
3. The potential dierence between two plates is 100V.
V = Uq What is the potential dierence between a point halfway
This potential dierence is the same thing as electric between the plates and one of the plates?
potential. In a wire, the electric eld is very simple. 4. What is the electric potential at a point 0.2m from an
There are other electric elds, and in these elds as well, alpha particle (charge on an electron = 1.6 x 1019 C)?
the electric potential is the electric potential energy per.
5. What is the electric potential energy of an electron at
unit charge. Electric potential energy between two point
the negative electrode of an electron gun if the potential
charges Q and q is given by:
dierence between the electrodes is 10V?
Qq
U= 40 r Worked Solutions
So, the electric potential at a distance r from any point
charge Q (ignoring other charges) is:
V = Q
40 r
16.4 Potential Energy
Just as an object at a distance r from a sphere has grav-
16.3.2 Relationship to Electric Field itational potential energy, a charge at a distance r from
Strength another charge has electrical potential energy . This
is given by the formula:
Electric potential is also the integral of electric eld
elec = Velec q ,
strength. This is why it is often called potential dier-
ence - it is an integral between two limits (two points in where V is the potential dierence between the two
space) with respect to distance. So, the potential dier- charges Q and q. In a uniform eld, voltage is given by:
ence between two points a and b is: Velec = Eelec d ,
b b [ ]b
Vab = a E dx = a 4Q0 x2 dx = 4 Q
0x
where d is distance, and E is electric eld strength.
a
Combining these two formulae, we get:
But, if we dene b as innity and a as r:
[ ] ( ) elec = qEelec d
V = 4 Q
0x
= Q
40 Q
40 r =
Q
40 r For the eld around a point charge, the situation is dier-
r
So, the area under a graph of electric eld strength against ent. By the same method, we get:
distance, between two points, is the potential dierence elec = kQq
r
between those two points.
If a charge loses electric potential energy, it must gain
For a uniform electric eld, E is constant, so: some other sort of energy. You should also note that force
is the rate of change of energy with respect to distance,
V = r E dx = Er
and that, therefore:
In other words, V is proportional to r. If we double the
distance between us and a point, the potential dierence elec = F dr
between us and that point will also double in a uniform
electric eld.
16.4.1 The Electronvolt
The electronvolt (eV) is a unit of energy equal to the
16.3.3 Equipotentials
charge of a proton or a positron. Its denition is the ki-
Equipotentials are a bit like contours on a map. Contours netic energy gained by an electron which has been accel-
are lines which join up all the points which have the same erated through a potential dierence of 1V:
height. Equipotentials join up all the points which have 1 eV = 1.6 x 1019 J
16.4. POTENTIAL ENERGY 81
16.4.3 Questions
k = 8.99 x 109 Nm2 C2
1. Convert 5 x 1013 J to MeV.
2. Convert 0.9 GeV to J.
3. What is the potential energy of an electron at the neg-
atively charged plate of a uniform electric eld when the
potential dierence between the two plates is 100V?
4. What is the potential energy of a 2C charge 2cm from
a 0.5C charge?
5. What is represented by the gradient of a graph of elec-
tric potential energy against distance from some charge?
Worked Solutions
Chapter 17
Particle Physics
82
17.2. QUARKS 83
The particles in the standard model can be put into two 2. What observable phenomena does the Standard Model
groups: fermions and bosons. Fermions are the build- not explain?
ing blocks of matter. They all obey the Pauli exclusion 3. How much more massive is an up quark than an elec-
principle. Bosons are force-carriers. They carry the elec- tron?
tromagnetic, strong, and weak forces between fermions.
4. How many fermions are there in the Standard Model?
5. The antiparticle of the electron (e- ) is the positron.
17.1.1 Bosons What is the charge and rest mass of a positron?
There are four bosons in the right-hand column of the Worked Solutions
standard model. The photon carries the electromagnetic
force - photons are responsible for electromagnetic radia-
tion, electric elds and magnetic elds. The gluon carries 17.2 Quarks
the strong nuclear force - they 'glue' quarks together to
make up larger non-fundamental particles. The W+ , W-
Quarks (pronounced like 'orcs with a 'qu' on the front)
and Z0 bosons carry the weak nuclear force. When one
are a subset of the fermions - they make up part of mat-
quark changes into another quark, it gives o one of these
ter, most notably the nuclei of atoms. Quarks interact
bosons, which in turn decays into fermions.
with all four of the fundamental forces: gravity, electro-
magnetism, and the weak and strong nuclear forces.
17.1.2 Fermions
Fermions, in turn, can be put into two categories: quarks 17.2.1 Generations
and leptons. Quarks make up, amongst other things, the
protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Leptons include There are four quarks in each of the three generations
electrons and neutrinos. The dierence between quarks of fermions. The rst contains the up quark ( u ), down
and leptons is that quarks interact with the strong nuclear quark ( d ), antiup quark ( u ) and antidown quark ( d
force, whereas leptons do not. ). The second generation contains the charm quark ( c ),
strange quark ( s ), anticharm quark ( c ) and antistrange
quark ( s ). The third generation contains the top quark (
17.1.3 Generations t ), bottom quark ( b ), antitop quark ( t ) and antibottom
quark ( b ).
Fermions are also divided into three generations. The rst
generation contains the fermions which we are made of
- electrons, the up and down quarks, and the neutrino. 17.2.2 Charge
The rst generation particles have less mass than the sec-
ond, and the second generation particles have less mass The up, charm and top quarks have a charge of +e, and
than their respective third generation particles. The sec- so their respective antiparticles have a charge of -e. The
ond generation (the generation) contains two leptons: down, strange and bottom quarks have a charge of -e,
the muon and the muon-neutrino. It also contains the and so their respective antiparticles have a charge of +e.
charm and strange quarks. The third generation (the
generation) contains another two leptons: the tau and the
tau-neutrino. Its quarks are the top and bottom quarks. 17.2.3 Hadrons
17.1.5 Questions Baryons are hadrons which are made up of three quarks.
The two most common baryons are the proton and the
1. The third generation top quark was the last quark in the neutron. Protons are made up of two up quarks and one
Standard Model to have its existence proven experimen- down quark, giving them a total charge of +1e. Neutrons
tally (in 1995). It is also the most massive of the quarks. are made up of one up quark and two down quarks, giving
Why was it so dicult to observe a top quark? them net charge of 0.
84 CHAPTER 17. PARTICLE PHYSICS
Mesons
total charge?
2. The - baryon has a total charge of 1e. Given that
it is made up of only one type of rst generation quark,
what is this quark?
3. What is an antiproton made of? What is its charge?
4. A K+ meson is made of an up quark and an antistrange
quark. What is its total charge?
5. Lambda () baryons are made up of an up quark, a
down quark, and another quark (not an antiquark). The
0 is neutral, and contains a second generation quark.
What is this quark?
Worked Solutions Dierent particles can, of course, interact with each
other. These interactions must take place at a denite
point in space-time. They can be represented by a cer-
tain point on a Feynman diagram, with lines coming in
and out of the point representing the velocities of parti-
cles which take part in the interaction.
17.3 Bosons
17.3.3 W and Z Bosons +1.6 x 1019 C: the positron (e+ ), the antimuon (+ ), and
the antitauon (+ ), respectively.
W and Z bosons carry the weak nuclear force between
particles. This occurs, for example, in decay, which ac-
tually takes place in two stages. First, a neutron turns into
a proton (or vice versa), emitting a W boson. Then, the 17.4.2 Neutrinos
W boson 'turns into' an electron / positron and an (anti-)
neutrino. This is shown in the following Feynman dia- Neutrinos are chargeless, and almost massless. Loads of
gram: them travel around the universe and through you at speeds
close to the speed of light. The symbol for a neutrino is
the Greek letter nu (), with its generation (e, or ) in
subscript. If it is an antineutrino, the symbol has a bar
above it. So, the symbol for a muon-antineutrino is .
are two types of leptons: electrons and neutrinos. 5. Complete the following equation for the emission of
an antielectron from a nucleus:
17.4.1 Electrons
1
1p 10 n + ? + ?
6. Complete the following equation for the capture of an
Electrons are particles with a charge of 1.6 x 1019 C. electron by a nucleus:
There are three types of leptons: the electron (e- ), the 1
muon (- ), and the tauon(- ), one for each generation. 1 p+ ? 0 n + ?
1
17.6.3 Questions
17.5.1 Questions
h = 6.63 x 1034 Js
h = 6.63 x 1034 Js
1. The mass of an electron is 9.11 x 1031 kg. What is
c = 3 x 108 ms1 the minimum amount of energy a photon must have to
g = 9.81 ms2 create an electron?
1. Rearrange the formula above in terms of q. 2. A 1.1 MeV electron annihilates with a 1.1 MeV
positron. What is the total energy of the photon pro-
2. The mass of an oil drop cannot be measured easily. duced?
Express the mass of an oil drop in terms of its radius r
and its density , and, by substitution, nd a more useful 3. What is its frequency?
formula for q. 4. What is its wavelength?
