Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
CIRCULATION
Introduction
1) Origin of the Circulatory System :
Whole circulatory system: Mesoderm of embryo
Except inner lining of blood vessels and heart: Endodermal origin
3) Medium of Transportation :
Two Types :
i) Water Circulation System :
Water is the medium of transportation.
E.g. sponges(water canal system), Hydra (gastrovascularsystem), star fish (ambulacral system)
ii) Blood Vascular System :
Blood is the medium of transportation in association with pumping organ (heart)
E.g. vertebrates, annelids
Circulation
..129..
BLOOD
1) R.B.C.s. :
i) R.B.C.s do not have nucleus, mitochondria, golgi apparatus, centriole, lysosomes.
ii) They contain 2, 3 DPG.
iii) All mammals have enucleated RBCs except camels, lamas and sloth.
iv) RBCs are counted on a haemocytometer, whereas haemoglobin estimation is done on a haemometer.
v) Composition : 60% water, 40% solids out of which 29% - haemoglobin
vi) Haemoglobin is Fe++ based, present in most vertebrates, in earthworm it is directly dissolved in plasma
vii) Haemocyanin is Cu++ based, present in - molluscs & crustaceans
viii) Haemoglobin :
a) 1 RBC contains 280 million molecules of haemoglobin.
b) 1 haemoglobin is made up of 4 parts of iron containing haem and 4 chains of non iron part called globulin which
has 2 alpha and 2 beta chains.
c) 1 molecule of haemoglobin can transport 4 molecules of O2.
d) Haemoglobin has maximum affinity for CO followed by CO2andO2.
e) When haemoglobin combines with CO it forms carboxyhaemoglobin. With CO2 it forms carbaminohaemoglobin
and with O2 it forms oxyhaemoglobin.
f) Haemoglobin values for males 14 18 gms/dL
for females 11.5 16.5 gms/dL
for infants 23 gms/dL
g) Foetuses contain foetal type of haemoglobin which is made up of 2 alpha and 2 gamma chains. This type of
haemoglobin works at 50% efficiency.
h) Thalassaemic patients have haemoglobin which contains 2 alpha and 2 delta chains.
Breakdown of haemoglobin:
a) Haemoglobin is broken down by the liver and spleen. Spleen is called the graveyard of RBCs.
b) Haemoglobin is first separated into its two main components haem and globulin.
c) The globulin chains which are detached are sent to plasma for re-use.
d) The iron from haem is first extracted to be stored in the liver in the form of ferritin.
e) The remaining haem is broken down by multiple chemical reactions to form biliverdin and bilirubin which is
finally given to the small intestine for removal.
f) The normal count of bilirubin is approx. 0.5 mg/dL.
g) If this value exceeds 3 times its normal value it results in yellowishness of skin called jaundice.
h) Yellow discolouration of sclera is called icterus.
ix) RBCs also contain enzyme carbonic anhydrase which catalyses the reaction between CO2 and H2O to form carbonic
acid. This carbonic acid splits into H+ and HCO3 . The HCO3 then combine with Na+ or K+ ions to form carbonates of
sodium or potassium which act as buffers.
Circulation
..130..
x) Diseases of RBC
i) Decrease in RBC count - erythropenia
ii) Increase in RBC count - polycythemia
iii) Lack of oxygen carrying capacity of blood - anaemia
iv) Types of anaemia
2) Platelets :
i) Function of platelets is clotting of blood.
ii) Blood has natural anticoagulants called heparin and antithrombin
iii) Vitamin K is required for the formation of prothrombin.
iv) Ca++ is required for clotting process.
v) Artificial anticoagulants contain oxalates, citrates and bicarbonates and are used to store blood in a blood bank.
vi) A natural anticoagulant called hirudin is derived from the saliva of leeches.
vii) Diseases of platelets:
a) Decrease in platelet count Thrombocytopenia
b) Increase in platelet count Thrombocytosis
viii) Disorders of clotting :
ix) Deficiency of clotting factors leads to clotting disorders.
a) Deficiency of factor :
VIII Haemophilia A
IX Haemophilia B
XI Haemophilia C
b) Haemophilia is also called as Bleeders disease/ Royal disease.
x) Thrombosis- Formation of a clot (thrombus) inside a blood vessel, obstructing the flow of blood
xi) Embolism- occurs when an object (usually a blood clot) migrates from one part of the body (through circulation)
andcauses a blockage (occlusion) of a blood vessel in another part of the body.
