IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO.

4, OCTOBER 2003 Arturo

1 S
1
8

Artificial Neural Networks in Power 1

ArunG.P
,Fellow,
System Restoration
AbstractPower system restoration (PSR) has been a subject that three main principles for power system restoration (PSR)
of study for many years. In recent years, many techniques were A.G.PhadkeiswiththeVirginiaPolytechnicInstituteandStateUniversity, h
proposed to solve the limitations of the predetermined restoration Blacksburg,VA24060USA(e-mail:aphakde@vt.edu).
a
guidelines and procedures used by a majority of system operators to DigitalObjectIdentifier10.1109/TPWRD.2003.817500
v
restore asystem following the occurrence of awide area distur-
bance. This paper discusses limitations encountered in some cur-
e
rentlyusedPSRtechniquesandaproposedimprovementbasedon
artificial neural networks (ANNs). The proposed scheme is tested on b
a 162-bus transmission system and compared with a breadth- e
searchrestorationscheme.TheresultsindicatethattheuseofANN e
inpowersystemrestorationisafeasibleoptionthatshouldbecon- sidered n
for real-time applications.
Index TermsArtificial intelligence, artificial neural networks, p
power system restoration, wide-area disturbances. r
o
I. I NTRODUCTION
p
o
s
they occur, the effects on commerce, industry, and ev- e

POWERsystemblac
d

koutsarerareevents.
1
0
]

