CCCH9036-2014

Dr. T. Zhang

Land/Soil Pollution
soil ABC

soil pollutions due to industrial and agricultural activities

toxicity of pollutants

transfer of pollutants along food chain

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J7ZsQHGj7xQ

Soil Pollution
9 Soil pollution is defined as the build-up of persistent
toxic compounds, chemicals, salts, radioactive materials, or
disease causing agents, which have adverse effects on plant
growth and animal health.

9 Result in a change of the soil quality.

9 Affect the normal use of the soil for agriculture and other
applications.

9 Endanger public health and the living environment.

2
Weathering: A major process of soil formation
Definition : Mechanical breakdown and chemical alteration of rocks or sediments when
exposed to air, moisture and organic matter.
Physical:
Soil is the thin layer of organic and inorganic materials that
Erosion covers the Earth's rocky surface. The organic portion, which
is derived from the decayed remains of plants and animals, is
Heating and cooling
concentrated in the dark uppermost topsoil. The inorganic
Wedging by ice portion made up of rock fragments, was formed over
thousands of years by physical and chemical weathering of
bedrock. Productive soils are necessary for agriculture to
Chemical: supply the world with sufficient food.

Hydration (mineral adsorbs water)

Dissolution (mineral dissolves in water)
Hydrolysis (mineral reacts with water)
Oxidation (mineral reacts with oxygen)
Complexation (mineral reacts with some organics)

A Horizon: topsoil
Soil Horizons - highly weathered
- abundant life, therefore, high in organic
matter
- dark colored

B Horizon: subsoil
- less weathered; higher in clay
- less life, therefore, low in organic matter
- lighter colored

C Horizon: parent material

- little weathered
- no life, and no organic matter

D Horizon: bedrock
- rock base
4
Soil = combination of mineral and organic mater, water, and air.
Mineral : Rock and Root Hair
mineral fragments
produced by weathering Adsorbed
that supports the growth
of plants.
water layer

Organic: Humus Soil solid

(decayed animal and plant particle
remains) is a small, but Air space
essential, component.

Under ideal climatic Soil

conditions, parent saturated
material may need with water
hundreds years to develop
into soil (topsoil/subsoil) at
a rate of 1 cm per 15 years.
Drainage to
5
groundwater

Chinas Top 10 Environmental Problems

(5/10)
5) Soil Erosion and Land/Soil Pollution

China loses up to 5 billion (world total 24 billion) tons of soil through

erosion annually. The nutrients lost together with soil are equivalent to 40
million tons of fertilizer, which in turn equals the amount of chemical
fertilizer used annually by China.
Thus, soil is losing its fertility. Since 1949, 40 million mu of cultivated land
have been destroyed by erosion.

At the same time, soil is contaminated by pollutants. As a result, the soil

loses its structure, and chemical (contents of nitrogen and phosphorus, etc.)
and biological (e.g. ability to support life) properties. Common soil
pollutants: hydrocarbons, heavy metals, herbicides, pesticides, oils, tars,
Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) and dioxins.

6
 Pollution Sources
1. Air deposition: acid deposition, metals (like lead
(Pb), mercury (Hg)), etc.
2. Wastewater irrigation
3. Solid waste (e.g. coal ash and chemical waste) and its
leachate (from open dumping sites or landfill sites)
4. Livestock feces
5. Pesticides
6. Agriculture waste burning

Of the 2.4 billion kilograms of pesticides used in 2007. American farmers are relatively sparing in their
use of pesticides using just 2.2 kilograms per hectare of arable land. Compare with USA, Chinese
farmers use more pesticide, averagely 10.3 kilograms per hectare.

http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/08/18/the-world-uses-billions-of-pounds-
of-pesticides-each-year-is-that-a-problem/ 8
 Characteristics of Soil Pollution
Not easy to be aware of.
Not easy to be eliminated by dilution and
diffusion.
Not easy to be degraded, especially for metals
(irreversible).
Accumulative.
Difficult to be removed.
Effect could be long-term.

Processes in Soil
Physical :
Adsorption: attach on soil particle
Dissolution: flow with water
Vaporization: go into air
Chemical :
Hydrolysis: break down in water
Photolysis: break down under sunlight
Biological :
Biodegradation: be broken down by microorganisms
Biomagnification: go into food chain
10
 Self-cleaning of Soil
The Mineralization (biodegradation) of organic substances can
occur in both aerobic (with oxygen) and anaerobic conditions
(at absence or insufficient quantity of oxygen).

Soil assimilative capacity: Capacity of a natural body of soil

to receive contaminants, without harmful effects and damage
to its natural properties, to life in the soil and to humans who
consume the products from the soil.