Blood Vessels
1) Blood Vessels :
i) Blood vessels of the blood vessels Vasa vasorum.
ii) Arteries Their tunica media may contain only scattered modified smooth muscle cells called pericytes.
iii) Arterioles can control blood flow to the capillary beds they supply; blood flow changes from pulsatile to smooth.
Arterioles finally break up into blood capillaries.
They are more susceptible to injury & diseases e.g. Atherosclerosis.
iv) Capillaries :
Discovered by Marcello Malpighi, 1661
Blood flow is at its slowest through the capillaries because they are the narrowest vessels which means they have the
greatest friction which restricts blood flow.
This slow velocity aids the exchange of materials.
v) Types of capillaries
a) Continuous capillaries
b) Fenestrated capillaries
c) Discontinuous capillaries
Circulation
..131..
a) Continuous capillaries :
Circulation
..132..
c) Discontinuous capillaries :
2) Portal System :
i) Portal vein It collects blood from one organ by a set of capillaries and distributes that blood, into a second organ
through another set of capillaries instead of sending the blood directly into the vena cava or the heart.
ii) Types of portal system :
a) Hepatic portal system
b) Renal portal system
c) Hypophysial portal system
Circulation
..133..
i) It consists of renal portal veins that brings blood from posterior part of the body directly into kidneys for removal of
waste products
ii) It is well developed in fishes and amphibians, reduced in reptiles and birds and absent in mammals
Circulation
..134..
i) It is a portal system formed by a vein from hypothalamus which breaks up into capillaries in hypophysis or pituitary
gland.
ii) Formed by union of capillaries and venules in hypothalamus
iii) Portal vein enters anterior lobe of pituitary gland or adenohypophysis where it breaks up into capillaries
iv) Hypophysial portal system is a short circuit arrangement
v) Hypothalamus produces a number of hormones for controlling endocrine activity of adenohypophysis
vi) They are pored into blood in hypothalamus
vii) The same is directly drained by hypophysial portal vein into adenohypophysis
HEART
1) Human Heart :
i) Human heart
The human heart beats appox. 72 times per minute, 100,0000 times per day.
a) External structure :
1) Situated in between 2 lungs in a space called the mediastinum.
2) The apex of the heart is made up by the left ventricle.
b) Internal structure :
1) The inner wall of atria show a series of transverse muscular ridges: musculi pectinati which give the
appearance of the teeth of a comb (combed muscles).
2) Valves :
i) Opening of Superior Vena Cava Haversian valve
ii) Opening of Inferior Vena Cava Eustachian valve
iii) Opening of Coronary Sinus Thebesian valve
Circulation
..135..
4) Heart Rate:
In mammals, smaller animals have higher heart beat
i) Rabbit: 200/min
ii) Sparrow: 500/min
iii) Canary: 1000/min
iv) Elephant: 28/min
v) Frog: 64/min
vi) Rat: 300/min
vii) Shrew: 800/min (maximum)
viii) Blue whale: 25/min (minimum)
Circulation
..136..
Tachycardia Bradycardia
Heart rate more than 90 per minute for an average adult. Heart rate less than 60 per minute for an average adult.
