Sedimentology (1993)40,461-414

Early diagenetic spherulitic siderites from Pennsylvanian palaeosols in the Boss Point
Formation, Maritime Canada

G . H . B R O W N E * a n d D . M. K I N G S T O N
Department of Geology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada N6A SB7

ABSTRACT

The Boss Point Formation of Maritime Canada comprises alternating successions of braidplain sandstone,
lacustrine mudstone, and lacustrine fluvio-deltaic sandstone and mudstone. These rocks were deposited
within an active strike-slip basin during the early Pennsylvanian (Westphalian A), at a palaeolatitude of
8s.Palaesols comprise a small but distinct proportion of the formation, and typically occur at the tops of
fining upward sandstone-siltstone cycles.
Spherulitic siderites from the Boss Point Formation occur within sandy and silty palaeosols. They occur
as large (r200 pm) and small ( 200
i pm) diameter spherulitic nodules within calcrete, and show either
a radially arranged ferroan calcite and siderite spar morphology, or contain a core of ferroan calcite,
surrounded by a later formed sheath of siderite. Analytical data indicate that with respect to Ca-Mg-Mn,
wide compositional variation occurs within the siderites. The Boss Point Formation siderites are similar
to, but contain less Ca for a given Mg/Mn ratio, than previously published siderite compositional data.
Published data, together with the results from the Boss Point Formation, indicate that a continuum exists
in freshwater siderites, between the relatively Mn-depleted and the Mg-enriched analytical fields that were
previously reported.
The relatively low Ca values determined in the Boss Point Formation samples reflect the general lack of
calcium in the sedimentary basin during sedimentation. Both chlorite and smectite clays may have been
important sources of iron. It is concluded that the spherulitic siderites are eogenetic, and formed within
small anoxic ponds rich in organic matter, under reducing and low dissolved sulphate conditions. With
time these pools dried up, ferroan calcite precipitating as calcrete nodules around the earlier formed siderite
spherulites.

INTRODUCTION

The formation of siderite has been described from a
range of geological environments. The general condi-
tions necessary for its formation include a reducing
environment, low dissolved sulphate concentration,
near neutral pH and a C 0 2 partial pressure > 0.1 Pa
(Pearson, 1979; Postma, 1982; Bahrig, 1989). These
physical and chemical conditions are common in
anoxic environments in certain lakes (Postma, 1981,
1982; Bahrig, 1989) and in some paralic and marine
settings (Pearson, 1979; Pye, 1984; Tasse & Hesse,
1984; Boles, 1987). In freshwater environments,
* Present address: Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sci-
ences, PO Box 30 368,Lower Hutt, New Zealand.
production of H2S is normally inhibited by the low
levels of dissolved sulphate available for reduction by
sulphate-reducing bacteria, thereby favouring siderite
precipitation (Pye et al., 1990). In marine settings,
siderite can form either prior to sulphate reduction
under suboxic conditions, or under strongly reducing
conditions during methanogenesis (Coleman, 1985;
Mozley & Carothers, 1992; Mozley & Wersin, 1992).
In marine environments, however, the increase in
dissolved sulphate levels will favour the precipitation
of iron sulphides (pyrite) in preference to siderite.
Mozley (1989) has recently proposed that siderites
formed in marine and non-marine environments can
be differentiated geochemically using their elemental