3. An oil droplet of density 885kgm3 and radius 1m 5. A newly produced electron-positron pair are likely
is held stationary in between two plates which are 10cm to annihilate almost immediately. Under what circum-
apart. At what potential dierences between the plates is stances can this be avoided?
this possible?
Worked Solutions
4. If the X-rays used to ionise the oil are of wavelength
1nm, how much energy do they give to the electrons?
Why does this mean that the oil drops are ionised?
17.7 Particle Accelerators
5. In reality, the oil drops are moving when they enter the
uniform electric eld. How can this be compensated for? Modern experimental particle physics requires particles
Worked Solutions to be accelerated to very high energies. This is accom-
17.8. CLOUD CHAMBERS AND MASS SPECTROMETERS 87
A cyclotron is like a linear accelerator, except that, in- The magnitude of the magnetic force on a moving
stead of using lots of dierent electrodes, it uses the same charged particle is given by:
two over and over again. The particles move around in a F = qvB ,
circle due to a magnetic eld. The radius of this circle
depends on the velocity of the particles. The orbits of the where B is the magnetic eld strength, v is the speed of the
particles are enclosed by two semi-cylindrical electrodes. particle and q is the charge on the particle. This force is
An alternating current is used to accelerate the particles. exerted in a direction perpendicular to both the magnetic
When the particles enter one half of the cyclotron, they eld and the direction of motion. If a charged particle
are pulled back to the other half. When they reach the enters a uniform magnetic eld which is perpendicular to
other half, the current switches over, and they are pulled its velocity, then it will move in a circle, since there will
back to the rst half. All the time, the magnetic eld be a force of constant magnitude acting on it in a direc-
keeps them moving in circles. As they gain energy from tion perpendicular to its motion. Using the equation for
the electric eld, the radii of their orbits increase, and centripetal force, we can derive a formula for the radius
their velocities increase, until the radius is as large as the of this circle:
mv 2
cyclotron. r = qvB
88 CHAPTER 17. PARTICLE PHYSICS
mv
r = qB velocity selector into the rest of the mass spectrometer.
r= mv
= p
, If we equate these two forces, we get:
qB qB
qE = qvB ,
where p is the momentum of the particle, and m is the
mass of the particle. This equation makes sense. If the where q is the charge on the particle, E is the strength of
particle has a higher momentum, then its circle of mo- the uniform electric eld, v is the velocity of the particle,
tion will have a larger radius. A stronger magnetic eld and B is the strength of the uniform magnetic eld. The
strength, or a larger charge, will make the radius smaller. charge may be eliminated from both sides:
In a cloud chamber, particles enter a magnetic eld, and E = vB
also a liquid which they ionise. This ionisation causes Therefore:
the paths of the particles to become visible. When the
E
particle loses its charge, its track ceases. When the parti- v= B
cle loses momentum, the radius of the circle decreases, This means that, by adjusting the strengths of the electric
and so, particles spiral inwards. The direction of this and magnetic elds, we can choose the velocity at which
spiralling depends on the direction of the magnetic eld. particles emerge from the velocity selector.
If the direction of the magnetic eld causes a positively
charged particle to spiral clockwise, then it will cause a
negatively charged particle to spiral anticlockwise. Cloud
chambers can, therefore, be used to identify particles by
their charge and mass.
Finding Mass
In the velocity selector, both a uniform electric eld and 17.8.3 Questions
a uniform magnetic eld act on the particle. The only
way a particle can travel through the velocity selector in Charge of electron = 1.6 x 1019 C
a straight line is if the electric force on it is equal and
opposite to the magnetic force on it. If this is not the case, Mass of electron = 9.11 x 1031 kg
the particles path is bent, and so it does not get out of the u = 1.66 x 1027 kg
17.8. CLOUD CHAMBERS AND MASS SPECTROMETERS 89
Nuclear Physics
18.1 Quantum Principles the moment they try and do this, then they must be mov-
ing at dierent velocities, and so no longer be collapsing
There are two principles which you do not need to know in on each other.
for the exam, but may be helpful in understanding some
of the concepts in the course.
18.2 Radioactive Emissions
18.1.1 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that the mo-
mentum and position of an object are limited. Within a
certain uncertainty, when we measure a quantums posi-
tion, it does not have a denite momentum. When we
measure its momentum, it ceases to have a denite posi-
tion. If we try and measure both, the uncertainty in both
will be limited. If we let the uncertainty in our knowledge
of momentum be p, and the uncertainty in our knowl-
edge of position be x:
h
xp = 4 ,
where h is Plancks constant (6.63 x 1034 Js). The
Heisenberg uncertainty principle explains what happens
when electrons occupy energy levels - within these lev-
els, they are limited to a certain range of momentums
and positions, but it is meaningless to say which exact
momentum and position they occupy. If we measure the
momentum with no uncertainty, then the uncertainty in
position becomes innite, and vice versa.
90
18.3. ENERGY LEVELS 91
18.3.1 Questions
18.4 Fission
gives the electrons energy, so they jump up the energy Nuclear ssion is the splitting of the nucleus of a massive
levels. At random, they then jump down again, giving atom into smaller nuclei. This is used to produce energy
o photons with measurable frequencies. The formu- in power stations and nuclear bombs.
lae above can be used to calculate the dierence in en-
ergy between the levels between which the electrons have
jumped.
18.4.1 Chain Reaction
An absorption spectrum can be found by passing light
through (for example) a gas, and observing the frequen- In order to start nuclear ssion, one nucleus must be made
cies of light which are absorbed. These frequencies cor- to split apart. This is achieved by getting the nucleus to
respond to jumps between energy levels which electrons absorb a slow-moving neutron. When the nucleus splits,
have undergone when they absorb the photons, gaining it releases energy, two components, and possibly some
energy. more neutrons. If at least one neutron is released, then
It should be noted that electrons do not always jump to a chain reaction occurs. This neutron goes on to make
the next-door energy level - they can, in principle, jump another nucleus unstable, which splits, and produces more
to any energy level. They cannot jump to an energy which neutrons, and so on.
is not that of an energy level. If this chain reaction is uncontrolled, a massive amount of
To work out how much (electrostatic potential) energy energy is released very fast. This is an atomic explosion,
an electron will have at a certain energy level, use the for- which is used in nuclear bombs. In order to use nuclear
mula: E = 13.6 ssion in a power station, the number of neutrons released
n2
must be controlled by inserting a substance such as boron
To work out how much energy an electron will gain when into the reactor, which absorbs the neutrons, preventing
jumping between energy levels, use the formula: E = them from going on to make more nuclei split.
13.6( n12 n12 ) where an electron is transitioning be-
1 2
tween n1 and n2
The value of 13.6 is a constant by itself but is made up 18.4.2 Binding Energy
of a combination of constants from the derivation of the
Bohr radius and Energy Levels in Hydrogen. The reason nuclear ssion produces energy is that the
e3 M e binding energy of the original nucleus is greater than the
13.6 comes from 8h2 0
binding energy of the products of the ssion reaction.
Try it yourself:charge on an electron, e = 1.6 10 19 This dierence in binding energy is the amount of en-
, Mass of an electron, Me = 9.11 10 31 , Plancks ergy released as photons (some of which are infra-red).
Constant, h = 6.63 10 34 , and Permittivity of Free This energy is used to heat up steam, pressurizing it, and
Space, 0 = 8.85 10 12 enabling it to turn a turbine, producing electricity.
18.5. FUSION 93
18.4.3 Neutron Moderator between 1 and 3 femtometers the strong force causes nu-
cleons to be attracted to one another, with the magnitude
Neutrons have to be moving slowly in order to cause a of this force being far greater than that of electromagnetic
nucleus to become unstable and split. If they are moving repulsion. Therefore in order for two nuclei to fuse, they
too fast, then they simply bounce o. A neutron modera- must be suciently close enough together that the attrac-
tor (such as graphite or heavy water) is used to slow them tive force between the baryons due to the strong nuclear
down. force is greater than the repulsive force due to the elec-
tromagnetic force. If this is the case, then the two nuclei
will become a new, larger, nucleus.