Increase in blood pressure in the vena cava Increase in blood pressure in aorta and large arteries
Increase in blood CO2 concentration Decrease in blood CO2 concentration
Decrease in blood O2 concentration Increase in blood O2 concentration
Decrease in blood pH Increase in blood pH
Increase in body temperature (core temperature) Decrease in body temperature (core temperature)
Increase in hormone adrenaline Decrease in adrenaline/ Increase in acetylcholine
Increase in the nervous input from pain receptors Parasympathetic stimulation
The ratio of heart rate to respiratory rate in an average adult under normal circumstances is 4 : 1
5) Heart Sounds :
i) Heart beats are listened with the help of an instrument called Stethoscope.
ii) Stethoscope invented by Laennec.
iii) The study of heart sounds by marking them on a graph: Phonocardiography
iv) Heart Sounds
a) Ist Sound :
1) This is a contraction sound which denotes the beginning of ventricle contraction
2) Arises due to closing of the tricuspid and bicuspid valve.
3) Weak and appears in the form of Lubb
4) Duration of 0.15 second and a frequency of 25-45 Hz
b) IInd Sound :
1) This is a diastolic sound which denotes the beginning of ventricular diastole
2) Arises due to the closing of the semi-lunar valves of the two arches
3) Heard in the form of Dup
4) Duration of 0.12 seconds with a frequency of 50 Hz
v) Heart sounds give valuable information about working of valves.
vi) Any damage to these valves effects the quality of sound.
vii) The abnormal heart sound due to damaged valve is called a Heart murmur.
8) ECG :
i) Einthoven invented ECG for recording heart conditions. He is known as the father of ECG.
ii) Abnormalities of ECG.
a) Enlargement of the P wave indicates enlargement of the atria
b) Long P-R interval seen in atherosclerotic heart disease and rheumatic fever.This is due to the inflammation of
atria and AV node
c) Enlarged Q and R waves indicate a myocardial infarction (heart attack).
d) S-T segment elevation - in acute myocardial infarction and depressed when the heart muscle receives insufficient
oxygen.
e) Flat T wave - when the heart muscles receive insufficient oxygen as in atherosclerotic heart disease
f) Elevated T wave - the bodys potassium level is increased
9) Foetal circulation :
i) Foetus depends completely on the mother and her placenta
ii) Foetal circulation differs mainly from the adult one by the presence of 3 major vascular shunts:
a) Ductus venosus: between the umbilical vein and inferior vena cava
b) Foramen ovale: between the right and left atrium (i.e. opening in interatrial septum)
c) Ductus arteriosus: between the pulmonary artery and descending (dorsal) aorta
iii) Rationale of these shunts is to divert the oxygenated blood from the less functioning organs as lungs, liver, kidney and
intestine as placenta carries their functions, to the brain, heart and other parts of the body
iv) Shunts are sealed after birth.
v) If remains opens then it is known as hole in the heart which is closed by surgery or giving medicine
vi) Blue baby: name given to an abnormal human baby who has a hole in the ventricular septum so that oxygenated and
less oxygenated blood mix
Circulation
..138..
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
1) Cysterna Chyli: expanded abdominal portion of the thoracic duct; this is where fat enter the lymphatic system.
2) Spleen
i) Located in the superior, posterior, left abdominal cavity
ii) Contains largest collection of lymphoid tissue in the body
iii) Performs the same function for blood that lymph nodes perform for lymph; the spleen filters the blood.
iv) It contains the red pulp and white pulp.
v) Red pulp :
a) area of the spleen that contains large numbers of RBCs
b) structural framework of the red pulp consists of a network of reticular fibres
c) rich in macrophages
d) mainly concerned with disposing of worn out red blood cells and blood borne pathogens
vi) White pulp :
a) area of the spleen that resembles lymphoid nodules
b) composed mostly of lymphocytes suspended on reticular fibres
c) involved with the immune functions of the spleen
vii) Functions :
a) Destruction of worn-out red corpuscles: worn-out RBCs are phagocytized by the free and fixed macrophages
present in the spleen; often described as the graveyard or slaughter house of the worn-out erythrocytes.