467
468 G . H . Browne and D . M . Kingston
ratios, and has presented a series of ternary descrimi-
nation diagrams to characterize these domains (see
also Matsumoto & Iijima, 1981). Freshwater siderites
are typically Mn-rich and relatively pure (i.e. greater
than 90 mol% FeCO,), whereas siderites formed in
marine environments are always impure, with exten-
sive substitution of Mg, and to a lesser extent Ca, for
Fe in the siderite lattice.
This study presents data from early diagenetic
spherulitic siderites, which formed in palaeosols, of
the Boss Point Formation in Maritime Canada. Both
the palaeosols and the spherulitic siderites have not
previously been recognized from the formation. The
elemental composition of these siderites, which
formed in an entirely continental environment, is
compared with the analytical fields determined by
Mozley (1989). Although spherulitic siderites have
been noted from other settings, few studies have
presented detailed descriptions or geochemical char-
acterization of their morphology, or discussed their
mode of formation.
Electron microprobe analyses were performed with
a JEOL 8600 microanalyser equipped with Tracor-
Northern TN-5500 automation. Carbonate analyses
were carried out by wavelength dispersive spectro-
metry at an accelerating voltage of 15 kV, beam
current of 10 nA and beam diameter of 5 pm. The
following X-ray lines (and standards) were used:
Caral,(calcite), Mg,,, (dolomite), MnKa,(rhodonite)
1 05.00'
~~
43'
~
Fig. 1. The locations of the Alma, Cape Enrage and Boss Point palaeosol sites.
and Feral (siderite). All analyses were done using 20 s
counting times and data were corrected using (Tracor-
Northern's ZAF program.
OCCURRENCE
The spherulitic siderites reported here are from the
Boss Point Formation, a unit comprising several
repeating successions (megacycles) of two main
lithofacies associations : sandy braidplain, and lacus-
trine or fluvio-deltaic sandstone-siltstone, The for-
mation is up to 800 m thick, and of Westphalian A
(early Pennsylvanian) age. The outcrops examined
occur in eastern New Brunswick and northern Nova
Scotia; particularly good exposures occur around the
shores of the northern Bay of Fundy (Fig. 1). The
formation was deposited in the Cumberland Basin,
which was bounded to the north-west and south by
active strike-slip faults such as the Harvey-Hopewell
Fault (Fig. 1).
The braidplain sandstones comprise erosively
based, multi-storied channellized units up to 130 m
thick, dominated by well sorted, fine to lower medium
grained trough cross-bedded sandstones. They are
intercalated with < 60 m thick lacustrine mudstones
and associated fluvio-deltaic sandstones. Mudstones
consist of dark grey and reddish, massive and parallel
laminated organic-rich siltstones and claystones, coals
30'
~~
 Spheruliiic siderites, Maritime Canada
and ostracod-bearing, fine grained limestones
(Browne, 1991). The ostracod-bearing limestones are
< 80 cm thick, and consist of richly carbonaceous
micrite and wackestone, typically with crude to well
developed horizontal stratification produced by the
alignment of ostracod valve long axes. Bioclasts are
almost exclusively of joined and disarticulated fresh-
water ostracod valves (Carbonita), with fewer bivalve,
gastropods and fish scale fragments. Faunal details of
the ostracods are presented by Copeland (1957). The
deltaic rocks comprise centimetre to decimetre scale
beds of coarsening upward mudstone to sandstone
cycles that prograded into the lakes (Browne, 1991).
Both sandstone and mudstone lithologies contain
abundant carbonaceous debris ranging in size from
comminuted material to large logs, the latter predom-
inantly lycopods such as Calamites, Lepidodendron
and Sigillaria. Ripple and plane laminated sandstone,
pebbly sandstone and conglomerate are minor com-
ponents in the formation.
Fining upward cycles 2-25 m in thickness are
common throughout the formation and have been
interpreted as having formed by the migration of
fluvial channels (Browne, 1991). The palaeosols
typically occur at the top of these fining upward cycles.
There is no evidence for a marine influence during
deposition of this succession. Marine sedimentation
is in fact rare during the Carboniferous of Maritime
Canada (Gibling et al., 1992), known only from the
Windsor Group (Mississippian) throughout Maritime
Canada, and from the Sydney Mines Formation
(Westphalian D) of Nova Scotia (Thibaudeau &
Medioli, 1986).
The spherulitic siderites are components within
indurated calcrete (caliche) nodules which occur
within sandy and silty palaeosols (Fig. 2). Calcrete
Fig. 2. A silty palaeosol at Alma with a concentration of
calcrete nodules in its middle portion. Scale is 1 m in length.
469
Fig. 3. Light-coloured calcrete nodules containing spherulitic
siderites, from a silty palaeosol at Alma (cf. Fig. 2). Lens cap
is 50 mm in diameter.
nodules are defined as secondary accumulations of
carbonate in near surface settings, which result from
cementation and/or replacement of host material by
the precipitation of calcium carbonate from soil water
or ground water (Netterberg, 1980; Goudie, 1983). In
the Boss Point Formation the calcite within the
calcrete is ferroan. Morphologically, the calcrete
nodules in the formation equate with Stages I1 and I11
calcrete morphology of Machette (1985) i.e. they
comprise isolated through to coalesced nodules
1-15 cm in diameter (Fig. 3).
At least 29 palaeosols have been recognized from
the formation, and have a maximum thickness of
2.2 m. The palaeosols have been distinguished on the
basis of colour mottling, and the presence of pedotur-
bation, organic debris and calcrete nodule develop-
ment (e.g. Retallack, 1981; Francis, 1986).
Sandy palaeosols consist of green-grey (5G 5/2*
and lOGY 5/2) and greyish brown (5YR 3/2), colour
mottled, well sorted, very fine to lower medium
grained sandstone. Sandstones include massive, lam-
inated and ripple laminated textures, and in places
may be bioturbated. Distinct horizons are only poorly
developed ;rather, profiles are typified by the presence
of calcrete nodules. These nodules are generally
scattered throughout individual pedogenic layers, but
may also be concentrated into the upper parts of
palaeosol profiles. Vertical and subvertical < 3 cm
wide calcareous tubes are common, and are interpreted
either as rhizoliths or as calcified root casts (Browne,
1991).
Silty palaeosols consist of greyish green (5G 5/2 and
IOGY 5/2) and reddish purple (5R 4/2, GY 5 / 2 and
* Colour designations follow the GeologicalSocietyofAmerica
Rock Color Chart 1948, reprinted 1979 (dry sample).
470 G . H . Browne and D . M . Kingston