11

Pesticides and Half-life -1

Once a pesticide being released into the environment, it can be
broken down by:
exposure to sunlight (photolysis)
exposure to water (hydrolysis)
exposure to other chemicals (oxidation and reduction)
microbial activity (bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms)
plants or animals (metabolism)

Half-life is a measure of how quickly a chemical breaks down. After one half-
life, half of the chemical may be broken down. Following another half-life, half
of the 50% remaining may be broken down, leaving 25% of the original
amount and so on.
The longer a chemical remains in soil without breaking down, the more likely
it may generate pollution in soil. Shorter is better.

12
 Pesticides and Half-life -2
Insecticide
Organochlorines : the first generation synthetic insecticide
e.g. DDT
half-life > 5 years (highly persistent).
Most of them have already been banned or largely replaced.
Organophosphates and Carbamates : the new generation
insecticide
half-life < 30 days (lightly persistent).
but higher acute toxicity to human than organochlorines.

Herbicide
e.g. Agent Orange
Control growth of undesirable plants.
Half-life is about 1 year (moderately persistent).

13

Toxicity
any negative change from an organisms normal state
Acute (short-term exposure. Acute toxicity occurs rapidly, often
fatal and rarely reversible.)
Lethal : death
Non-lethal: affect behavior of human or animals

Chronic (long-term exposure. Chronic toxicity develops after

long exposure to low doses or long after one-time exposure, may
ultimately cause death.)
Lethal : death
Non-lethal:
growth rate of crop
fertility of wild animal
mutagenic toxicity
carcinogenic toxicity
teratogenic toxicity

14
14
 Genetic toxicity
Mutagenic : DNA
Effect on the same generation
Carcinogenic
Effect on the next generation
Teratogenic (toxicity occurs
to the newborns)

Approximately 20 million gallons of

herbicides (defoliant) were used in
Vietnam between 1962 and 1971 to
remove unwanted plant life and leaves
which otherwise provided cover for enemy
forces during the Vietnam
Conflict. (http://www1.va.gov/agentoran
ge/)
agent orange : one of Dioxins.
15

PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls)

Sources:
Industrial materials (1929-1977)
Electrical equipment: capacitors,
transformers (Heat and fire resistant)
Lubricants
Paint solvents
Pesticides
Waste incineration

Accumulative and carcinogenic.

All manufacture banned.
Very widespread global contaminant.

16
 Energy and Biomass Pyramid

Tertiary
consumers
(hawk)

Secondary
consumers
(snake)

Primary
consumers
(mice)

Producers
(plant)

17

Biomagnification
Biomagnification, also
known as bioamplification
or biological magnification,
refers to the concentration
increase of a substance that
occurs in a food chain as a
consequence of persistence,
food chain energetic and
low metabolism in
organism body (low water
solubility).

18
 Toxic metals
Absolutely toxic: Hg, Cd, As, Cr and Pb
Relatively toxic: Cu, Ni, Zn

Pollution sources:
Contaminated irrigation water
Acid mine drainage
Combustion of gasoline with lead
Combustion of coal with mercury
..

Itai-itai disease : Cadmium (Cd), Japan,

1950s, affect bone system 19

Soil Pollutants from Water, Air and

Solid Waste
Wastewater irrigation
Groundwater

Acid deposition
Lead deposition

Landfill and open dumping

E-waste
20
 21

Soil Acidification and Acid Rain

Soil acidity is a major
environmental stress factor
which limits the growth of
most crops.
In the past 50 years, a
significant lowering in soil
pH due to greater use of
fertilizers, and partially due
to acid rain in some areas.
Acid soil (Yunnan, China)
Nitrification: ammonium to nitrate (oxidation of NH4+)
NH4+ + 2O2 ---> NO3- + H2O + 2H+
Acid rain: SO2 and NOX mix with water droplets in the atmosphere creating
weak solutions of nitric and sulfuric acids.
The sulphur dioxide acidifies the soil, hurting the roots of the crops that farmers are
growing and reducing total yields, said Edwin Lau, assistant director of the Hong
Kong branch of Friends of the Earth. 22
 China's Soil Pollution -1
Overall
At present China's overall situation of soil pollution is not optimistic.
The soil pollution is very serious in some areas.
Heavily polluted soil posing risk to human health, safety and the
environment is the legacy of enterprises or industries, mining areas, and
commercial activity in cities and suburbs.
The soil pollution is diversified, complex, can be historical or current,
and inorganic or organic. There are many means of and complex
reasons for soil pollution.
Consequently, pollution control is rather difficult.
Safety of agricultural products from contaminated areas is of concern.
Mass events caused by soil pollution have increased year by year and
soil pollution has become a key concern of the public affecting social
stability.