b) Reservoir for red corpuscles: When the animal is at rest and needs less oxygen due to slow metabolism, some
red corpuscles are withdrawn from circulation and stored in the spleen. During active life, when the animal
requires more oxygen, also in case of haemorrhage (blood loss in injury), stored red corpuscles are released into
the blood stream.
c) Formation of agranulocytes: Lymphocytes & monocytes are produced in the bone marrow and spleen besides
thymus and lymph nodes.
d) Production of antibodies: Plasma cells present in the spleen produce antibodies, the protective proteins that
provide immunity
e) Storage of iron: Iron freed from the haemoglobin of the worn-out RBCs is stored in the macrophages till it is
needed for reuse in the synthesis of fresh haemoglobin
f) Erythropoiesis : In the embryo, spleen produces new RBCs
g) Disposal of foreign elements: macrophages of the spleen engulf and destroy foreign germs and other substances
entering the blood
Circulation
..139..
EXERCISE - 1
1. In open vascular system, the circulating fluid is called 12. Which two of the following changes (i-iv) usually tend
(a) perilymph (b) lymphatic fluid to occur in the plain dwellers when they move to high
(c) haemolymph (d) blood altitudes (3, 500 m or more) ?
(i) Increase in red blood cell size
2. Which one of the following has an open circulatory (ii) Increase in red blood cell production
system ? (iii) Increase in breathing rate
(a) Pheretima (b) Periplaneta (iv) Increase in thrombocyte count
(c) Hirudinaria (d) Octopus (a) (ii) and (iii) (b) (iii) and (iv)
(c) (i) and (iv) (d) (i) and (ii)
3. Which of the following has a closed type of circulatory
system? 13. RBCs do not occur in
(a) Cockroach (b) Fish (a) frog (b) cow
(c) Scorpion (d) Limulus (c) camel (d) cockroach
9. Primary blood cells are formed in 18. Sickle cell anaemia is characterised by
(a) plasma (b) bone marrow (a) leukemia (b) polycythemia
(c) liver (d) spleen (c) mental retardation (d) haemolytic anaemia
Circulation
..140..
20. Which of the following is absent in an RBC (b) A - Eosinophil, B - Lymphocyte, C - Neutrophil,
(a) lysosomes (b) nucleus D - Monocyte
(c) mitochondria (d) All of the above (c) A - Erythrocyte, B - Basophil, C - Neutrophil,
D - Lympnocyte
21. Cells formed in bone marrow include (d) A - Eosinophil, B - Monocyte, C - Neutrophil,
(a) RBC (b) RBC and leucocytes D - Lymphocyte
(c) leucocytes (d) lymphocytes
28. Which one engulfs pathogens rapidly?
22. The granulatory white blood corpuscles are (a) Acidophils (b) Monocytes
(a) basophils, eosinophils and neutrophis (c) Basophils (d) Neutrophils
(b) basophils and monocytes
(c) eosinophis and lymphocytes 29. Immunoglobulins are producted by
(d) lymphocytes and monocytes (a) lymphocytes (b) spleen
(c) leucocytes (d) monocytes
23. Agranulocytes are
(a) eosinophis (b) neutrophils 30. Which of the following corpuscles is the scavenger WBC
(c) basophis (d) monocytes (a) Eosinophis (b) Monocytes
(c) Neutrophils (d) Lymphocytes
24. Granules are not present in
(a) lymphocytes (b) neutrophils 31. Passage of WBCs out of blood capillaries to the site of
(c) basophils (d) eosinophils injury is known as
(a) haemopoesis (b) haemolysis
25. The most abundant granulocytes in human blood are (c) phagocytosis (d) diapedesis
(a) basophis (b) eosinophis
(c) neutrophils (d) monocytes 32. Which of the following represent the correct sequence
of events for defence by leucocytes?
