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Lecture Power Points
to accompany
Beer/Johnston/DeWolf
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS, 3rd ed.
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Characteristics of fatigue
The process starts with dislocation movements, eventually forming persistent slip bands that
nucleate short cracks.
The greater the applied stress, the shorter the life.
Damage is cumulative. Materials do not recover when rested.
Fatigue is a stochastic process, often showing considerable scatter. Fatigue life scatter tends
to increase for longer fatigue lives.
Fatigue life is influenced by a variety of factors, such as temperature, surface finish, presence
of oxidizing or inert chemicals, residual stresses, contact (fretting), etc.
Some materials (e.g., some steel and titanium alloys) exhibit a theoretical fatigue limit below
which continued loading does not lead to failure.
In recent years, researchers have found that failures occur below the theoretical fatigue limit
at very high fatigue lives (109 to 1010 cycles). An ultrasonic resonance technique is used in
these experiments with frequencies around 10-20 kHz.
High cycle fatigue strength (about 103 to 108 cycles) can be described by stress based
parameters. A load-controlled, servo-hydraulic test rig is commonly used in these tests, with
frequencies of around 20-50 Hz. Other sort of machines like resonant magnetic machines can
also be used, achieving frequencies up to 250Hz.
Low cycle fatigue (typically less than 103 cycles) is associated with widespread plasticity, thus
a strain based parameter should be used for fatigue life prediction. Testing is conducted with
constant strain amplitudes at 1-5 Hz. 3
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The process starts with dislocation movements,
eventually forming persistent slip bands that nucleate short cracks.
Micrographs showing how surface fatigue cracks grow as material is further cycled.
From Ewing & Humfrey (1903) 4
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The greater the applied stress, the shorter the life.
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Complex loadings
Miner's rule is also called the Palmgren-Miner linear damage hypothesis. It is used to calculate cumulative
damage due to k different stress magnitudes each contributing ni cycles at stress magnitude Si. Failure is
assumed to occur when the summation of the damage fractions for all the events experienced by the
structure is equal to or larger than a damage criterion, C . Mathematically this theory is stated as,
Where n is the number of cycles at stress S applied to the specimen and Ni is the life corresponding to stress
magnitude Si . The constant C is determined by experiments and is usually 0.7 < C < 2.2. For most 6
analysis, the value of C = 1 is used.
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Creep / Fluncia
Creep is the term used to describe the tendency of a 'solid' material to slowly
deform permanently to relieve stresses.
It occurs as a result of long term exposure to levels of stress that are below
the yield strength or ultimate strength of the material.
Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to heat for long periods,
and near the melting point.
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http://www.twi.co.uk/j32k/protected/band_3/jk81.html
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Typical creep curve of a single crystal Ni-base super alloy
http://sakimori.nims.go.jp/MP/creep.html 8
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Atrito entre materiais
e
Desgaste ou eroso de materiais
atrito: friction
desgaste: wear = loss of material from a surface by means of some mechanical action
eroso: erosion = wear due to mechanical interaction between a surface and a fluid, a
multicomponent fluid, or impinging liquid or solid particles
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Em fsica, o atrito uma fora natural que actua apenas quando um objecto est
em contacto com outro e sofre a aco de outra fora que tende a coloc-lo em
movimento.
A fora de atrito causada pelo contacto dos dois corpos ou meio em que se move
o corpo em movimento (neste caso especial, pela viscosidade do meio).
http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrito 10
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F = .N
Coefficient of friction
Coeficiente de atrito
The coefficient of static friction is defined as the ratio of the maximum static
friction force (F) between the surfaces in contact to the normal (N) force.
The coefficient of kinetic friction is defined as the ratio of the kinetic friction
force (F) between the surfaces in contact to the normal force.
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient_of_friction
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Pin-on-Disk Tribometer
Users can easily control test parameters such as: speed, frequency, contact pressure and varying time. Real-life conditions
of a practical wear situation can be closely simulated by precise control of humidity, temperature and gas composition.
Specialized options have been developed for operations at high/low temperature, high load and high rotational speed. Other
options include a unique tri-mode lubrication system, a real-time depth of track, an electrical conductivity detector and a
motorized radial positon.
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Multiple test configurations are available to extend the capabilities of the instrument including Linear Reciprocating, Block-on-
Ring, Thrust Washer Testing and Four Ball Wear.
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The study of the processes of erosion is part of the discipline of tribology.
Erosion wear 13
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Adhesive wear occurs when two solid surfaces slide over one another under
pressure.
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Abrasive wear occurs when material is removed by contact with hard particles.
The particles either may be present at the surface of a second material (two-body wear) or
may exist as loose particles between two surfaces (three-body wear).
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Examples of
Reducing Wear by using Thermal Spray Coatings
for Soft Bearing Surfaces, the following coatings are commonly used:
- aluminium bronze
- phosphor bronze
- white metal or babbitt (an alloy of tin, lead, copper, and antimony, used to reduce friction in
bearings, developed by the US inventor Isaac Babbit in 1839)
- aluminium bronze/polymer composites
for Hard Bearing Surfaces, the following coatings are commonly used:
- cermet coatings like tungsten carbide/cobalt and chromium carbide/nickel
chromium
- oxide ceramics like chromium oxide and alumina
- molybdenum
- various hard alloys of iron, nickel, chromium or cobalt
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