23

Chinas Top 10 Environmental Problems

Rice
(5/10) Contaminated by Toxic Metals
5) Soil Erosion and Land/Soil Pollution
Cadmium, Cd
Every year, China loses up to 5 billion (world total 24 billion) tons of soil through erosion. The
nutrients lost are the equivalent of 40 million tons of fertilizer, which in turn equals the amount of
chemical fertilizer used annually by Chinese agriculture. Since 1949, 40 million mu of cultivated land
have been destroyed by erosion. A huge loss to Chinese agriculture. Lead, Pb
At the same time, soil is contaminated by pollutants, including toxic compounds, radioactive materials
etc. As a result, the soil loses its structure and chemical (content of oxygen, nitrogen, etc) and biological
(e.g. ability to support life) properties. Common soil pollutants: hydrocarbons, heavy metals,
herbicides, pesticides, oils, tars, Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) and dioxins.
Pb, As (Arsenic)
Cadmium, Cd
Cadmium, Cd

Cadmium, Cd
Mercury, Hg

Cadmium, Cd Cd, Pb
24
Itai-Itai Disease
 China's Soil Pollution -2
Government actions
The government spent 1 billion yuan
(HK$1.24 billion) on a national survey of
soil pollution conducted between 2006
and 2010. But the results have not been
released.
In a policy directive issued in 2013, the
State Council ordered local governments
to "attach great importance" to soil
pollution and gain a thorough knowledge
of the situation by 2015.
%
2013224
Policy of two-tin limit on milk
powder at Hong Kong

and Soil Pollution in China

25

China's Soil Pollution -3

Some facts
Soil pollution: a threat to the environment, to food safety
and to sustainable agriculture.
According to a scientific sampling, 100,000 square
kilometers of Chinas cultivated land have been polluted,
with contaminated water being used to irrigate a further
21,670 square kilometers and another 1,300 square
kilometers covered or destroyed by solid waste. In total,
the area accounts for one-tenth of Chinas cultivatable
land, and is mostly in economically developed areas.
An estimated 12 million tonnes of grain are contaminated
by heavy metals every year, causing direct losses of
US$2.57 billion.

26
 China's Soil Pollution -4
Pollution sources
1. Industrial (waste water, waste gas and waste residue); include heavy
chemical industry, oil extraction and distribution, mining, metal smelting,
chemical production and use, and industrial waste stockpiling, treatment and
disposal.
2. Domestic waste from urban residents (domestic sewage and urban refuse);
When solid waste is piled up in the open area, the pollutants may dissolve,
seep, drain and permeate into the ground surface with rainwater after being
washed by rain for long, thus polluting groundwater plus rivers and lakes,
and further endangering farmland, aquatic products and human health.
3. Agricultural: agricultural chemicals (pesticides, animal remedies, chemical
fertilizers, growth substances, modifiers and additives); and waste from
breeding of livestock and poultry.

The soil pollution types are diversified, with coexistence of old and new
pollutants and inorganic-organic chemical combinations. There are many
reasons for soil pollution and the causes are complex, so the soil pollution
control is rather difficult. 27

China's Soil Pollution -5

Impacts on agriculture, human health and social stability
Soil pollution is a key factor in threatening the public health, ecological
environment and safety of underground water and food. It has a strong
impact on China's social and economic sustainability.
How to keep a safe and healthy environment for production of agricultural
products is not only necessary for protecting resources of agricultural
production, producing safe agricultural products, making Chinese
agricultural products more competitive and realizing agricultural
sustainability, but inevitable for guaranteeing the public health for a
harmonious society and promoting people's livelihood.
The quality of agricultural products is an important foundation for food
safety. In recent years the problems on quality, sanitation and safety of
China's agricultural products have been highlighted. Due to unreasonable
use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in planting and cultivation as well
as environmental pollution of origins, the chemical residue and harmful
substances in some agricultural products are not acceptable. Currently there
are frequent occurrences of events on safety of agricultural products and
human health caused by soil pollution, which becomes a key factor in
affecting agricultural production, public health and social stability. 28
 Soil Remediation
Soil Pollution Treatment : Expensive !!
Ex Situ Soil Treatment (74) In Situ Soil Treatment (94)
Thermal Desorption (28) Soil Vapor Extraction (46)

Incineration (14)

Physical/Chemical
Thermal
Treatment (16)
Physical Separation/
Treatment (15)
Segmented Gate System (8)
Solvent Extraction (2) Bioventing (9)
Vitrification (3)
Solidification/Stabilization (1)
Acid Leaching (1) Electrokinetics (5)
Soil Washing (1)
Other (19)
Phytoremediation (4)
Bioremediation (16) Chemical Oxidation/Reduction (4)
Land Treatment (7) Vitrification (2)
Composting (6) Fracturing (3)
Slurry-Phase Bioremediation (3) Solidification/Stabilization (3)
LasagnaTM (2)
Drilling (1) 29

Control of Soil Pollution: Policy

Use of pesticides and fertilizers should be
minimized.
Special pits should be selected for dumping
wastes.
Wastewater irrigation should be banned.
Agriculture waste burning should be stopped.
.
.

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