However,when .
(a
)
eryday life of the general population can be quite severe. In the
A
aftermath of a blackout, a subject of critical importance is the
ut
rapidity with which electric service is restored [1].
o
In order to reduce the economic and social costs of a blackout,
m
the majority of electric utility companies have pre-es- tablished
at
guidelines and operating procedures to restore the power system.
ed
These guidelines and operating procedures con- tain sequential
re
restoration steps that an operator should follow in order to restore
st
the system. However, the highly stressful conditions encountered
or
in the aftermath of a blackout together with the fact that these
ati
guidelines are based on assumed system conditions which may
on
not be present, diminishes the success rate (defined as that
:
fraction of restoration attempts which does not result in
In
unacceptable loading and voltage profiles, or in breaker
th
operations by the protection systems) of the technique [2]. The
is
main reason for unsuccessful restoration attempts based on this
re
technique [3] is that the prevailing conditions of the power
st
system can differ significantly from the assumed conditions when
or
the restoration plan was developed.
ati
In recent years, there have been a number of approaches [4][9]
on
that propose new restoration techniques as alternatives to these te
commonly used restoration procedures. While these techniques ch
may vary in implementation detail, it can be said ni
qu
ManuscriptreceivedJune17,2002.ThisworkwassupportedinbytheCon- e,
selhoNacionaldePesquisaeDesenvolvimento(CNPq-Brazil). co
A.S.BretasiswiththeFederalUniversityofRioGrandedoSul,PortoAlegre
RS90460,Brazil(e-mail:abretas@eletro.ufrgs.br). m
puter programs are responsible for the PSR plan development
and implementation. The PSR techniques based on this
principle acquire system data from the su- pervisory control
and data acquisition system (SCADA) and the energy
management system (EMS). Under a wide area disturbance, a
PSR program installed in the
EMSsystemwillusetheacquiredsystemdatatodevelop
arestoration plan for the transmission system. After developing
the restoration plan, a switching sequence program, which is
also a part of the EMS, will be re- sponsible for the
transmission of control signals through SCADA to circuit
breakers and switches to implement the plan. In this technique,
the system operator plays the role of a supervisor.
(b) Computer aided restoration: In this technique, the PSR plan
development and implementation is performed
by the system operator. The PSR techniques that use this
principle also acquire system data from the local
SCADA/EMS. Following a wide area disturbance, the
system operator uses power system data provided by the
SCADA/EMS to develop a PSR plan. The system operator
can use the PSR procedures and power system analysis
programs as aids to develop the restoration plan.
0885-8977/03$17.00 2003 IEEE
ThesystemoperatorwillalsousethelocalSCADA/EMS to
transmit control commands to circuit breakers and switches
in order to implement the chosen PSR plan.
(c) Cooperative restoration: In this technique, a computer
program installed at the EMS will propose a PSR plan
aftertheoccurrenceofablackout.Thesystemoperatoris
responsible for the implementation of the PSR plan. The PSR
systems that apply this technique also use power system data
obtained from local SCADA/EMS. When the power system is
undergoing a wide area disturbance, the PSR program installed
in the EMS will use the system data to develop a restoration
plan. With this
restorationplan,thesystemoperatorcansendcontrolling signals
through local SCADA/EMS to circuit breakers and switches to
implement the plan.
Recent publications indicate high interest on the part of power
utilities in the Cooperative Restoration Principle. The most
commonly used techniques proposed in the above-men- tioned
publications are the rule-based expert systems and the
mathematicalprogrammingapproach.Bothof thesetechniques have
produced very good results; however, few implementa- tions of
these techniques exist at this time. One interesting
1182 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2003
 in a state space by automatically changing its weight connec-
tions. Supervised learning algorithms are commonly used in
limitation of these techniques is the time required to find the engineering processes because they can guarantee the desired
restoration plan. The rule-based techniques can take several output.
minutes to find the plan in large transmission systems, mainly In this paper, a multilayered perceptron (MLP) was used
because the number of rules is proportional to the size of the and
system. The mathematical programming approach has similar trained with a supervised learning algorithm called back-prop-
performance characteristics. This technique considers the agation [13]. A MLP consists of several layers of processing
system to be in a state space where a search must be conducted units that compute a nonlinear function of the internal product
in order to find the final configuration of the restored system. oftheweightedinputpatterns.Thesetypesofnetworkscandeal
The system configuration is represented by a vector containing withnonlinearrelationsbetweenthevariables;however,theex-
the breaker status. Several search algorithms can be imple- istence of more than one layer makes the weight adjustment
mentedtofindthisfinalsystemconfiguration.Breadth-firstand process for problem solution difficult.
depth-first algorithms have been implemented and heuristic In the original version, the back-propagation learning
search algorithms have also been tried. After finding a possible algorithm adjusts the weight of the connections one pattern
configuration of the system, a load flow program is necessary at a time. The input patterns are represented by a vector
to check the operating feasibility of the final restoration and are submitted to the ANN
configuration. This process can be very time consuming when through the input layer that simply redistributes them to the
applied to a large transmission system. following hidden layer. Each neuron of the following layer
The required computing time and the capability to find receives the weighted signals (signal multiplied by a weight)
restoration plans under unexpected fault conditions are critical and generates an output signal to the following layer. This
issues in PSR estimation. In this paper, an alternative of using process is repeated until the output layer is reached, where
artificial neural networks (ANNs) in PSR is investigated. the neurons will generate the output of the ANN for the given
The proposed use of ANN in restoration has already been input vector. With the output of the ANN obtained, the weight
asubject of research in small distribution systems [11] and adjustment of the connections will begin in the direction from
small transmission systems [12]. It has proven to be a fast and output layer to input layer.
reliable technique in these systems and, as will be shown here, The weight adjustments are realized in order to minimize
it can also be useful in larger and more complex transmission the
systems. error function for a certain pattern. Equation (1) illustrates the
The paper begins with a brief introduction to ANN. The pro- error function
posed ANN-based scheme is then reviewed and applied to the (1)
PSR problem. The paper ends with a discussion of results and where is the desired output for input pattern and is the
some concluding remarks. actual output pattern.
II. ARTIFICIALNEURALNETWORKS The partial derivate will determine
ANNs are computational techniques that try to obtain a per- the
formancesimilartoahumansperformancewhensolvingprob- weight adjustment characterizing the gradient descendent of
lems. An ANN can be seen as a union of simple processing the algorithm. The partial derivate will measure the weight
units, based on neurons that are linked to each other through contribution to the ANN error function for pattern . If this
connections similar to synapses. These connections contain the derivative is positive, the error is increasing and the weight
knowledgeofthenetworkandthepatternsofconnectivityex- should be reduced in order to decrease the difference
press the objects represented in the network. The knowledge of between the actual and desired output. In case of the partial
the network is acquired through a learning process where the derivative being negative, the weight is contributing to
connectionsbetweenprocessingunitsarevariedthroughweight the
changes. ANN is an efficient alternative for problem solutions generation of an output smaller than the desired one and to
where it is possible to obtain data describing the problem be- reduce this difference the weight should be increased.
havior but a mathematical description of the process is impos- Equation
sible. (2) mathematically defines how the connection weights of the
ANNs have several attractive characteristics. The capacity of network are modified
adaptation to system data and the facility to perform new tasks (2)
are some of the advantages of these techniques. ANNs are par- where is the weight of the connection between neurons
allel structures that usually require small amounts of memory and , and is the learning rate.
andprocessingtime.ANNscanstoreknowledgeinadistributed The calculation of the derivative shown in (2) will generate
fashion and consequently have a high fault tolerance. the generic rule used by the back-propagation algorithm to ad-
Learning algorithms used to train ANNs can be supervised justtheweightconnections.Equation(3)illustratesthisgeneric
orunsupervised.Insupervisedlearningalgorithms,input/output rule of weight adjustment
pairsarefurnishedandtheconnectionweightsareadjustedwith (3)
respect to the error between desired and obtained output. In un- where if neuron is an output layer unit and
supervised learning algorithms, the ANN will map an input set if neuron is a hidden layer unit.
The choice of an appropriate learning parameter will con-
siderably influence the convergence rate of the algorithm. If
BRETAS AND PHADKE: ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS IN POWER SYSTEM RESTORATION 1183