26. Match the types of WBC listed under Column-I with the (a) Inflammation, diapedesis, chemotaxis,
shape of nucleus given under Column-II and select the phagocytosis, digestion
correct option from codes given below (b) Chemotaxis, inflammation, phagocytosis,
Column-I Column-II digestion diapedesis
(A) Neutrophils (i) Kidney-shaped (c) Diapedesis, digestion, inflammation,
(B) Eosinophils (ii) S-shaped phagocytosis, chemotaxis
(C) Basophils (iii) 3 to 5 lobes (d) Inflammation, chemotaxis, diapedesis,
(D) Monocytes (iv) 2 lobes phagocytosis, digestion
(v) Disc-shaped
(a) A - (iii), B - (v), C - (i), D - (ii) 33. The blood cancer is known as
(b) A - (v), B - (iii), C - (i), D - (iv) (a) leukaemia (b) thrombosis
(C) A - (ii), B - (i), C - (v), D - (iii) (c) haemolysis (d) haemophilia
(d) A - (iii), B - (iv), C - (ii), D - (i)
34. In mammals, histamine is secreted by
27. Study the given figure and identify the cells labelled as (a) fibroblasts (b) histocytes
A, B, C and D (c) lymphocytes (d) mast cells
Circulation
..141..
37. The number of platelets in human are ___ per mm3 of 46. Which of the following statements is true for lymph?
blood (a) WBCs and serum
(a) 5 million (b) 10 lakh (b) All components of blood except RBCs Platelets
(c) 2.5 lakhs (d) 2.5 millions and some proteins
(c) RBCs, WBCs and plasma
38. Thrombocytopenic purpura is a haemorrhagic disorder. (d) RBCs, proteins and platelets
This is because of
(a) very high platelet count 47. The difference between blood and lymph is
(b) very low platelet count (a) blood has RBCs and WBCs, while lymph has no
(c) low concentration of fibrinogen cells
(d) absence of vitamin-K (b) blood has RBCs and WBCs, while lymph has only
WBCs
39. Blood clotting is prevented by the presence of (c) blood has WBCs, while lymph has RBCs
(a) Vitamin K (b) Calcium ions (d) blood has dissolve salt, while lymph has no cells
(c) Heparin (d) Thrombin
48. Which of the following is not main function of lymph
40. During the process of blood coagulation vitamin K helps glands ?
in the (a) Forming WBC (b) Forming antibodies
(a) formation of thromboplastin (c) Forming RBC (d) Destroying bacteria
(b) formation of prothrombin
(c) conversion of prothrombin to thrombin 49. Lymphoid tissue is found in
(d) conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin (a) thymus (b) tonsils
(c) lymph nodes (d) all of these
41. Coagulation of blood in blood vessels in living body is
initiated by 50. Spleen is _____ organ is adults
(a) prothrombin (a) haemopoietic (b) lymphoid
(b) thromboplastin (c) reproductive (d) celluloid
(c) prothrombin and calcium together
(d) plasminogen and calcium together 51. Which is correct for artery?
(a) Thick-walled in which blood flows at high
42. Removal of calcium from freshly collected blood would pressure
(a) cause delayed clotting (b) Thin-walled and blood flow with low pressure
(b) prevent clotting (c) Thick-walled and blood flow with low pressure
(c) cause immediate clotting (d) None of the above
(d) prevent destruction of haemoglobin
52. Carotid artery supplies oxygenated blood to
43. Haemophilia is (a) lungs (b) intestine
(a) royal disease (c) brain (d) None of these
(b) faulty blood clotting
(c) Both (a) and (b) 53. Pulse beat is measured from
(d) mosquito having haemocoel (a) arteries (b) veins
(c) capillaries (d) nerves
44. Which of the following acts as middle man of the body?
(a) Plasma (b) Lymph 54. Arteries carry oxygenated blood except-artery
(c) RBCs (d) WBCs (a) pulmonary (b) cardiac
(c) hepatic (d) systemic
45. The lymph serves to
(a) transport oxygen to the brain 55. The thickening of walls of arteries is called
(b) transport carbon dioxide to the lungs (a) arthritis (b) atherosclerosis
(c) return the interstitial fluid to the blood (c) anaeurysm (d) Both (a) and (c)
(d) return the WBCs and RBCs to the lymph nodes
Circulation
..142..