5RP 4/2), colour mottled, slightly sandy siltstone. The and smallspherulitic nodules 80-200 ym in diameter.
clay mineralogy of the palaeosols is dominated by Size variation is minor within a given sample. The
kaolinite and illite, with less abundant albite, muscov- siderite typically occurs as single spherulitic nodules,
ite and rare smectite (Browne, 1991). The calcrete though they sometimes coalesce. Large nodules
nodules are tan to dark coloured and disorthic (Brewer, typically consist of radially arranged ferroan calcite
1964), with sharp outer margins. The nodules occur as and sideritic spar (Fig. 4). Small spherulitic siderites
both isolated and semi-continuous masses, comprising most typically consist of a core of mixed ferroan calcite
densely packed, erosion resistant intervals (Fig. 3). (occupying as much as 70% of the grain) and siderite,
Bioturbation (or pedoturbation) is not evident in surrounded by a sheath of later formed siderite (Fig.
outcrop, but is typical in thin section. Many outcrops 5). Smallnoduleslack aradial carbonatemorphology.
display arcuate, low to moderate angle shears, typically Nodules may contain several < 20 ym diameter quartz
slickensided, and undulose shears (pseudo-anticlines), grains at their centres, but more commonly the quartz
and are similar to structures described from ancient
soils (Allen & Williams, 1979, Gray & Nickelsen,
1989; Driese & Foreman, 1992).
Although the palaeosols comprise only a small
proportion of the total thickness of the formation
(0.5%), they do consistently occur at approximately
60 m above the base of the formation. Palaeosols at
this stratigraphic position can be traced through
several sections (up to 40 km apart), covering an area
of 900 km2,and appear to form one pedogenic horizon.
The presence of colour mottling, little or no humus,
pedogenic slickensides, pseudo-anticline structures
and the calcrete nodules suggest that the palaeosols
represent Vertisols and Aridisols (Ahmad, 1983;
Nettleton & Peterson, 1983), and that they formed in
a semi-arid palaeoclimatic setting (Browne, 1991).
This interpretation is consistent with the early
Fig. 4. A back-scattered electron microprobe image of a
Pennsylvanian palaeolatitude of 8s for this part of typical large spherulitic siderite, showing dark coloured
Maritime Canada (Roy & Morris, 1983). radially arranged ferroan calcite (c), and lighter coloured
In addition to the spherulitic siderite morphology, siderite (s). Black material is quartz (9). The grain is
other petrographic varieties of calcrete morphology surrounded by a clay-rich matrix.
occur, including ped material, fragmentary nodules,
siltstone aggregates and sparry calcite, and any of
these types may occur within the same nodule
(Browne, 1991). Concentration is given here to the
spherulitic siderites.
Four spherulitic siderite samples from three locali-
ties were examined in this study (Fig. 1). Three
samples (one from Alma and two from Cape Enrage)
come from essentially the same stratigraphic interval
between 60 and 70 m above the base of the formation.
The fourth sample (Boss Point) comes from a
stratigraphic position approximately 420 m above the
base of the formation.