this parameter is too small, several steps to reach an acceptable

convergence level may be necessary. On the other hand, a high
learning rate can lead to oscillations that could
impede conver- gence. A possible solution is to use a
momentum term that would quantify the importance of the
weight variation in the earlier step. Equation (4) illustrates the

weight adjustment rule

with a momentum term
(4)

Themomentumtermcanmaketheback-propagationlearning
algorithmmorestableandacceleratetheconvergenceintheflat
regions of error functions. However, determining the optimum
choice for the momentum parameter faces the same difficul-
ties as those encountered in case of the learning rate parameter. diagram of an IRS. F
The proposed restoration scheme will present a restoration plan i
III. P SCHEME g
ROPOSED to the EMS operator following the occurrence of a wide area
.
The proposed restoration scheme is composed of several is- land disturbance. The power system operator must apply the all-open 1
restoration schemes (IRS). Each IRS is responsible for the switch strategy through the EMS/SCADA or through .
development of an island restoration plan when the power
systemisrecoveringfromawide-areadisturbance.Thenumber of I
IRSs will be defined by offline studies and will depend on s
l
theregionalload-generationbalance.Thedivisionofthesystem into
a
islands is a common action in large transmission systems n
whereparallelrestorationismoreefficientanddesired.Thepar- allel d
restoration technique is commonly used in the restoration r
schemes applied to large transmission systems. This technique is e
also used in the proposed restoration scheme. The all open s
switching strategy where all circuit breakers of the system are t
o
open will be used to create the islands. In order to restore a power
r
system following a wide-area disturbance, each IRS of a
therestorationschemewillgeneratelocalrestorationplanscom- posed t
of switching sequences of local circuit breakers and a forecast i
restoration load. o
Each IRS is composed of two ANNs and a switching se- quence n
program (SSP). The first ANN of each IRS is respon- sible for an s
c
island restoration load forecast. The input of this ANN will be a
h
normalized vector composed of the predistur- bance load. The
e
second ANN of each IRS is responsible for the determination of m
the final island configuration and the associ- ated forecast e
restoration load pick up percentage that will gen- erate a feasible (
operational condition. The input of this ANN will be a I
normalized vector composed of the forecast island R
restorationloadprovidedbythefirstANNoftherespectiveIRS, S
)
andthreeelementsdescribingpossibleunavailabletransmission
.
paths (because of outages) for use in the restoration plan. The
finalelementofeachIRSistheSSP.TheSSPwilldeterminethe
energizing sequence of transmission paths that will lead to the r
final configuration chosen by the second ANN. The SSP input e
vector is composed of the final restoration island configuration g
generated by the second ANN of the IRS and an energizing se- i
quencedatabase.TheenergizingsequencedatabaseofeachIRS is o
composed of transmission path sequences connecting island n
generatorsto islandloads. Fig.1 illustratesthe functional block a
l control centers before the plan is implemented. The restoration
plan provided by the proposed scheme will be com- posed of
energizing sequences and restoration load percentage pick up
values for all islands. As the final step of the total restoration, the
closing of the tie-lines will be the responsibility of the system
operator. The tie-lines should be closed when all the islands are
restored and are in steady state.
A. Study System
The transmission system chosen for the application of the
technique is the IEEE 162-bus 17-generator system [14]. The
operating conditions of a transmission system can vary
significantly during a year and even during a week. Therefore,
more than one operating condition was simulated to train the
IRSs.
Due to the size of the transmission system, it was assumed that
up to ten islands could be formed following the occur-
renceofawideareadisturbance.Eachislandwaspredetermined
baseduponofflinestudiessatisfyingtherequirementofapprox- imate
load generation balance within each island. The all open
switching strategy was assumed to be in place after the occur-
renceof thewideareadisturbance. Therestorationloadconsid- ered
in this study was equal to the island predisturbance load.
B. Restoration Constraints
In order to generate a feasible restoration plan to be used as
atraining pattern by the IRSs, certain operational constraints must
be considered. Thermal limits of transmission lines, sta- bility
limits, number of lines used in the restoration plan, al- lowable
over and under voltages, and recognition of locked-out circuit
breakers are some of the constraints considered.
The thermal rating of normally designed transmission lines
depends mainly on the voltage level at which they operate, the