18.4.4 Questions
1. A neutron is red at some Uranium-235. Barium-141 18.5.2 Uses
and Krypton-92 are produced:
92 U 56 Ba +36 Kr + N0 n
1
0n +235 141 92 1
Nuclear fusion was used by humans for the rst time in
How many neutrons are produced (i.e. what is the value the hydrogen bomb, whereby a nuclear ssion reaction
of N)? would occur, releasing enough thermal energy so that nu-
clear fusion could occur, which would release free neu-
2. What proportion of the neutrons produced must be trons allowing the nuclear ssion reaction to be more
absorbed in order to make the reaction stable? ecient, with more of the unstable isotope undergoing
3. What would happen if too many neutrons were ab- ssion as well as a modest amount of energy being re-
sorbed? leased during the fusion process. At the time of writ-
ing (2009), commercially viable fusion power has not yet
4. Alternatively, Uranium-235 can split into Xenon-140, been achieved. However, research is under way, specif-
two neutrons and another element. What is this element? ically at the Culham Centre for Fusion Energy, to bring
(You will need to use a periodic table.) a fusion reaction under control so that it can be used to
Worked Solutions generate electricity. This would have the advantage of
minimal nuclear waste, since the main product would be
non-radioactive helium, with some tritium, which has a
18.5 Fusion relatively short 12-year half-life.
18.5.4 Questions
Nuclear fusion of deuterium and tritium.
c = 3 x 108 ms1
Nuclear fusion is the joining together of atomic nuclei to
form a larger nucleus, and possibly some other products, 1. In the Sun, two tritium nuclei ( 31 H ) are fused to pro-
including energy. It occurs naturally in stars, where hy- duce helium-4 ( 42 He ). What else is produced, apart from
drogen is fused together into larger isotopes of hydrogen energy?
and then into helium, releasing energy along the way. 2. In larger stars, carbon-12 ( 12
6 C ) is fused with protium
( 11 H ). What single nucleus does this produce?
3. In this reaction, 1.95MeV of energy is released. What
18.5.1 Forces
dierence in binding energy does this correspond to?
Nuclei repel each other due to the electromagnetic force, 4. If all this energy was emitted as a photon, what would
since they have the same charge. However at a range of its frequency be?
94 CHAPTER 18. NUCLEAR PHYSICS
18.7.1 Risk
Radioactivity results in risk - this could be a risk of death,
or a risk of developing cancer. In physics, risk is what you Hourly dose equivalent due to cosmic rays per. hour in Sv, across
expect, on average, to happen: the globe.
risk = probability consequence
Absorbed dose does not give a full picture of the potential
So, if there is a 1 in 500 chance that someone gets run harm radioactivity can do to you. Dierent types of ra-
over by a car when crossing the road, the risk involved in diation do dierent amounts of damage. Absorbed dose
allowing 500 people to cross the road is one accident. equivalent, measured in sieverts (denoted Sv) attempts to
compensate. To calculate the dose equivalent, multiply
the dose in grays by the quality factor of the particles ab-
18.7.2 Absorbed Dose sorbed. These quality factors are given in the table below.
Absorbed dose is measured in grays, commonly denoted
Gy. One gray is dened as one joule absorbed per kilo- 18.7.4 Questions
gram. You may be expected to use the equation
1. A mobile phone emits electromagnetic radiation. 1.2
watts of power are absorbed per. kilogram. Assum-
hc ing that the radiation is absorbed uniformly across a 5kg
E = hf =
head, what dose of radiation would be delivered to the
where head when making a 10-minute telephone call?
2. What dose equivalent does this correspond to?
h is the Planck constant 3. How many nuclei are there in 1 mg of Americium-
f is the frequency of the photon 241?
c is the speed of light 4. A ham sandwich becomes contaminated with 1 g of
is the wavelength of the photon Americium-241, and is eaten by an 80kg person. The
half-life of Americium-241 is 432 years. Given that
Americium-241 gives o 5.638 MeV alpha particles,
or
how long would it be before a dose equivalent of 6 Sv
is absorbed, making death certain?
E = ne 5. What assumptions have you made?
Worked Solutions
where
Appendices
19.1 Trigonometry know the ratio between two sides, and wish to calculate
the angle from it, you can use the sin1 , cos1 and tan1
buttons to use the inverse function. These functions are
Trigonometry is the study of the ratios between sides on technically known as arcsin, arccosin and arctan.
a right-angled triangle. Consider the following diagram:
19.2 Logarithms
B
That formula involved logarithms. If ab = c, then:
loga c = b
In other words, a logarithm is a way of asking the ques-
Opposite
96
19.5. DERIVATION OF EQUATIONS FOR SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 97
Therefore:
k k
x = P eit m + Qeit m ,
where P and Q are constants of integration. At this point,
it is useful to clean things up a bit by letting:
k
2 = m
x = Pe it
+ Qeit
It has been proven elsewhere (de Moivres Theorem) that,
when n is a constant:
eni = cos n + i sin n and eni = cos n i sin n
Chapter 20
Worked Solutions
The wavefronts are being caused to spread out (diverge) Assuming the speed of light in the reference medium is 3
more by the lens. Hence, it is a diverging lens. The x 108 :
wavefronts are losing curvature, so the lens has a nega- 3108
8 = 1.24 2.42
3
n = 1.2410
tive power.
3. The refractive index of ice is 1.31. What is the
4. What is the focal length of a 100D lens?
speed of light in ice?
100 = f1 8
1.31 = 310v2
1
f = 100 = 0.01 m = 10 mm 8
1
1.31 2.29 10 ms
v2 = 310 8
5. The lm in a camera is 5mm from a lens when
automatically focussed on someones face, 10m from 4. A ray of light passes the boundary between air and
the camera. What is the power of the lens? a transparent material. The angle of refraction is 20,
and the angle of incidence is 10. What is the speed
5mm = 0.005m of light in this material? Why is it impossible for this
1
= 1 +P material to exist?
0.005 10
3108 sin 10
200 = P 0.1 v2 = sin 20 0.508
8
P = 200.1 D v2 310
5.91 108
0.508
Since lenses are generally made to have nice round pow- This is greater than the speed of light in a vacuum (3 x
ers, this was probably a 200D lens. However, this is in 108 ), and so is impossible.
real life, and this an hypothetical question with numbers
picked out of thin air by me. 5. What is the critical angle of a beam of light leaving
a transparent material with a refractive index of 2?
6. The light from a candle is enlarged by a factor 1
of 0.5 by a lens, and produces an image of a candle, sin C = 2
0.05m high, on a wall. What is the height of the can- C = 30 (using the sin1 button on a scientic calculator
98
20.5. DIGITISATION 99
- this means 'inverse sine', often denoted arcsine or asin ues on either side of it. This would be unreliable, as sound
for short.) is a wave, so the samples need to vary quite widely. How-
ever, something similar could be used when comparing
repeating patterns in a waveform.
20.3 Digital Storage 2. Which of the above methods would be suitable for
smoothing sharp edges? Why?
1. An image transmitted down a SVGA video cable Mean smoothing - median smoothing would not blur the
is 800 pixels wide, and 600 pixels high. How many edges.
pixels are there in the image?
3. Use median smoothing to remove noise from the
800 600 = 480000 pixels following image of a white cat in a snowstorm (the
2. A grayscale image is encoded using 3 bits. How black pixels have a value of 255):
many possible values can each pixel have? 4. Why would mean sampling not be appropriate for
3
2 =8 smoothing the image given in question 3?
3. The characters in a text document are numbered It would produce a really blurred mess, instead of an im-
from 0 - 255. How many bits should each character age, as the noise is too dense.
be encoded with? 5. Use mean smoothing to remove noise from the fol-
There are 256 possible values. lowing image of a black cat in a coal cellar:
log 256
b= log 2 =8
4. A page contains 30 lines of text, with an average 20.5 Digitisation
of 15 characters on each line. Each character is rep-
resented by 4 bits. How many megabytes of uncom-
pressed storage will a book consisting of 650 pages 1. Take samples for the signal below every 0.1ms, and
like this ll on a computers hard disk? then produce a reconstructed signal. How does it dif-
fer from the original?
Total number of characters = 650 x 30 x 15 = 292 500
Total amount of information = 292500 x 4 = 1 170 000
bits
1170000 bits = 1170000
8 bytes = 146250 bytes =
146250
10242 Mbytes 0.14 Mbytes
5. A 10cm wide square image is scanned into a com-
puter. Each pixel is encoded using 3 channels (red,
green and blue), and each channel can take on 256
possible values. One pixel is 0.01 mm wide. How
much information does the scanned image contain?
Express your answer using an appropriate unit.
10cm = 0.1
pixels = 10000 pixels The high frequency elements of the signal have been lost.
0.01103
2. A signal is sampled for 5 seconds at a sampling
Total number of pixels = 10 0002 = 100 000 000 pixels
rate of 20 kHz. How many samples were taken?
b = loglog256
2 = 8 bits per. channel per. pixel = 8 No. of samples
3 bits per. pixel = 24 bits per. pixel 20 103 = 5
Total information = 24 x 100 000 000 = 2 400 000 000 No. of samples = 20 10 5 = 100000
3
bits = 300 000 000 bytes 3. Most sounds created by human speech except for
300000000
10242 286 Mbytes (This is why we usually com- 'ss and '' have a maximum frequency of 4 kHz.
press images before storage, or at least use fewer bits per. What is a suitable sampling rate for a low-quality
pixel.) telephone?
4 2 = 8 kHz
4. Using a sampling rate of 20 kHz and 3 bits, sam-
20.4 Digital Processing ple the following signal, and then produce a recon-
structed signal. What is the maximum frequency that
1. How could the above methods be applied to a dig- can be perfectly reconstructed using this sampling
ital sound sample? rate?