SPHERULITIC SIDERITE
MORPHOLOGY A N D COMPOSITION
Two distinct sizes of siderite nodule occur: large
spherulitic siderite nodules 200-500 ym in diameter,
Fig. 5. A back-scattered electron microprobe image of a
typical small spherulitic siderite, consisting of a core of
ferroan calcite (c). surrounded by a sheath of siderite (s).
Dark areas to the right and fop are K-rich clays (cl).
 Spherulitic siderites, Maritime Canada 47 1

grains are scattered throughout the nodule (Figs 4 &
5). In addition, energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS)
and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses indicate that
several clay species are present within the nodules:
Fe-rich clays (smectite) and K-rich clays (illite), as
well as monazite ([Ce, La] PO,) and albite. Some clays
are surrounded by a thin (<2 pm thick) Mn-rich
sideritic layer. A clay-rich matrix surrounds the
spherulitic siderites, and consists of dark coloured Fe-
rich (smectite) and K-rich (illitic) clays, as well as
albite.
Electron microprobe determinations from 5 nodules
(57 analyses) of both small and large spherulitic
siderites have been plotted on discriminant CaC0,-
MgC0,-FeCO, and CaC0,-MgC0,-MnCO, ter-
nary plots (Fig. 6). These are compared with previously
published freshwater siderite data from the Tyonek
(Tertiary) and Ivishak (Permian-Triassic) formations
(Mozley, 1989). The Ca-Mg-Fe ternary plot (Fig. 6a)
shows that the Boss Point Formation samples are
depleted in Fe with respect to the Tyonek Formation
data, but fall within the compositional variation of

Fe
A (This Study)
analyses from Iarpe
(from Mozley, 1989) 0 nodules n= 17

+ analyses from small

nodules n= 40

Ivlshak Fm

(b) Mn
A (This Study)
analyses from large
nodules n= 17
(from Mozley, 1989) + analyses from small
80 nodules n= 40