line lengths, and reactances [15].
Power system stability is a subject of major concern in PSR [16].
The restored system generated by the PSR scheme has to be able
to allow for sufficiently large load and generation variations
without encountering undesirable and uncontrollable behavior
that could lead to instability and a recurrence of the system
blackout.
In order to check the stability of the restored power system,
transient stability studies must be conducted. The stability of
1184 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2003
 amultimachine system is determined by well-known stability
analysis programs [17].
Stability limits are determined by checking the solutions of
the dynamic equations for all conceivable load/generation vari-
ations.However,thismethodologyisextremelytimeconsuming
andclearlyunrealisticforreal-timeuse.Duetothislimitation,in
recent years several alternative techniques have been proposed
[17][19] to define the regions of stability of a multimachine
power system. One such method [20], [21] uses steady-state
generator angle limits to define regions of transient stability.
Thenumberoftransmissionlinesusedintherestorationplan
also needs some consideration. The number of transmission
linesusedinthePSRplanisveryimportant.Transmissionlines
playacriticalroleinthereactivepowerbalanceandovervoltage
control during the restoration implementation. As generators
of reactive power due to their shunt capacitances, transmission
lines can create sustained and transient overvoltages, reactive TABLE I
power imbalance, and consequently, have a potential for FINALSSEOF THEISLANDRESTORATIONLOADFORECASTANNS
damage to transformers, cause excessive harmonic distortions, breadth-search program contains only the final restoration
and in general delay the PSR [22], [23]. In order to maintain con-
anormal voltage profile and avoid the generation of excessive figuration of the islands; no restoration load percentage pick
reactive power, it is advisable to energize the smallest possible up
number of transmission lines in a proper sequence during the value is furnished. Table IV illustrates the results encountered
restoration process. for 50 restoration scenarios.
Circuit breakers have the capability to go through a certain TheresultsshowninTableIVshowsthattheproposedANN-
number of open-close sequences when automatic reclosing is based restoration scheme can provide a more complete
enabled. Once the available number of open-close sequences is restora-
exhausted, the circuit breaker goes into a lock-out state. Per- tion plan in a shorter processing time.
manent nonrecoverable equipment faults may also lead to cir- IV. CONCLUSIONS
cuit breaker lock-outs. A locked out circuit breaker will nor- PSR has become a field of growing interest. Several tech-
mally require manual resetting before it can be made available niquesbasedonartificialintelligencehavebeenproposedtoim-
for normal operation. Clearly, the locked-out circuit breakers prove power system restoration. These techniques propose the
cannot be used for automatic restoration and should be taken use of the computer as an operator aid instead of the use of
into account by the PSR scheme. pre-
C. Tests defined operating procedures for restoration. The stressful
InordertotraintheANNsofeachIRS,thesoftwareStuttgart con-
NeuralNetworkSimulator(SNNS)wasused.Thissoftware[24] ditions following a blackout and the pressure for achieving a
presents a flexible and efficient graphical user interface. restoration plan in minimum time can lead to misjudgments
The classic back-propagation learning algorithm was used to by
train all ANNs of the IRSs. For each ANN, a training and vali- the system operator. This paper proposes the use of ANNs for
dation set was created. Also, for each ANN, several topologies service restoration plan, since it has generalization capability
were tested and had their results compared. Table I illustrates and high processing speed. The large number of possible fault
thefinalsquaredsumerror(SSE)encountered afterthetraining conditions and the need to provide a restoration plan in min-
oftheANNsresponsiblefordeterminingrestorationloadlevels. imum time are arguments in favor of this technique.
TableIIillustratesthefinalSSEencounteredafterthetraining
of the 2nd ANNs of each IRS.
Inordertoverifythegeneralizationcapabilityoftheproposed
scheme,severaltestswereperformed.Differentrestorationsce-
narios were presented to the PSR scheme and had their results
analyzed. Table III presents some of the test results.
The proposed restoration plans generated by the restoration
scheme were tested for operational constraints with the help of
aload flow program [25].
In order to analyze the proposed schemes processing time
performance, a comparison with a breadth-search restoration
program was conducted. The restoration plan provided by the
BRETAS AND PHADKE: ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS IN POWER SYSTEM RESTORATION 1185