By taking the median or mean of the sample and the val- First, calculate the length of each sample, by letting the
100 CHAPTER 20. WORKED SOLUTIONS
20.8 Charge I
1. How much charge do 1234 electrons carry?
1234 x 1.6 x 1019 = 1.9744 x 1016 C = 197.44 aC
(attocoulombs)
2. How many electrons does is take to carry 5 C of
charge?
5 = 1.6 x 1019 x n
n= 5
1.61019 = 31.25 1018 electrons
3. The total charge on 1 mole of electrons (6 x 1023 R1 R2
particles) is equal to 1 faraday of charge. How many
coulombs of charge are equal to 1 faraday?
1 faraday = 6 x 1023 x 1.6 x 1019 coulombs = 96000
coulombs =96kC
4. The mass of a ball is 50mg. It is supplied 5C of
charge. Will there be any change in the mass of the I1 I2
ball? If so, calculate the change of the mass.
5 = 1.6 x 1019 x n
n= 5
1.61019 = 31.25 1018 electrons
31.25 1018 electrons 9.11 1031 kg/electron =
2.84 1011 kg 20.10 Voltage
1. A battery has an EMF of 5V. What is the total
20.9 Current potential dierence across all the components in the
circuit?
1. 10 coulombs ow past a point in a wire in 1 minute. They are the same! The voltage decreases across the cir-
How much current is owing through the point? cuit from the voltage at one end of the battery to the other.
I = 10
60 0.17 A 2. The voltages (relative to the voltage of the battery)
2. How long does it take for a 2A current to carry 5C? on either side of a resistor are 6V and 5V. What
is the potential dierence across the resistor?
2 = 5t
5 - 6 = 5 + 6 = 1V
t = 52 = 2.5 s
3. At a given point in a circuit, 5C of charge have
3. In the diagram on the right, I = 9A, and I1 = 4.5A.
10 kJ of potential energy. What is the voltage at this
What is the current at I2 ?
point?
9 = 4.5 + I2 3
V = 10105 = 2 kV
I2 = 4.5 A
4. Why do the electrons move to a point 1cm further
4. What would I equal if I1 = 10A and I2 = 15A? along the wire?
I = 10 + 15 = 25A The point further down the wire has a lower voltage (i.e.
5. In the diagram on the right, in 5 seconds, 5C of less energy per. coulomb) - the electrons will be at a lower
charged particles ow past I1 , and 6.7C ow past I2 . potential energy at this point, and fall to it, just as objects
How long does it take for 10C to ow past I? fall to lower potential energies due to gravity.
10 5 6.7
t = 5 + 5 = 2.34
2.34 4.27 s
10
t=
20.11 Power
1. The potential dierence across a 9W light bulb is
240V. How much current is owing through the light
bulb?
9 = 240I
102 CHAPTER 20. WORKED SOLUTIONS
9 2
I= 240 = 0.0375 A Gradient = 3 = Resistance
1 3
2. How much energy is dissipated by a 10W compo- G = 2 = = 1.5 S 2
3
nent in 1 hour?
5. On another graph of potential dierence and cur-
E
10 = 60 2 rent, the graph curves so that the gradient increases
2
E = 60 x 10 = 36000 J = 36 kJ as current increases. What can you say about the re-
sistor?
3. The potential dierence across a top-notch kettle,
which can hold up to 1 litre of water, is 240V, and the The resistor is not an Ohmic conductor.
current is 12.5 A. 4.2 kJ of energy is required to raise 6. 3 resistors, wired in series, have resistances of
the temperature of 1kg of water by 1 C. Assuming 1k, 5k and 500 each. What is the total resis-
100% eciency and the temperature has to be raised tance across all three resistors?
80K (20C to 100C), how long does it take to boil 1 litre
of water? R = (1 x 103 ) + (5 x 103 ) + 500 = 6500 = 6.5k
15 = E - (5 x 10) voltmeter?
E = 50 + 15 = 65 V First, work out the resistances of the resistors:
1
R= G = 13 , 21 , 1
Then, work out the external potential dierence (i.e. ex-
cluding the potential dierence lost due to the batterys
internal resistance):
V = E - IR = 9 - (2 x 0.8) = 7.4V
1 1
3+2
V3,2 = 7.4 1 1 3.36 V
3 + 2 +1
20.15 Sensors
Note to the reader: I am not entirely happy with the an-
swers given on this page. --Sjlegg (talk) 15:01, 19 De-
3. What is the internal resistance of the battery in the cember 2007 (UTC)
following circuit?
( )1 ( ) An LDRs resistance decreases from a maximum re-
4 1
Rexternal = 2+4 1 1
+ 3+6+1 = 15 = 3.75 sistance of 2k to a minimum resistance of 0 as
light intensity increases. It is used in a distance sens-
V = 7.5 x 3.75 = 28.125 ing system which consists of a 9V power supply, a 1.6
Which actually makes this question impossible because k resistor, the LDR and a multimeter which dis-
the current is too high for the resistance supplied to the plays voltage to 2 decimal places measuring the po-
circuit. tential dierence across one of the two resistors.
1. Across which resistor should the multimeter be
connected in order to ensure that, as the distance
20.14 Potential Dividers from the light source to the sensor increases, the po-
tential dierence recorded increases?
1. A 12 k resistor and a 20 k resistor are con- As light intensity increases, distance decreases. So, as
nected to a 9V battery. A voltmeter is connected distance increases, light intensity decreases. As light in-
across the 12 k resistor. What is the reading on the tensity decreases, the LDRs resistance increases, as does
voltmeter? (Assume negligible internal resistance.) the potential dierence across it. So, as distance in-
V12k = 9 12+20
12
= 3.375V creases, the potential dierence increases. Since we want
the potential dierence to change in the same direction
2. A potential divider consists of 100 5 resistors, as the distance, the multimeter must go across the LDR,
with a wiper which moves on one resistor for every not the resistor.
3.6 a handle connected to it turns. The wiper is con-
nected to a voltmeter, and the circuit is powered by 2. In complete darkness, what voltage is recorded on
the multimeter?
a 120V power source with negligible internal resis-
tance. What is the reading on the voltmeter when the The voltage is split between the 1.6k resistor and the
handle turns 120? LDR, which currently has a resistance of 2k. Therefore,
First, work out the number (n) of resistors between the the potential dierence across the LDR is:
terminals of the voltmeter: V = 2
2+1.6 9 = 5V
n = 120 = 33.3 3. When a light source moves 0.5m away from the
3.6
The handle, then, has not turned enough to reach the 34th sensor, the voltage on the multimeter increases by 2V.
What is the sensitivity of the sensing system when us-
resistor, so the voltmeter is connected just after the 33rd
resistor. ing this light source, in V m1 ?
V = 120 335
= 39.6 V S= 2
0.5 = 4 Vm1
1005
3. A 9V battery with internal resistance 0.8 is con- 4. When the same light source is placed 0m from the
nected to 3 resistors with conductances of 3, 2 and 1 sensor, the potential dierence is 0V. When the light
Siemens. A voltmeter is connected across the 3 and 2 source is 1m away, what voltage is displayed on the
Siemens resistors. An ammeter is placed in the cir- multimeter?
cuit, between the battery and the rst terminal of the Assuming a linear relationship between distance and po-
voltmeter, and reads 2A. What is the reading on the tential dierence, we know that:
104 CHAPTER 20. WORKED SOLUTIONS
0.25 = m
V 20.16 Resistivity and Conductivity
Hence:
m 1 1. A material has a conductivity of 106 S m1 . What
V = 0.25 = 0.25 = 4V
is its resistivity?
5. What is the resolution of the sensing system?
= 1
= 1
106 = 106 m = 1 m
The multimeter measures to 2 decimal places, so the
2. A pure copper wire has a radius of 0.5mm, a re-
smallest measurable voltage is 0.01V.
sistance of 1 M, and is 4680 km long. What is the
0.25 = m V resistivity of copper?
Hence: 6
(0.5103 )2
= 10 4680103 168 109 m =
m = 0.25 V = 0.25 0.01 = 0.0025 m = 2.5 mm 168 n m
6. Draw a circuit diagram showing a similar sensing 3. Gold has a conductivity of 45 MS m1 . What is the
system to this, using a Wheatstone bridge and ampli- resistance of a 0.01m across gold connector, 0.05m
er to improve the sensitivity of the system. long?
First, work out resistivity:
9
6 = 22.2 10
1
= 4510 m
Then, substitute everything possible into the resistivity
formula:
2
22.2 109 = ((0.50.01) )R 1.57 103 R
0.05
2109
22.
R 1.57103 14.2 106 = 14.2
4. A strand of metal is stretched to twice its origi-
nal length. What is its new resistance? State your
assumptions.
The material does not change, so resistivity is constant.
Length doubles, and we know that volume must be con-
stant.
V = AL
A = V/L
RA R( V
L) RV
= L = L = L2
L2 L2
Rold =
1 V = V
When we double L, we get:
(2L)2 4L2
Rnew = V = V = 4 Rold
7. What is the maximum potential dierence that can We are assuming that and V are constant.
reach the amplier using this new system (ignore the 5. Which has the greater resistivity: a plank or a
amplication)? piece of sawdust, made from the same wood?