Fig. 6. Ternary CaC0,-MgC0,-FeCO, and CaC0,-MgC0,-MnCO, diagrams for Boss Point Formation spherulitic
siderites. Data have been plotted on a mol% basis. Analyses from freshwater siderites in the Tyonek and Ivishak formations
are taken from Mozley (1989, fig. 2).
472 G . H . Browne and D . M . Kingston
the Ivishak Formation samples. Both the Ivishak and
the Boss Point Formation samples are enriched in
Mg. The high Mg siderite variants recognized by
Mozley (1989, fig. 2) were not encountered in this
study. Small nodules appear to be more enriched in
Mg than their large counterparts, though there is
considerable overlap (Fig. 6a). The Boss Point
Formation samples plot between the extremes of Mg
and Mn recognized by Mozley (1989, fig. 2), and in
general are relatively depleted in Ca (Fig. 6b).
Although there is considerable overlap, the smaller
Boss Point Formation nodules tend to be more
enriched in Mg than the larger nodules.
DISCUSSION
Previous work on other spherulitic siderites
Spherulitic siderites were first described by Teal1
(1899), and have since been described from a variety
of freshwater and paralic settings. Their occurrence
in pedogenic intervals is common (Fritz et al., 1971;
Leckie & Foscolos, 1986; Besly & Fielding, 1989;
Hart, 1990; Kantorowicz, 1990; Lott & Humphreys,
1992).The Boss Point Formation occurrence is similar
to the spherulitic siderite (equivalent to spherosiderite)
of Spencer (1925), Fritz et aI. (1971), Tucker (1981),
Gibson (1989) and Gibson et al. (1990).
Besly & Fielding (1989) described spherulitic sider-
ite from several localities in Britain, and argued that
the association of siderite along vertical root structures
was due to an upward movement of iron during
lowering of the water table within swamp environ-
ments. Challis & Hornibrook (1989) indicated that
spherulitic siderites occur as a replacement feature of
foraminifera tests, and form principally by carbona-
tion of chamositic clay which surrounds and partially
infills the tests. Gibson et al. (1990) suggested that
spherulitic siderites may form eogenetically, by grow-
ing in soft sediment under conditions of methanogenic
fermentation in open lacustrine settings. Hart (1990)
described < 0.5 mm diameter spherulitic siderites that
comprised an Fe-rich core and a more Ca-rich margin.
He interpreted that the siderites formed in a poorly
drained palaeosol. Kantorowicz (1990) discussed their
formation within waterlogged soils, and argued sider-
ite formation from a bacterially derived bicarbonate
source that supersaturated the pore waters during
suboxic Fe3 reduction.
+
Interpretationof the Boss Point Formation Occurrence
The data suggest that with respect to Ca-Mg-Mn, the
Boss Point Formation samples are relatively low in
Ca for a given Mg/Mn ratio. The relatively low Ca
values determined in the Boss Point Formation
analyses reflect the general lack of calcium carbonate
in the sedimentary basin, one that was instead
dominated by siliciclastic sedimentation, eroded from
the largely granitic and metamorphosed sedimentary
rocks that surrounded the Cumberland Basin.
Mn values for the Boss Point Formation are in
general high (cf. Mozley, 1989, fig. 2). The high Mn
values (2.15-1 1.00 mol% MnCO,) in Boss Point
Formation samples is consistent with freshwater
siderites, which typically have greater than 2 mol%
MnCO, (Mozley, 1989).
The spherulitic siderite nodules are suggested to
have formed via methanogenesis in small localized
standing bodies of water (such as stagnant ponds),
rich in organic matter, under reducing and low
dissolved sulphate conditions (see Pearson, 1979;