56. A vein possesses a large lumen because 63. Maximum surface area of circulating system is seen in
(a) tunica media and tunica externa form a single coat (a) heart (b) capillaries
(b) tunica interna and tunica media form a single coat (c) arterioles (d) veins
(c) tunica interna, tunica media and tunica externa
are thin 64. Which of the following portal systems are present in
(d) tunica media is a thin coat humans
(a) hepatic portal system
57. Given below are the figures of blood vessels. Identify (b) hypophyseal portal system
them and select the correct option (c) renal portal system
(d) both a and b
Circulation
..143..
72. Pulse pressure of a normal adult is 80. In diagram of the vertical section of human heart given
(a) 80 mm Hg (b) 40 mm Hg here, certain parts have been indicated by alphabets.
(c) 200 mm Hg (d) 120 mm Hg Choose the answer in which these alphabets have been
correctly matched with the parts they indicate.
73. Manifestation of increase in the blood pressure of a
person is called
(a) hypertension (b) artherosclerosis
(c) arteriosc lerosis (d) None of these
Circulation
..144..
98. The volume of blood each ventricle pumps out during a 108. The atrio-ventricular node is situated
cardiac cycle is about (a) near the bicuspid valve
(a) 70 mL (b) 5000 mL (b) in between the atrium
(c) 7L (d) 1200 mL (c) at the base of inter-auricular septum
(d ) in the left ventricle
99. Which part of the circulatory system serves to supply
blood to the heart? 109. Bundle of His is a network of
(a) Coronary (b) Portal (a) Nerve fibres found throughout the heart
(c) Pulmonary (d) Systemic (b) Muscle fibres distributed throughout the heart
walls
100. Cardiac cycle in man takes about (c) Muscle fibres found only in the ventricle wall
(a) 0.5 s (b) 1.0 s (d) Nerve fibres distributed in ventricles
(c) 1.2 s (d ) 0.8 s
110. The correct route through which pulse-making impulse
101. In diastole, heart is filled by travels in the heart is
(a) mixed blood (b) venous blood (a) AV node o Bundle of His o SA node o Purkinje
(c) oxygenated blood (d) deoxygenated blood fibres o Heart muscles
(b) AV node o SA node o Purkinje fibres o Bundle
102. Innervation of heart in the intact higher animals is of His o Heart muscles
primarily meant for (c) SA node o Purkinje fibres o Bundle of His o
(a) initiation of heart beat AVV node o Heart muscles
(b) regulation of heart beat (d) SA node o AV node o Bundle of His o Purkinje
(c) release of acetylcholine only fibres o Heart muscles
(d ) release of adrenaline only
111. Adrenaline directly affects
103. Heart of Heart is (a) islets of Langerhans
(a) SA- node (b) AV-node (b) sinoatrial node
(c) bundle of His (d) Purkinje fibres (c) oxyntic cells of stomach
(d) dorsal root ganglia of spinal cord
104. Pacemaker of heart is
(a) AV node (b) bundle of His 112. Tachycardia is
(c) SA node (d) Purkinje fibres (a) fast heart rate (b) slow heart rate
(c) stop heart rate (d) normal heart rate
105. Since it is the sinu-auricular node, which initiates the
impulses in the heart of mammal, the heart is called 113. Heart rate is increased by all of the following except
(a) cholinergic (b) adrenergic (a) anoxia
(c) neurogenic (d ) myogenic (b) moderate CO2 excess
(c) elevated body temperature
106. SA-node is located in (d ) increased intracranial pressure
(a) lower lateral wall of right atrium
(b) upper lateral wall of right atrium 114. Myocardial infarction is
(c) upper lateral wall of left atrium (a) infection of heart muscles
(d) lower lateral wall of left atrium (b) death of heart muscles
(c) clot in blood vessel
107. Impulse originating from sinu-atrial node are transmitted (d ) breakage of coronary vessel.
to the
(a) atrio-ventricular node 115. A heart murmur indicates a defective
(b) bundle of His (a) Sinuauricular node
(c) pacemaker (b) Atrioventricular node
(d) Purkinje system (c) Bundle of His
(d) Heart valve
Circulation
..146..