The maximum potential dierence will occur when the Sawdust and a plank are artefacts, not materials. Hence,
LDR has no resistance. This will result in 9V on the left- they do not have a resistivity. Even if they did, they are
hand side of the voltmeter, and 5V on the right-hand side. made of the same thing, so they would have equal resis-
The dierence is 4V. tivity.
8. If this signal were to be amplied 3 times, would
it exceed the maximum voltage of the system? What
would the limits on the signal be?
20.17 Semiconductors
4 3 = 12V > 9V
The signal would be limited to the range 9V < V < 9V. 1. What is the resistivity of silicon, at room temper-
ature?
= 1
= 1
435106 2300m = 2.3km
2. What sort of variable resistor would a semicon-
ductor be useful in?
20.19. METALS 105
A thermistor, as the resistance of a semiconductor de- 7. (Extra nasty question which you won't ever get in
creases as heat increases (but, assuming use of a poten- an exam) What is the toughness of glass?
tial divider, the voltmeter would have to be on the other Toughness equals the area under the above graph. Since
resistor). glass is brittle, we can assume that the gradient of the
3. If positive ions are added to silicon (doping it), how graph is constant, and, since the graph passes through the
does its conductivity change? origin, it is a triangle. So:
Positive ions mean more free electrons, and so greater Atriangle = base height = Toughness =
2
conductivity. strain stress = 0.004240106 = 480000 Jm3 =
2 2
480 kJm3
20.24 Youngs Slits First calculate the amount of energy given out per. sec-
ond:
1. A 2-slit experiment is set up in which the slits are P = E t
0.03 m apart. A bright fringe is observed at an angle
E = P t = 20 1 = 20J
10 from the normal. What sort of electromagnetic
radiation was being used? Then, calculate the amount of energy carried by each
3 photon:
= d sin = 0.03 sin 10 5.21 10 m
E = hf = 6.6265451012 1034 3.611019 J
So, microwaves were being used.
Then divide the former by the latter to give the number
2. Light, with a wavelength of 500 nm, is shone
of photons n:
through 2 slits, which are 0.05 m apart. What are the
angles to the normal of the rst three dark fringes? n = 3.611019 5.54 10 photons
20 19
n500109 = 0.05sin , where n is an odd integer. 4. In one minute, a bulb gives out a million photons
9 of frequency 600 THz. What is the power of the bulb?
= arcsin n50010
0.05 = arcsin (n 500 108 )
First calculate the energy carried by one photon:
Then, substitute in n = 1,3 and 5 to gain corresponding
values of : E = hf = 6.6261034 6001012 3.981019 J
3. Some X-rays, with wavelength 1 nm, are shone Then work out the energy carried by 1,000,000 photons:
through a diraction grating in which the slits are 50 E = 106 3.98 1019 = 3.98 1013 J
m apart. A screen is placed 1.5 m from the grating.
Then work out the power of the bulb:
How far are the rst three light fringes from the point
3.981013
at which the normal intercepts the screen? P = Et = 60 = 6.63 1015 W
50106 x
n 109 = 1.5 33.3 106 x , where n ...maybe its a nanobulb.
is an integer. 5. The photons in a beam of electromagnetic radia-
n109
x= 33.3106 = 30 106 n tion carry 2.5J of energy each. How long should the
phasors representing this radiation take to rotate?
Then, substitute in n = 1,2 and 3 to gain corresponding
values of x: First calculate the frequency of each photon:
6
f = E h = 6.6261034 3.77 10 Hz (Thats one
2.510 27
2.56 mV thats why we use eV! This angle is known as the argument of a.
5. An electron is accelerated by a potential dierence 5. A more accurate method of modelling the trajec-
of 150 V. What is its frequency? tory of a ball is to include air resistance as a constant
E = 1.6 1019 150 = 2.4 1017 J force F. How would this be achieved?
kinetic
f= Ekinetic
= 2.41017
Hz = 3.62 1016 Hz Once the arrow representing the acceleration due to grav-
h 6.6261034
ity has been added on, add an horizontal arrow pushing
against the motion of the ball. Since F = ma, the magni-
tude of this acceleration is F divided by m.
20.28 Vectors
Note that this model is still not perfect. In fact, F is not
constant - it depends on the horizontal component of the
1. Which of the following are vectors? balls velocity.
Distance travelled is equal to the area under the graph. 6. Draw the velocity-time graph for the above situa-
Between 7 and 9 seconds, this is the shaded area of the tion.
graph. So, calculate the area of the triangle: The velocity from 0-5s is 10ms1 . The velocity from 5-9s
A = bh2 = 23
2 = 3m is:
3103
4. What is the objects acceleration at 8 seconds? v= 4 = 750 metres/minute = 12.5ms1
There is a straight line between 7 and 9 seconds which we
can use to answer this question. The acceleration is equal
to the gradient of the graph, so:
a= 3
2 = 1.5ms2
5. A car travels at 10ms1 for 5 minutes in a straight
line, and then returns to its original location over the
next 4 minutes, travelling at a constant velocity. Draw
a distance-time graph showing the distance the car
has travelled from its original location.
10ms1 = 600 metres / minute.
110 CHAPTER 20. WORKED SOLUTIONS
u = 4, a = 1.5, t = 7
v = u + at = 4 + (1.5 x 7) = 14.5 ms1
4. How far does an aeroplane travel if it accelerates
from 400 kmh1 at a rate of 40 kmh2 for 1 hour?
u = 400, a = 40, t = 1
at2 4012
s = ut + 2 = (400 1) + 2 = 420km
ates at a rate of 1.5 ms2 for 7 seconds. What is its The freezing point of water is 0 C, so, if we measure T
new speed? in C, T = 0:
20.33. CAPACITORS 111
Tt = 0 + (T0 0)ert
zt
p=ea
Tt = T0 ert 5. Wikibooks was created in mid-2003. How many
pages should there have been 6 years later? (Take a
2. What will the temperature of an object at 40 C be
after 30 seconds? (Take r=103 s1 .) = 20, z = 10 yr1 .)
zt 106
3
T = T ert = 40 e10 30 = 38.8 C p = e a = e 20 = e3 = 20
t 0
3. A body is found in a library (as per. Agatha 6. The actual number of pages in Wikibooks in mid-
Christie) at 8am. The temperature of the library is 2009 was 35,148. What are the problems with this
kept at a constant temperature of 20 C for 10 min- model? What problems may develop, say, by 2103?
utes. During these 10 minutes, the body cools from There are two key problems with this model:
25 C to 24 C. The body temperature of a healthy
human being is 36.8 C. At what time was the person We have estimated the values of the constants.
murdered? These should have been determined statistically.
First, we must calculate r:
We have assumed that the constants are constant. In
24 = 20 + (25 20)e10r reality, as the amount of content on Wikibooks in-
4 = 5e10r creases, more people think Wikibooks already con-
tains this content, so I am not going to add anything.
e10r = 0.8
This means that both z and a change with time. Our
10r = ln 0.8 exponential model only applies over small periods
r= ln 0.8
= 0.0223 minute1 of time. Each of these small periods of time has
10
dierent values for the constants.
Then, calculate t - this is the time between the murder and
8am: In the future, such as 2103, the constants will have
25 = 20 + (36.8 20)e0.0223t changed so radically as to be useless. Question 5 shows
0.0223t how much they change over just 6 years - how much more
5 = 16.8e
must they change over a whole century!
e0.0223t = 16.8
5
0.0223t = ln 16.8
5
5
ln 16.8
20.33 Capacitors
t= 0.0223 = 54 minutes
Therefore, the murder occurred at 7:06am. 1. A 2 mF capacitor is connected to a 10V DC power
4. Suppose for a moment that the number of pages on supply. How much charge can be stored by the capac-
Wikibooks p can be modelled as an exponential rela- itor?
tionship. Let the number of pages required on aver- Q = CV = 2 103 10 = 0.02 C
age to attract an editor be a, and the average number
Note that this is the maximum charge - since capacitors
of new pages created by an editor each year be z. De-
charge, as well as discharge, exponentially, we would have
rive an equation expressing p in terms of the time in
to leave the capacitor charging for an innitely long period
years since Wikibooks was created t.
of time to charge it to capacity.
Let n be the number of editors.
2. What is the highest possible energy stored by this
n = ap capacitor?
dp
dt = nz = z ap E = 12 QV = 0.5 0.02 10 = 0.1 J
dp = z ap dt 3. The capacitor is placed in series with a 5 resistor
1 z and charged to capacity. How long would it take for
p dp = a dt the charge in the capacitor to be reduced to 1 mC?
zt
ln p = a + c (where c is the constant of integration) Q = Q0 e RC
t
zt zt zt
a +c = e ec = ke (where k is a constant - k = t
p=e a a
Q0 = Qe RC
ec ) t Q0
e RC = Q
There must have been a rst page, which marked the point
where t = 0, so:
t
RC = ln QQ0
1 = ke a 0 = ke0 = k
z
t = RC ln QQ0 = 5 0.002 ln 0.001
0.02
= 0.0300 s
Therefore: 4. After this time has elapsed, how much energy is
stored in the capacitor?