Postma, 1982; Gibson et al., 1990). Methanogenesis
is favoured in such low sulphate settings (Coleman,
1985; Mozley & Wersin, 1992). The siderite is
suggested to have formed within the soft sediment of
these ponds (as reported by Gibson et al., 1990)
although the possibility that they formed at the
sediment-water interface cannot be ruled out. With
time these anoxic ponds dried up, and became part of
the pedogenic profile.
The Boss Point Formation spherulitic siderites
occur within calcrete nodules, and are therefore
considered to have formed early during diagenesis
(eogenesis), at least over the period of pedogenesis.
Once formed, the pore waters remained anoxic, but
were overwhelmed by Ca-rich waters, promoting
ferroan calcrete development. Calcrete growth after
siderite reflects this change in pore water chemistry.
The transition is suggested to reflect a change from
small stagnant ponds in which the siderite developed,
to a situation in which these ponds dried, and calcrete
formed. The source of the calcium is uncertain. As
part of this drier period, calcium may have been
introduced from aeolian sources, the Mississippian
Windsor Group being the most likely source. Alter-
natively, the calcium may have been derived from
weathering of plagioclase or as a biological product of
photosynthesis. C 0 2 in soils is released by plant roots
during respiration and during decay. The low partial
pressure of C 0 2 in soils promotes precipitation of
CaCO,, and is an important source of carbonate in
 Spherulitic siderites, Maritime Canada
modern calcretes (e.g. Salomons et al., 1978). What-
ever the source of calcium, the ferroan calcite nature
of the calcrete nodules indicates that pore waters
remained anoxic.
The question of the source of the iron should also
be considered. Pearson (1979) concluded that siderite
iron was derived from Fe-rich chloritic clays. Chlorite
was detected by XRD in the mudstones and shales of
the Boss Point Formation (Browne, 1991), but has not
been found within the palaeosols. The only Fe-bearing
clay species detected in the siderites is smectite.
Smectite was also found in both the surrounding
mudstone and shales of the Boss Point Formation,
and in the form of Fe-rich smectites in the clay-rich
matrix surrounding the spherulitic nodules. Both
chlorite and smectite are thought to be important
sources for iron. In addition, Carroll (1958) and
Matsumoto & Iijima (1981) have shown that iron can
be introduced from Fe-oxyhydroxide coatings on clay
minerals, and this may also be a source of iron for the
Boss Point Formation siderites. Alternatively, iron
may have originated from Boss Point Formation river
waters themselves, as has been suggested for siderite
forming in some present day swamp deposits (Postma,
1982).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The financial assistance of a New Zealand Depart-
ment of Scientific and Industrial Research study
award and G. F. Matthew Research Scholarship from
the New Brunswick Museum to (G.H.B.), and
NSERC operating grant A1917 (to A. G. Plint) are
gratefully acknowledged. We wish to thank A. G.
Plint and B. S . Hart for their encouragement and
discussions. The manuscript was greatly improved by
the critical comments of M. J. Kraus, J. D. Kantorow-
icz, M. G. Laird, J. McKay, K. A. Mertz and P. S.
Mozley.
REFERENCES
AHMAD,N. (1983) Vertisols. In: Pedogenesis and Soil
Taxonomy II. The Soil Orders (Ed. by L. P. Wilding, N. E.
Smeck & G. F. Hall), pp. 91-123. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
ALLENJ.R.L. & WILLIAMS, B.P.J. (1979) Interfluvial drain-
age on Silurian-Devonian alluvial plains in Wales and