TABLE II [5] K. L. Liou, C. C. Liu, and R. Chu, Tie line utilization during power
FINAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 2ND ANNSOF syste
mrest
TABLE III orati
TEST RESULTS OF THE POWER SYSTEM RESTORATION on,
SCHEME IEEE
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192
TABLE IV 199,
CPUP ROCESSING TIME FOR SPECIFIC RESTORATION Feb.
SCENARIOS 1995.
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 geforpowersystemrestorationbymathematicalprogramming Archive http://www.ee.washington.edu/research/pstca/[Online] 1464
method, Trans.Inst.Elect.Eng.Japan ,vol.107- [15] (1998,Jan.)TransmissionEnhancementandExpansion.WestVirginia Univ.
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[14] Univ. Washington Power System Test Case during restoration, IEEE Trans. Power Syst. ,vol. 7, pp.
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an option that should be considered and is worthy of continued
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REFERENCES
Arturo S. Bretas (M98) was born in Bauru, So
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[2] L. Fink and K. Carlsen, Operating under stress and strain, University of So Paulo, Brazil, in 1995 and 1998, and
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1186 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2003

Arun G. Phadke (F80) received the Ph.D. degree

fromtheUniversityofWisconsin,Madison. Currently, he
is a University Distinguished Pro- fessor at the Bradley
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Virginia Tech., Blacksburg, VA. He has
authored/coauthored many technical
papersandtwotextbooks.
Dr. Phadke received the Herman Halperin Elec- tric
Transmission and Distribution Award, the IEEE
PowerEngineeringSocietyOutstandingPowerEngi-
neeringEducatorAward,theCentennialMedalfromtheDepartmentofElectric and
Computer Engineering of the University of Wisconsin-Madison, the Dis-
tinguished Service Award from the College of Engineering of the University of
Wisconsin-Madison, and the Power Engineering Educator Award from the
EdisonElectricalInstitutein2000,1991,1991,1987,and1986,respectively.He
isalsoanindividualmemberofCIGREandamemberoftheNationalAcademy of
Engineering.