112 CHAPTER 20. WORKED SOLUTIONS
RC
2t 18
E = 1
2 QV = 1
2 Q0 V0 e = 0.5 0.02 10 N = A = 18.2106 = 4.40 10
0.810 22
nuclei = 4.40
27
e 50.002 = 0.25 mJ 10 212 1.66 10
20.03 22
= 15.5 g
3. How long does it take for 2kg of lead-212 to decay
to 1.5kg of lead-212?
Mass is proportional to the number of atoms, so:
m = m0 et
m
m0 = et
m0
m = et
t = ln m
m
0
m0 2
ln ln 1.5
t= m
= 18.2106 = 15807 s = 4.39 hours
4. Where does the missing 0.5kg go?
It becomes another isotope - in this case, mercury-208.
Some also becomes alpha particles.
5. What is the capacitance of the equivalent capacitor 5. Some americium-241 has an activity of 3kBq.
to the following network of capacitors? What is its activity after 10 years?
First, ignore the fact that the capacitances are in mF, not A = A0 et = 3000
11
F - we will not be using any other units, so if we put in e 5.0710 10365.24246060
= 2.952 kBq
mF, we will get out mF.
6. This model of radioactive decay is similar to taking
Then work out the equivalent capacitance of the second some dice, rolling them once per. second, and remov-
row: ing the dice which roll a one or a two. What is the
1 1
= + + = 1 1 11 decay constant of the dice?
C2 1 2 3 6
6 The decay constant is the probability of removing a die -
C2 = mF
11 = .
Then work out the equivalent capacitance of the third
7. If you started out with 10 dice, how many dice
row:
would you have left after 10s? What is the problem
1 1 1
C3 = 2 + 2 = 1 with this model of radioactive decay?
N = N0 et = 10 e 3 10 = 0.357 dice
1
C3 = 1 mF
The equivalent capacitance of the rst row is easy, since Obviously, you can't have 0.357 dice. The problem with
it contains just 1 capacitor: 3mF. So, the total equivalent this model of radioactive decay is that, once you have suf-
capacitance is: ciently few nuclei, the decay ceases to be continuous.
As time passes, the pattern becomes relatively more ran-
11 4.55 mF
6
C = 3 + 11 + 1 = 50
dom. The model also says that the number of nuclei will
always decrease. In reality, since there can only be an in-
teger number of nuclei, there will eventually come a point
20.34 Radioactive Decay when there are no nuclei left.
( )
2 63600022 = (1.55
1 1
First calculate the decay constant: Fgrav = GM m 6360000
= ln 2
= ln 2
= 1.54 1010 yr1 1020 )GM m = 1.55 1020 6.67 1011 5.97
t1
2
4.5109
1024 1 = 6.19 N
10
0.5 = 5e1.5410 t This is why it is acceptable to approximate the accelera-
10 tion due to gravity as constant over small distances.
0.1 = e1.5410 t
0.945 = e1 (if is measured in yr1 ) 1. A 15kg object has a weight of 8000N. What is the
gravitational eld strength at this point?
= ln 0.945 = 0.0566 yr1 = lnt 12 F 1
2 g = grav
m = 8000
15 = 533 Nkg
ln 2
t 12 = 0.0566 = 12.3 yr 2. Draw a graph of gravitational eld strength
5. A large capacitor has capacitance 0.5F. It is placed against distance.
in series with a 5 resistor and contains 5C of charge.
What is its time constant?
= RC = 5 0.5 = 2.5 s
6. How long will it take for the charge in the capacitor
to reach 0.677C? ( 0.677 = e52 )
2 x = 5s
gravitational force on 1kg at the top of your body, and 5. How far would one have to travel upwards from
on 1kg at your head, and 1kg at your feet? (Assume the Earths surface to notice a 1Nkg1 dierence in
that you are 2m tall.) gravitational eld? (The Earth has a radius of 6400
114 CHAPTER 20. WORKED SOLUTIONS
D GM1 M2
km.) 2d
= Gravitational Potential Energy
r2 dr
1= GM d(2r+d) [ GM1 M2 ]D [1 ] 1
r 2 (r+d)2
r 2d
= GM1 M2 D 2d
1
= 2 M2 v 2
GM d(2r + d) = r2 (r + d)2 [1 ]
2GM1 D 2d
1
= v = 25, 800ms1
2GM rd + GM d2 = r2 (r2 + 2rd + d2 ) = r4 + 2r3 d +
r 2 d2 3. What is the least work a 2000kg car must do to
drive up a 100m hill?
d2 (r2 GM ) + dr(2r2 2GM ) + r4 = 0
mgh = 2000 9.81 100 = 1.962 MJ
Using the quadratic formula:
4. How does the speed of a planet in an elliptical orbit
2GM r2r 3 r 2 (2r 2 2GM )2 4r 4 (r 2 GM )
d = 2(r GM )
2 = change as it nears its star?
2GM r2r 3 4r 6 8GM r 4 +4G2 M 2 r 2 4r 6 +4GM r 4
2(r 2 GM )
As it nears the star, it loses gravitational potential energy,
and so gains kinetic energy, so its speed increases.
= 2GM r2r r 4r 8GM r 2 +4G2 M 2 4r 4 +4GM r 2
3 4
2(r 2 GM )
Assume planet 1 to be stationary and planet 2 to be ac- 4. Express gravitational potential in terms of gravi-
celerating towards it (relative). tational force.
grav F dr
Let D = 1 10 meters = distance between the center Vgrav =
12 m
of the two planets. Let d = 1 106 meters = radius of 5. Draw the equipotentials and eld lines surround-
planets. ing the Earth.
20.40. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 115
dulum moves away from the area immediately below the cillating mass on a spring, ignoring gravity and air
peg it is hanging on, the force no longer acts in the oppo- resistance, which is constant with respect to time.
site direction to the displacement. x = A cos t
v = A sin t
20.41 Energy in Simple Harmonic Substitute these into the equation for the total energy:
Simple HArmonic Motion Grab the weight, move it to its equilibrium position, and
stop it moving.
5. Use the trigonometric formulae for x and v to de- 3. How would you damp an oscillating pendulum us-
rive an equation for the total energy stored by an os- ing only a weighted polystyrene block?
20.43. CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 117
Put the block in the path of the pendulum, which will what is the mass of the second ball?
bounce o the weight, losing a bit of energy each oscilla- (5 1.25) + (10m) = (7.5 1.25) + (7.5m)
tion.
6.25 10m = 7.5m 9.375
4. What would the displacement graph look like for
this oscillation, before and after damping began? 17.5m = 15.625
m = 0.893 kg
3. A totally elastic collision occurs between two balls
of equal mass. One of the balls is stationary. What
happens?
Since momentum must be conserved:
mu = mv1 + mv2
u = v1 + v2 (1)
Since kinetic energy must be conserved:
mu2 mv1 2 mv2 2
2 = 2 + 2
u = v1 + v2 2
2 2
( )
3v1 2 + 5 9v1 2 +96v1 +256
25 = 152 The impulse was 0.09Ns and the force was 90N.
W = 2000 9.81 = 19620 N First, calculate the distance of the spacecraft from the
Earth at each time:
Fr = 1.5 19620 = 29430 N 3.0108 (45.5121345.31213)
mv 2 20005.562 61728
d1 = ct 2
1
= 2 =
29430 = r = r = r 30, 000 km
61728
r= = 2.1 m 3.0108 (46.5278546.32742)
29430 d2 = ct 2
2
= 2 =
This is a bit unrealistic, I know... 30, 064.5 km
4. Using the formulae for centripetal acceleration Next, calculate the distance the spacecraft has travelled
and gravitational eld strength, and the denition of between the two pulses:
angular velocity, derive an equation linking the or-
d = d2 d1 = 30, 064.5 30, 000 = 64.5 km
bital period of a planet to the radius of its orbit.
Now, calculate the time elapsed between the transmission
2 r = GMrstar 2
of the two pulses:
2 r3 = GMstar
t = t t = 46.32742 45.31213 = 1.01529 s
= 2 T Finally, divide the distance the spacecraft has travelled
4 2 r 3 between the two pulses by the time between the trans-
T 2 = GMstar
mission of the two pulses, to give the average velocity of
4 2 r 3
T 2 = GM star the spacecraft in that interval of time:
So, orbital period squared is proportional to radius of or- v = d = 64.5 63.5 kms1
t 1.01529
bit cubed. Incidentally, this is Keplers Third Law in the
special case of a circular orbit (a circle is a type of el- 4. The angles between the horizontal and a star are
lipse). measured at midnight on January 1 as 89.99980 and
at midnight on June 1 as 89.99982. How far away is
the star?
tan a tan b 2150109 tan 89.9998 tan 89.99982
d = 2rtan a+tan b = =
20.47 Radar and Triangulation 4.52 1013 km
tan 89.9998+tan 89.99982
The dierence between the two angles becomes so tiny radius of 421600km, and a year of 1.77 Earth days.
that we don't have good enough equipment to measure it. What is the value of C for Jupiters moons?