Welsh Borders. J. geol. SOC.Lond., 136,361-366.
BAHRIG,B. (1989) Stable isotope composition of siderite as
an indicator of the palaeoenvironmental history of oil
shale lakes. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclim. Palaeoecol., 70, 139-
151.
473
BESLY,B.M. & FIELDING,C.R. (1989) Palaeosols in West-
phalian coal-bearing and redbed sequences, central and
northern England. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclim. Palaeoecol.,
70,303-330.
BOLES,J.R. (1987) Six million year diagenetic history, North
Coles Levee, San Joaquin Basin, California. In: Diagenesis
of Sedimentary Sequences (Ed. by J. D. Marshall). Spec.
Publ. geol. SOC.Lond., 36, 191-200.
BREWER,R.C. (1964) Fabric and Mineral Analysis of Soils.
Wiley, New York.
BROWNE,G.H. (1991) The Sedimentology of the Boss Point
Formation (Pennsylvanian) of eastern New Brunswick and
northern Nova Scotia. PhD thesis, University of Western
Ontario, London, Ont.
CARROLL, D. (1958) Role of clay minerals in the transporta-
tion of iron. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 14, 1-28.
CHALLIS, G.A. & HORNIBROOK, N. DEB.(1989) Replacement
of foraminifera by siderite in the Gore Lignite beds,
Southland. N Z Jl Geol. Geophys., 32,527-529.
COLEMAN, M.L. (1985) Geochemistry of diagenetic non-
silicate minerals : kinetic considerations. In : Geochemistry
of Buried Sediments (Ed. by G . Eglinton, C. D. Curtis, D.
P. McKenzie & D. G. Murchison), pp. 39-54. The Royal
Society, London.
COPELAND, M. J. (1957) The arthropod fauna of the Upper
Carboniferous rocks of the Maritime Provinces. Mem.
geol. Surv. Canada, 286,110 pp.
DRIESE,S. G. & FOREMAN, J. L. (1992) Paleopedology and
paleoclimatic implications of late Ordovician vertic
paleosols, Juniata Formation, southern Appalachians. J .
sedim. Peirol., 62,71-83.
FRANCIS,J.E. (1986) The calcareous paleosols of the basal
Purbeck Formation (Upper Jurassic), Southern England.
In : Paleosols Their Recognition and Interpretation (Ed. by
V. P. Wright), pp. 112-138. Princeton University Press,
Princeton, NJ.
FRITZ,P., BINDA,P.L., FOLINSBEE, F.E. & KROUSE,H.R.
(1971) Isotopic composition of diagenetic siderites from
Cretaceous sediments in Western Canada. Jsedim. Petrol.,
41,282-288.
GIBLING,M.R., CALDER, J. H., RYAN,R., VANDE POLL,
H.W. & YEO, G.M. (1992) Late Carboniferous and Early
Permian drainage patterns in Atlantic Canada. Can J.
Earth Sci., 29, 338-352.
GIBSON,P.J. (1989) Petrology of two Tertiary oil shale
deposits from Queensland, Australia. J. geol. SOC.Lond,
146,319-331.
GIBSON,P. J. SHAW, H. F. & SPIRO,B. (1990) The formation
of eogenetic siderites in Tertiary lacustrine oil shales of
Queensland, Australia. Int. Ass. Sedimentol. ConJ Not-
tingham, England, August 1990, abstract, pp. 494.
GOUDIE,A.S. (1983) Calcrete. In: Chemical Sediments and
Geomorphology (Ed. by A. S. Goudie & K. Pye), pp. 93-
131. Academic Press, London.
GRAY,M.B. & NICKELSEN, R.P. (1989) Pedogenic slicken-
sides, indicators of strain and deformation processes in
redbed sequences of the Appalachian foreland. Geology,
11,72-75.
HART,B.S. (1990) Sedimentology andstratigraphy of the Upper
Cretaceous Cardium Formation, in Northwestern Alberta
and adjacent British Columbia, PhD thesis, University of
Western Ontario, London, Ont.
KANTOROWICZ, J.D. (1990) Lateral and vertical variations
414 G. H . Browne and D . M . Kingston
in pedogenesis and other early diagenetic phenomena,
Middle Jurassic Ravenscar Group, Yorkshire. Proc. Yorks.
geol. Soc., 48,61-74.
LECKIE,D.A. & FOSCOLOS, A.E. (1986) Paleosols and Late
Albian sea level fluctuations: preliminary observations