116. Match Column - I with Column - II and select the correct 122. ECG depicts the depolarisation and repolarisation
option from the codes given below processes during the cardiac cycle. In the ECG of a
Column-I Column-II normal healthy individual one of the following waves is
(A) Heart failure (i) Heart muscle is not represented.
suddenly damaged (a) Depolarisation of atria
by an inadequate (b) Repolarisation of atria
blood supply (c) Depolarisation of ventricles
(B) Cardiac arrest (ii) Chest pain due to (d) Repolarisation of ventricles
inadequate O2
reaching the heart 123. Which of the following statements is correct ?
muscles (a) The T-wave in an ECG represents excitation of
(C) Heart attack (iii) Atherosclerosis ventricles
(D) Coronary artery (iv) Heart not pumping (b) The sum of P and T waves in a given time period
disease (CAD) blood effectively can determine the heart beat rate of an individual
enough to meet the (c) The end of the P-wave marks the end of the systole
needs of the body (d) In a standard ECG, a person is connected to the
(E) Angina pectoris (v) Heart stops beating machine with three electrical limb leads
(a) A - (iv), B - (v), C - (i), D - (iii), E - (ii)
(b) A - (v), B - (iv), C - (i), D - (iii), E - (ii) 124. If there is a blockage between the AV node and AV bundle,
(c) A - (iv), B - (v), C - (i), D - (ii), E - (iii) how will this affect the appearance of the EGG ?
(d) A - (v), B - (iv), C - (ii), D - (iii), E - (i) (a) P-R interval would be smaller
(b) QRS interval wo uld be longer
117. ECG is a measure of (c) there would be more P waves than QRS complexes
(a) rate of heart beat (d ) there would be more QRS complexes than P waves
(b) difference in electric potential
(c) volume of blood pumped 125. Which of the following is the diagrammatic representation
(d) ventricular contraction of standard electrocardiogram (ECG) ?
Circulation
..147..
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE 1
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (a) 17. (c) 18. (d) 19. (b) 20. (d)
21. (b) 22. (a) 23. (d) 24. (a) 25. (c) 26. (d) 27. (d) 28. (d) 29. (a) 30. (b)
31. (d) 32. (a) 33. (a) 34. (d) 35. (d) 36. (a) 37. (c) 38. (b) 39. (c) 40. (b)
41. (b) 42. (b) 43. (c) 44. (b) 45. (c) 46. (b) 47. (b) 48. (c) 49. (d) 50. (b)
51. (a) 52. (c) 53. (a) 54. (a) 55. (b) 56. (d) 57. (c) 58. (b) 59. (c) 60. (d)
61. (c) 62. (a) 63. (b) 64. (d) 65. (d) 66. (b) 67. (d) 68. (d) 69. (a) 70. (a)
71. (c) 72. (b) 73. (a) 74. (a) 75. (a) 76. (b) 77. (b) 78. (a) 79. (b) 80. (b)
81. (d) 82. (a) 83. (b) 84. (a) 85. (b) 86. (c) 87. (a) 88. (c) 89. (c) 90. (b)
91. (c) 92. (a) 93. (d) 94. (c) 95. (b) 96. (d) 97. (c) 98. (a) 99. (a) 100. (d)
101. (d) 102. (b) 103. (a) 104. (c) 105. (d) 106. (b) 107. (a) 108. (c) 109. (c) 110. (d)
111. (b) 112. (a) 113. (d) 114. (b) 115. (d) 116. (a) 117. (b) 118. (d) 119. (d) 120. (d)
121. (b) 122. (b) 123. (d) 124. (c) 125. (d)
Dream on !!
[\]^[\]^
Circulation