T2 (1.77246060)2
C= R3 = (421600000)3 = 3.12 1016 s2 m3
1
H0 = 4.41 1017 s = 14.0 bn years 40C, what is the new temperature of the room?
3. What eect might gravity have had on this gure? Energy must be conserved, so:
Gravity would slow the expansion of the universe, so the 10 450 40 = 1200 1010
age of the universe would actually be lower than 14.0 bil- = 180000 = 0.149 C
1212000
lion years.
So, the new temperature of the room is 21.149C.
4. Polaris is 132pc away. What is its velocity of re-
cession, according to Hubbles Law?
v = H0 d = 70 132 106 = 9.24 ms1
20.54 Ideal Gases
1. I heat some argon from 250K to 300K. If the
20.52 Heat and Energy pressure of the gas at 250K is 0.1 MPa, what is its
pressure after heating?
1. Carbon dioxide sublimes at 195K. Roughly what
The temperature has increased by 20%, so the pressure
energy per. particle does this correspond to?
will also increase by 20% (using the pressure law). So,
E kT = 1.38 1023 195 1021 J particle1 the new pressure is 0.1 MPa x 1.2 = 0.12 MPa.
2. A certain chemical reaction requires particles 2. The argon is in a 0.5m long cylindrical tank with
with mass of the order 1026 to move, on average, at radius 10cm. What volume does it occupy?
10ms1 . Roughly what temperature does this corre-
V = r2 l = 0.12 0.5 = 0.016 m3
spond to?
3. The argon is then squeezed with a piston so that in
Ek = 12 mv 2 = 0.5 1026 102 = 5 1025
only occupies 0.4m of the tanks length. What is its
5 1025 = kT new pressure?
51025
T = 1.381023 102 K The volume occupied decreases by 20%, which is equiv-
3. The boiling point of water is 100C. Roughly what alent to multiplying by 0.8. So, by Boyles Law, the pres-
energy per. particle does this correspond to? sure is multiplied by the reciprocal of 0.8 - 1.25. So, the
pressure increases by 25% to 0.15 MPa.
100C = 373K
4. What is its new temperature?
E kT = 1.381023 373 51021 J particle1
If we combine Charles Law with the pressure law, we
4. Thermionic emission from copper requires around nd that:
5eV of energy per. particle. How hot will the wire be
at this energy level? T pV
5eV = 5 x 1.6 x 1019 = 8 x 1019 J particle1 Volume is multiplied by 0.8, but pressure is multiplied by
1.25, so there is no change in temperature - it remains at
81019
23 6 10 K
4
T = 1.3810 300K.
5. 25% of the argon is sucked out. What is its pres-
sure now?
20.53 Specic Heat Capacity
Using the amount law, if N decreases by 25%, the pres-
sure must also decrease by 25% to 0.1125 MPa.
1. How much work would it take to heat 100kg of
liquid water from 20C to 36.8C?
E = mc = 100 4180 16.8 = 7.022 MJ 20.55 Kinetic Theory
2. How much work would it take to heat a well-
insulated room from 15C to 21C, if the room is a 1. Five molecules are moving at speeds of 1,5,6,8, and
cube with side length 10m, and the density of the air 36ms1 . What is their mean square speed?
is 1.2kgm3 ? 2 2 2 2 2
c2 = 1 +5 +65+8 +36 = 284.4 m2 s2
V = 103 = 1000 m3
2. What is the mass of one molecule of N2 (atomic
= m V mass 14, 1u = 1.66 x 1027 kg)?
m = V = 1000 1.2 = 1200 kg 2 14 1.66 1027 = 4.648 1026 kg
E = mc = 1200 1010 6 = 7.272 MJ 3. Atmospheric pressure is 101,325 Pa. If one mole of
3. A 10kg block of iron at 80C is placed in the room Nitrogen takes up 2.3 m3 at about 10C, what is the
above once it has reached 21C. If the iron cools by mean square speed of the molecules in the air outside,
122 CHAPTER 20. WORKED SOLUTIONS
= dN = N d sin t = N cos t I = VR
dt dt
3
BV l 510 90.2
4. Using a constant k, what is the equation for a cur- F = BIl = R = 106 = 9 kN
rent which could induce the ux in the ux circuit 3. The following diagram shows a positive charge
above? moving through a magnetic eld. Draw an arrow rep-
I = k sin t resenting the direction of the force on the charge.
5. Draw a graph of the ux, ux linkage, emf and
current as deduced in the previous two questions.
In order to keep the scales sane, I used a 2-coil (N=2) coil
to plot the following graph:
20.61 Motors
1.61019 20
Felectric = qV
d = 0.1 = 3.2 1017 N
3. The acceleration due to gravity around a point
mass is constant, irrespective of the mass of the ob-
jects it is acting on. The acceleration due to electricity
around a point charge is not. Use Newtons Second
Law (F=ma) to explain this.
F
a= m
GM m GM
agrav = mr 2 = r2
kQq
aelectric = mr 2
The m cancels for gravitational acceleration, but not for
electrical acceleration, since charge does not provide a
resistance to a force.
4. An insulator contains charged particles, even
though the overall charge on the insulator is 0. Why
2. What is the phase dierence (in radians) between
is the insulator attracted by a nearby charge?
the voltages produced by a three-phase generator?
2 c The electrons in the atoms can move within certain
3 bounds. Being in an electric eld means that they spend
3. According to Faradays law, what three things will more time closer to a positive charge, and so the parts of
increase the amplitude of the emf created by a gen- the insulator which are attracted to the charge end up be-
erator? ing closer to the charge than those which are repelled.
= dt
dN This means that the attractive force on the insulator is
greater than the repulsive force. This causes the insulator
So, more coils, a stronger magnetic eld or a higher fre- as a whole to be attracted to the charge if it is positive.
quency of rotation will increase the amplitude of the emf. If it is negative, the reverse happens, and the insulator is
4. If an albatross touched two power cables carrying repelled.
AC in phase, what would happen? 5. Where in the charged conducting plates which cre-
Nothing - there is no potential dierence between the two ate a uniform electric eld would you expect to nd
cables. the charge located? Why?
5. What would happen if the two cables carried three- The charges are free to move within a conductor. The
phase power? opposite charges in each plate are attracted to each other
and try to move as close to each other as possible. So,
Unfortunately, dead albatross - there is potential dier-
they end up on the inside edge of the plates.
ence between the two cables.
The hydrogen nucleus has a positive charge, so the electric 2. Do the same for the electric eld around a point
eld goes away from the nucleus (by convention). charge.
5. A 2C charge is placed 1m from a 1C charge. At
what point will the electric eld be 0?
Dene the distance r as shown:
2 1
40 (1+r)2 = 40 r 2
2 1
(1+r)2 = r2
(1+r)2
2 = r2
(1 + r)2 = 2r2
1+r =r 2
r( 2 1) = 1
r= 1
21
= 2+1
( 21)( 2+1)
= 2 + 1 2.41 m
when the potential dierence between the two plates Three identical quarks must have a total charge of 1e,
is 100V? so one of these quarks has a charge of -e. This is a down
elec= V q = 100 1.6 10
elec
19
= 1.6 10 17
J = quark.
0.1 keV 3. What is an antiproton made of? What is its
charge?
4. What is the potential energy of a 2C charge 2cm
from a 0.5C charge? u
ud , total charge 1e.
8.99109 20.5
elec = kQq
r = 0.02 = 4.5 1011 J 4. A K+ meson is made of an up quark and an anti-
strange quark. What is its total charge?
Remember, coulombs are big!
+ = +1e
5. What is represented by the gradient of a graph of
electric potential energy against distance from some 5. Lambda () baryons are made up of an up quark,
charge? a down quark, and another quark (not an antiquark).
The 0 is neutral, and contains a second generation
Force exerted on the charge with that energy.
quark. What is this quark?
0 = + - + q
20.68 Quarks
1. The ++ baryon is made up of up quarks. What is
its total charge?
Baryons are made of three quarks. 3 x + = +2e
+
2. The - baryon has a total charge of 1e. Given 2. Write two equations (including a W boson) which
that it is made up of only one type of rst generation describe positron emission.
quark, what is this quark? p n + W+
128 CHAPTER 20. WORKED SOLUTIONS
4gdr 3
W + + e+ q= 3V
3. What is the charge on a W- boson? 3. An oil droplet of density 885kgm3 and radius
1.6 x 1019 C, since it has to balance the charge on a 1m is held stationary in between two plates which
proton. are 10cm apart. At what potential dierences be-
tween the plates is this possible?
q must be a multiple of e, the charge on an electron:
20.70 Leptons q = ne , where n is an integer.
3
ne = 4gdr
1. An electron is produced by a nuclear reaction, but 3V
6 3
an electron-antineutrino is not produced. What other V = 4gdr3 = 48859.810.1(10 )
= 25.7
3ne 31.61019 n n
particle is produced?