from the northwestern British Columbia foothills. In:
Current Research, Part B. Geol. Surv. Canada, Pap., S I B ,
4 2 9 4 1.
LOTT,G.K. & HUMPHREYS, B. (1992) The stratigraphy and
petrology of Middle Jurassic (Ravenscar Group) sediments
in cored boreholes from the north Yorkshire coast. Proc.
Yorks. geol. Soc., 49,2340.
MACHETTE, M.N. (1985) Calcic soils of the southwestern
United States. In: Soils and Quaternary Geology of the
Southwestern United States (Ed. by D. L. Weide), Spec.
Pap. geol. Soc. Am., 203, pp. 1-23.
MATSUMOTO, R. & IIJIMA,A. (1981) Origin and diagenetic
evolution of Ca-Mg-Fe carbonates in some coalfields of
Japan. Sedimentology, 28,239-259.
MOZLEY, P.S. (1989) Relation between depositional environ-
ment and elemental composition of early diagenetic
siderite. Geology, 17,704-706.
MOZLEY,P.S. & CAROTHERS, W.W. (1992) Elemental and
isotopic composition of siderite in the Kuparuk Formation,
Alaska : effect of microbial activity and water/sediment
interaction on early pore-water chemistry. J. sedim. Petrol,
62,681-692.
MOZLEY, P.S. & WERSIN,P. (1992) Isotopic composition of
siderite as an indicator of depositional environment.
Geology, 20,817-820.
NETTERBERG, F. (1980) Geology of south African calcretes:
1. Terminology. description, macrofeatures, and classifi-
cation. Trans. geol. SOC.S. Africa, 83,255-283.
NETTLETON, W.D. & PETERSON, F.F. (1983) Aridisols. In:
Pedogenesis and Soil Taxonomy II. The Soil Orders (Ed. by
L. P. Wilding, N. E. Smeck & G. F. Hall), pp. 235-243.
Elsevier, Amsterdam.
PEARSON,M.J. (1979) Geochemistry of the Hepworth
Carboniferous sediment sequence and origin of the
(Manuscript received 7 September 1992; revision accepted 29 January I993
diagenetic iron minerals and concretions. Geochim. Cos-
mochim. Acta, 43,927-941.
POSTMA, D. (1981). Formation of siderite and vivianite and
the pore-water composition of a recent bog sediment in
Denmark. Chem. Geol., 31,225-244.
POSTMA, D. (1982) Pyrite and siderite formation in brackish
and freshwater swamp sediments. Am. J. Sci., 282, 1151-
1183.
PYE,K. (1984) SEM analysis of siderite cements in intertidal
marsh sediments, Norfolk, England. Mar. Geol., 56, 1-12.
PYE,K., DICKSON, J.A.D., SCHIAVON, N., COLEMAN, M.L.
&Cox, M. (1990) Formation of siderite-Mg-calcite-iron
sulphide concretions in intertidal marsh and sandflat
sediments, north Norfolk, England. Sedimentology, 37,
325-343.
RETALLACK, G. J. (1981) Fossil soils: indicators of ancient
terrestrial environments. In : Palaeobotany, Palaeoecology
and Evolution, Vol 1 (Ed. by K. J. Niklas), pp. 55-102.
Praeger Publishers, New York.
ROY,R.L. &MORRIS, W.A. (1983) A review ofpaleomagnetic
results from the Carboniferous of North America: the
concept of Carboniferous geomagnetic field horizon
markers. Earthplanet. Sci. Lett. 65, 167-181.
SALOMONS, W., GOUDIE, AS. & MOOK,W.G. (1978)Isotopic
composition of calcrete deposits from Europe, Africa, and
India. Earth sur- Process., 3,43-57.
SPENCER,E. (1925) On some occurrences of spherulitic
siderite and other carbonates in sediments. J. geol. SOC.
Lond., 81,667-705.
TASSE,N. & HESSE,R. (1984) Origin and significance of
complex authigenic carbonates in Cretaceous black shales
of the Western Alps. J. sedim. Petrol., 54, 1012-1027.
TEALL,J. (1899) Summary of Progress of the GeologicalSurvey
for 1898. Geological Survey (UK) Memoir.
THIBAUDEAU, S.A. & MEDIOLI,F.S. (1986) Carboniferous
thecamoebiansand marsh foraminifera :new stratigraphic
tools for ancient paralic deposits. Geol. SOC.Am.,Abstracts
with Programmes, 18,771.
TUCKER, M.E. (1981) Sedimentary Petrology. An Introduction.
Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.