Then, to nd some actual values, take n = 1,2,3 ... , so V
A positron, since this is the only other rst-generation = 25.7V, 12.8V, 8.6V ...
particle with a lepton number of 1.
4. If the X-rays used to ionise the oil are of wave-
2. Why do electrons not make up part of the nucleus? length 1nm, how much energy do they give to the elec-
Electrons do not interact with the strong nuclear force. trons? Why does this mean that the oil drops are
ionised?
3. Why did it take until the 1950s to detect the rst
antineutrino? c = f
They are tiny, chargeless, and almost massless. f = c
6.631034 3108
4. Complete the following equation for the emission E = hf = hc = 109 = 1.989
of a beta particle from a nucleus: 1016 J = 1.24 keV
1
0n 11 p + 0
1 e + 00 e This provides the energy required for an electron to es-
5. Complete the following equation for the emission cape from its energy level, becoming unbound.
of an antielectron from a nucleus: 5. In reality, the oil drops are moving when they enter
the uniform electric eld. How can this be compen-
1 p 0 n + 1 e
1 1 0 + 0
+ 0 e
sated for?
6. Complete the following equation for the capture of
an electron by a nucleus: Either:
1
1p + 0
1 e 10 n + 00 e Use a slightly stronger potential dierence to slow
the oil drop down, and then reduce the potential dif-
ference to keep the oil drop stationary.
20.71 Millikans Experiment
Measure the voltage required to keep the oil drop
h = 6.63 x 1034 Js moving at a constant (terminal) velocity, using more
sophisticated equipment.
c = 3 x 108 ms1
g = 9.81 ms2
1. Rearrange the formula above in terms of q. 20.72 Pair Production and Annihi-
qV
d = mg lation
qV = mgd
mgd h = 6.63 x 1034 Js
q= V
1. The mass of an electron is 9.11 x 10-31 kg. What is
2. The mass of an oil drop cannot be measured easily. the minimum amount of energy a photon must have
Express the mass of an oil drop in terms of its radius to create an electron?
r and its density , and, by substitution, nd a more
useful formula for q. E = 2mc2 = 2 9.11 1031 (3 108 )2 = 1.64
m 1013 J = 1.02 MeV
= Volume
2. A 1.1 MeV electron annihilates with a 1.1 MeV
m = Volume positron. What is the total energy of the photon pro-
Assuming that the oil drop is spherical: duced?
Volume = 4
3 r
3
2.2 MeV = 3.52 x 1013 J
m = 43 r 3
3. What is its frequency?
20.74. CLOUD CHAMBERS AND MASS SPECTROMETERS 129
3.521013
f= E
h = 6.631034 = 5.31 1020 Hz u = 1.66 x 1027 kg
4. What is its wavelength? 1. An electron enters a cloud chamber, passing into a
8
13 0.1T magnetic eld. The initial curvature (the recip-
= fc = 5.3110 20 = 5.65 10
310
m
rocal of its radius) of its path is 100m1 . At what
5. What classical physical conditions might cause a speed was it moving when it entered the magnetic
newly produced electron-positron pair to annihilate eld?
almost immediately?
r = mvqB
Electrons and positrons have opposite charges, and so
1.61019 0.10.01
qBr
they attract each other. When they are created, they must v = m = 9.111031 = 1.76 108 ms1 =
have enough kinetic energy to escape each others attrac- 0.585c
tion. If this is not the case, they will annihilate. This is too close to the speed of light to ignore special
relativity, however we just did.
2. The electron spirals inwards in a clockwise di-
20.73 Particle Accelerators rection, as show in the diagram on the right. What
would the path of a positron, moving with an identi-
1. Use the formula for centripetal force to show that cal speed, look like?
the radius of motion depends on the speed of the mov-
ing object.
mv 2
F = r
mv 2
r= F
So, if F is constant:
r v2
2. A cyclotron with a diameter of 1.5m is used to ac-
celerate electrons (mass 9.11 x 1031 kg). The max-
imum force exerted on an electron is 2.4 x 1018 N.
What is the maximum velocity of the electrons?
mv 2
F = r
2.41018 0.75
v2 = Fr
m = 9.111031 = 1.97 1012 m2 s2
v = 1.41 106 ms1
3. What are the problems involved in constructing a
large cyclotron?
Creating a uniform magnetic eld over such a large area
(for example, the land area enclosed by the LHC) means
that cyclotrons have been largely replaced in experimental
particle physics by tubes, instead of at cylinders.
4. Why don't particles stick to the electrodes when 3. Using a 2T magnetic eld, what electric eld
passing through them? strength must be used to get a velocity selector to se-
1
There are two reasons. Firstly, alternating current is sinu- lect only particles which are moving at 100ms ?
soidal, so there is no charge on the electrode when the par- v = E
B
ticles are passing through them. Secondly, even if there 1
were charge on the electrode, the net force on the particle E = Bv = 2 100 = 200 Vm
would still be 0, since the force would be equal in every 4. Some uranium (atomic number 92) ions (charge
direction. +3e) of various isotopes are put through the veloc-
ity selector described in question 3. They then enter
an 0.00002T uniform magnetic eld. What radius of
20.74 Cloud Chambers and Mass circular motion would uranium-235 have?
m rBBselector
Spectrometers q = Eselector
2351.661027
31.61019 =r 20.00002
200 = 0.0000002r
19
Charge of electron = 1.6 x 10 C
2351.661027
r= = 4.06 m
Mass of electron = 9.11 x 1031 kg 0.000000231.61019
130 CHAPTER 20. WORKED SOLUTIONS
3. Gamma rays are used to kill microbes in food. 2. Calculate the dierence in potential energy be-
Why doesn't the food become radioactive? tween levels n=2 and n=3.
Gamma radiation only interacts with the electrons of the This time, lets derive a general formula:
atom, not with the nucleus. Radioactivity is due to nuclear f = E
h
properties, not chemical properties.
c = E
h
4. Plutonium-244 decays by emitting an particle. It
3108 6.631034
does this twice, emits a - particle, and then emits a E = =
ch
656.3109 = 3.03 1019 J =
further two particles. The nucleus becomes a dif- 1.89 eV
ferent element each time. What element is produced 3. What is the potential energy of an electron at level
at the end? n=3?
94 P u a ? + 4 2 + 1
244 b 4 0
3.41 + 1.89 = 1.52 eV
b = 244 - 16 = 228 4. If an electron were to jump from n=7 to n=5, what
a = 94 - 8 + 1 = 87 would the wavelength of the photon given o be?
( )
87 F r (Francium-228) E = 5,2 7,2 = ch 5,2 7,2 = 3 108
ch ch 1 1
So, at the end of this decay chain, 228
is produced. ( )
6.63 1034 434.110 1
9 397109
1
= 4.28
5. Carbon-11 changes into Boron-11 by a radioactive 20
10 J
emission. What was emitted?
3108 6.631034
= ch
E = 4.281020 = 4.65 m
11
6 C 11
5 B + b
a ?
5. Prove that the wavelength of light emitted from
b = 11 - 11 = 0
the transition n=4 to n=2 is 486.1nm (HINT: e = hf
a=6-5=1 and c = f )
So, a positron ( 01 + ) was emitted. However, in order for 13.6( 212 412 ) = 2.55eV
the lepton numbers to balance, a neutrino ( 00 ) must also
2.55eV = hc therefore =
hc
2.551.610 19 = 4.875
be emitted.
10 7 = 488nm
6. Uranium-236 decays, following the equation:
236
92 U 232
90 T h + X
Identify the particle X in this equation. 20.77 Fission
Solve these type of problems by applying the conserva-
tion laws: e.g. the decay must balance electric charge, 1. A neutron is red at some Uranium-235. Barium-
nucleon number, proton number, lepton number etc. Nu- 141 and Krypton-92 are produced:
92 U 56 Ba +36 Kr + N0 n
cleon number doesn't balance (236 = 232 + ?), so X must 10 n +235 141 92 1
have a nucleon number of 4. How many neutrons are produced (i.e. what is the value
The Proton number does not balance either (92 = 90 + ?) of N)?
20.79. BINDING ENERGY 131
f= E
= 3.12106
= 4.71 1020 Hz 6 = dose
600
h 6.631034
This is a within the wavelength spectrum of a gamma-ray, So, the total dose is 3600 Gy.
so we can assume all energy is released as a gamma-ray Note to reader: There is currently something wrong with
photon. this question, since 3600 Gy is enough to kill 600 people.
132 CHAPTER 20. WORKED SOLUTIONS
N ln 2 2.51021 ln 2
A= t1 = 432365.24246060 = 1.27 1011 Bq
2
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133
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21.1. TEXT 135
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File:Amplitude_contributions.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikibooks/en/7/7c/Amplitude_contributions.png License:
Public domain Contributors:
own work.
Original artist:
Steven Legg (Sjlegg)
140 CHAPTER 21. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES