Distribution Automation Fundamentals

Introduction

Deregulation and restructuring of electric utility business is forcing the utilities to turn their
attention towards providing better supply reliability and quality to customers at the
distribution level. Many utilities are contemplating providing performance-based rates to
their customers. They would be willing to pay compensation to the customers if the
performance falls below a minimum level. Such actions will allow utilities to brace for the
upcoming competition from other parties interested in supplying power to the customers.
Although higher reliability and quality are the goals of the utilities, they would like to
accomplish this while optimizing the resources. Another goal for a utility should be
improvement in system efficiency by reducing system losses. Distribution Automation (DA)
provides options for real-time computation, communication, and control of distribution
systems, and thus provides opportunities for meeting the above mentioned goals. The concept
of distribution automation first came into existence in 1970s [1] and since then its evolution
has been dictated by the level of sophistication of existing monitoring, control, and
communication technologies, and performance and economic factors associated with the
available equipment. Evolution of Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA)
systems, which have been in use for monitoring the generation and transmission systems, has
also helped progress in the field of distribution automation. Although distribution systems are
a significant part of power systems and progress in computer and communication technology
has made distribution automation possible [2-7], advances in distribution control technology
have lagged considerably behind advances in generation and transmission control. Progress
of distribution automation has been relatively slow due to reluctance of utilities in spending
money on automation since many utilities have found it difficult to justify automation based
purely on cost-benefit numbers. However, distribution automation provides many intangible
benefits, which should be given consideration while deciding to implement distribution
automation. Unbundling of electric services in the future is likely to make distribution
automation more attractive because distribution companies might be operating as independent
entities. Automation allows utilities to implement flexible control of distribution systems,
which can be used to enhance efficiency, reliability, and quality of electric service. Flexible
control also results in more effective utilization and life-extension of the existing distribution
system infrastructure.

In general, those functions that can be automated in distribution systems can be classified into
two categories, namely, monitoring functions and control functions. Monitoring functions are
those needed to record (1) meter readings at different locations in the system, (2) the system
status at different locations in the system, and (3) events of abnormal conditions. The data
monitored at the system level are not only useful for day to day operation but also for system
planning. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems perform some of
these monitoring functions. The control functions are related to switching operations, such as
switching a capacitor, or reconfiguring feeders. In addition, system protection can also be a
part of overall distribution automation schemes. Some customer related functions, such as
remote load control, automated meter reading (AMR), and remote connect/disconnect may
also be considered as distribution automation functions. However, AMR has evolved
significantly itself as a separate area.
The functions mentioned above are performed in a relatively slow time frame (minutes to
hours). These devices are not designed to endure frequent switching. Recently, several new
devices have been developed which allow rapid control. Application of distribution-level
power electronic devices such as the Static Condenser (STATCON) for distribution system
control has already been demonstrated [8]. These devices are continuously controlled and
respond in real-time to system changes. Coordination of a STATCON with Load-Tap-
Changer (LTC) and mechanically-switched capacitors reduces fluctuations in system voltage,
improving the quality of service.

Electric power quality has become an increasingly problematic area in power system
distribution systems. Power quality may be defined as "the measurement, analysis, and
improvement of bus voltage, usually a load bus voltage, to maintain that voltage to be a
sinusoid at rated voltage and frequency [9]". A direct correlation exists between the lack of
electric power quality delivered to the customer and the number of complaints received from
the customer. As a result, EPRI has directed substantial research efforts into the development
of advanced technologies to improve the performance of utility distribution systems. The
technology, called custom power, seeks to integrate modern power electronics-based
controllers such as the solid-state breaker (SSB), the STATCON, and the Dynamic Voltage
Restorer (DVR) with distribution automation and integrated utility communications to deliver
a high grade of electric power quality to the end user [10]. Although extremely useful,
custom power devices have been used in distribution systems only on a limited basis.
Detailed study of these devices and their applications is a separate subject by itself and is
beyond the scope of this book.

Demonstration of the feasibility of distribution automation through various pilot projects

increased the interest of the technical community in this field. Some of the early pilot projects
include the Athens Automation and Control Experiment [11] sponsored by the US
Department of Energy and Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) sponsored projects at
Texas Utilities and Carolina Power & Light [12]. A list based on an IEEE survey of other
projects is available in a report that was prepared by the author [2]. The number of
manufacturers offering distribution automation equipment increased substantially in the
1990s. Until the early part of 1990s reliability of equipment was a major concern. The
equipment available now is more reliable and robust compared to the older generation.
However, there are still several issues, which are an obstacle to wide spread implementation
of distribution automation. These issues include cost of the equipment, absence of hardware
and software standards, and availability of application software. Several organizations have
been active in promoting open systems and in forming standards for hardware and software
relating to distribution automation. Significant amongst these is the work of EPRI in forming
and promoting Utility Communication Architecture (UCA). Standardization will allow the
users of distribution automation systems to mix and match components manufactured by
different manufacturers, and also to port software from one platform to another.

Implementation of distribution automation requires careful thinking and planning. As

discussed in a presentation [13], the utilities can either adopt the "top-down" approach or the
"bottom-up" approach. The top-down approach is the revolutionary approach in which a
large-scale fully-integrated automation system is installed to automate most or all of the
functions performed by various individual devices in the distribution system. The bottom-up
approach is evolutionary in the sense that automation devices to perform only a particular
function are installed or only a small part of the system is automated. Other functions and
other parts of the system are automated gradually.
The top-down approach is expensive and requires major modifications in the utility
operation, and thus, it is suitable for only a few utilities. The bottom-up strategy is more
suitable for a majority of utilities. This approach allows utilities to adjust to changes at a
more measured pace and to install automated systems for the most immediate needs.
However, the most difficult task for a utility contemplating distribution automation is to
identify the functions to be automated [3,14]. The needs of every utility are dependent on
geographic location, operating philosophy, and financial situation. Therefore, a careful
screening of all the possible control functions is imperative before implementing any of them.

Relationship of DA to SCADA and AM/FM

SCADA Systems

The SCADA systems has been in use in the transmission and subtransmission systems for
many years now. Hence, the technology associated with them has become quite mature. The
application of the SCADA systems in distribution systems in very recent. An increased
interest in distribution automation has led to an increase in use of the SCADA systems in
distribution systems. In fact, many functions performed by the SCADA systems, particularly
data acquisition, are an integral part of distribution automation. System data is very essential
for distribution automation because without data control decisions can not be made.
However, the SCADA systems are different from the distribution automation systems, mainly
from the control point of view. In the SCADA systems the control is supervisory, where an
operator looks at the data and makes decision to take control action. In distribution
automation systems, most decision are made by the computer and corresponding control
actions are performed in real-time with very little intervention by the operator.

Except for the control part, the SCADA systems are very similar to distribution automation
systems. Thus it is natural to think that development of distribution automation should be on
a SCADA platform. However, that has not been the case. Distribution automation grew
independent of SCADA, mainly because the communication needs of initial distribution
automation systems were different from the SCADA systems existing at that time. Load
control and remote meter reading have always been parts of distribution automation systems,
therefore, the communication systems needed for distribution automation required that
communication be available between individual customers and the control station. Moreover,
SCADA technology was itself not very mature at that time. Thus, developers of distribution
automation systems used different software platforms and different languages for their
system. This meant that those utilities who were interested in distribution automation had to
learn a new operating environment. The distribution automation system manufacturers have
realized this problem and have formed alliance with the SCADA manufacturers to integrate
the two systems. Moreover, many SCADA manufacturers have entered the distribution
automation market, and therefore, more integration between the two systems is noticeable in
the recent years.

AM/FM Systems

Almost parallel to this development, a development has taken place in the automated
mapping and facilities management (AM/FM) arena. Advent of high powered graphics
computer has accelerated progress in this field. Most of the development in the AM/FM area
has been in the land management area. The pipeline industry has also been making use of this
technology. More recently, the power companies have started using the AM/FM technology.
In an AM/FM system the electrical service maps are superimposed on the geographical maps.
With the help of these maps and the database associated with those maps, the utilities can
manage their distribution facilities more efficiently. Some of the common functions
performed by the AM/FM systems are distribution system design, facility mapping, right of
way/permit tracking, facilities inventory, and system and equipment maintenance [15]. Most
of these functions do not have the real-time feature which is an important ingredient of
distribution automation. However, some functions for which real-time feature is important
can be performed using AM/FM systems. These functions include outage analysis and system
restoration. In the event of an outage, the calls from customers are displayed on the system
maps. Then, from the outage pattern, possible causes of outage are determined. The maps are
then used to direct crew to perform switching operations or switches can be operated
remotely.

The AM/FM systems are generally very data and graphics intensive. In addition to the
distribution system data, they also need geographical mapping data. Some of the system data
is also used for the distribution automation system. Thus, to make efficient use of the system
databases, they can be shared by different systems. To make such data sharing feasible, the
AM/FM system and distribution automation system can be connected via a computer
network. Yet another approach is to fully integrate the AM/FM and distribution automation
systems with a server and several workstations. The main drawback of this approach is that it
will radically change the operation of the company. It will cut across operations, planning,
billing, and facilities management departments. All these departments will require
coordination in operating this system and will have to learn to use the same operating system
for their different tasks.

Integration of DA, SCADA and AM/FM

The integration of the SCADA and the distribution automation systems appears to be
inevitable. However, full integration of the AM/FM and the distribution automation/SCADA
has many uncertainties. The computational power and technology has matured to allow full
integration, but business practices and needs of the utilities may prevent a full integration.
Moreover, AM/FM is a very mature area by itself, and therefore, it is likely to maintain a
separate identity within the utility operations. One can find examples of utilities using
AM/FM systems or distribution automation systems. Those using AM/FM systems have very
little distribution automation. Similarly, those using distribution automation systems have
none or limited mapping facilities. The choice of one or the other system is based on the
importance the utility places on different functions.

Communications Infrastructure
An integrated Distribution Management System would require a communications
infrastructure to communicate with individual customer locations and control points in the
distribution system on one side, and with the Energy Management System on the other side.
Generally, such a communications infrastructure is a hybrid system utilizing different
communication medium for different parts. Some of the earlier distribution automation
systems used telephone for communication between the control center and the substation,
and communication from substation to the customers and control points was based on
power-line carrier or radio. Power-line carrier was an obvious choice because a link to all
 the points of communications was available; it was only a question on installing the right
equipment to accomplish communication. Power-line carrier based communications
suffered from heavy attenuation in certain parts of the distribution system. Thus, gradually
popularity of power-line carrier has decreased over a period of time. However, a technology,
which uses power lines and is based on shifting zero-crossing of the current waveform, is
still being used successfully. Earlier radio systems also had a problem because of limited
range and their inability to send signal across obstacles, such as tall buildings. Development
of packet radio technology and the availability of 900 MHz spectrum to electric utilities has
made radio a very popular communication medium. Currently available radio systems can
communicate with points in a large area very reliably.

Developments in the fiber-optic technology has made it a viable communication medium for
certain applications and its use in distribution systems has been increasing steadily. Cellular
telephone technology is also becoming popular for communication in distribution system.
Satellite as a communications medium has been experimented by some utilities, but currently
it is not used very widely. For other communication issues see an article by Block [16].

1 Distribution Automation Functions

The distribution automation functions can in general be divided into two main categories,
namely customer level functions and system level functions. The customer level functions are
those functions which require installation of some device with communication capability at
the customers premises. These include load control, remote meter reading, time-of-use rates,
and remote connect/disconnect The system level functions are those functions which relate to
system operations. The control and communications devices for these functions are installed
at different locations in the system, such as substations and feeders. These functions include
fault detection and service restoration, feeder reconfiguration, voltage/var control etc. In
addition to system operation type functions, digital protection of substations and feeders is
considered part of distribution automation in some situations.

Many people prefer to subdivide the system level functions into two groups, namely
substation related functions and feeder related functions [1]. In fact, some people consider
domain of distribution automation to include only feeder level functions and substation level
functions are covered by a separate field called substation automation [16]. Although most of
the focus will be on feeder level functions in this chapter, such division of functions has not
been considered. Each function selected may be applicable for both substation as well as
feeders. In some situations, the functions at substation and feeder level may be performed in a
coordinated fashion, for example, the switching of capacitors on the feeders may be
coordinated with the switching of capacitors at the substation. However, details on functions
related only to substation automation are not included in this chapter. A list of functions
considered follows:

1. . Outage location and service restoration

2. . Feeder reconfiguration and transformer balancing
3. . Extension of transformer lifetimes
4. . Recloser/breaker monitoring and control
5. . Capacitor switching for voltage/var control
6. . Voltage control using regulators
7. . Substation transformer load-tap-changer (LTC) control
8. . Distribution system monitoring.
These function can be split into subfunctions as has been done in the EPRI report [7]. For the
sake of simplicity we have decided not to take that approach. Since many functions depend
on each other, we had to compromise with two conflicting objectives to finalize this list for
determination of cost/benefit associated with these functions. If all the functions which
depend on each other are merged into one function then the user has very little choice. On the
other hand, if too much choice is given then programming becomes difficult and also the use
of the program becomes very difficult. Salient features of each of the selected functions are
discussed in the sections below. Under each function heading, the manual procedure for that
function as well as the automated procedure using distribution automation systems is
discussed. The benefits associated with automation of that function are also discussed. The
material presented here is meant to provide a general overview of these functions. Specific
methods for implementing some of these functions are discussed in other chapters.

2 Outage Location and Service Restoration

A distribution system, particularly an overhead type, is susceptible to various type of faults.

In the event of a permanent fault, the protective devices are expected to operate and isolate
the faulted section. However, if the fault is of a high impedance type, the protective devices
may not operate to isolate the faulted section. In such situations, location of faults becomes
more difficult. In both cases, some customers experience a power interruption. Since no
information on status of various devices in the distribution system is available to the
distribution system dispatchers, there is no direct way to find out about the outages. Thus, the
dispatchers depend on telephone calls from customers or a sudden change in power flow at a
metered location upstream in the system to come to know of the outages. Customers calls
only provide an approximate location of the outage. Moreover, in case of a major storm the
outages can be widespread and difficult to locate. Once the approximate location of outages
is known, line crews are dispatched to drive along the lines to look for damage. After the
damaged area is located, it has to be isolated from the rest of the system if the fuse protecting
that line has not operated. This is done by first opening the substation breaker and then
manually operating the switches or removing the fuses. Coordination between the line crews
and dispatchers is maintained via portable radio to perform this task properly. The next step is
to restore power to those parts of the system which are undamaged but have lost power
because of problems elsewhere in the system. The power to these parts may be provided from
alternates routes. The dispatchers determine such possible routes and ask the line crew to
operate the isolators. Most of the isolators cannot be operated under load, therefore, the
substation breaker is opened before operating the isolators. Since the whole process is done
manually, it takes a long time.

Automation of this function requires installation of remotely controlled sectionalizers on the

feeders and installation of sensors on the feeders and/or at customer locations to detect
interruption of service. One popular approach is based on gathering outage information from
customers via telephone or radio communication. Whenever a sustained interruption takes
place, either the affected sensors automatically send the information to the central computer
or the calls received from the customers are logged into a database. Many utilities have
already implemented some level of automation in handling calls related to power
interruptions. Such activity has been called Trouble Call Analysis in the utility literature.

The location of the outage is determined based on escalation of data from the customer level
to the substation level. To aid the operators in the outage location, the calls received from the
customers are also automatically mapped on the system map by some utilities. From these
maps inference can be obtained about possible locations of faults. More advanced techniques
require installation of sensors on the feeders in addition to customer-ends. One such approach
requires recording the time of service interruption [17]. The data are processed using a
statistical technique to determine outage locations. Once the location is known, the faulted
section is isolated from the rest of the system with the help of remote controlled
sectionalizers if the protective devices have not already isolated the faulted part.
Subsequently, the switching needed to restore power to unfaulted parts of the system can be
accomplished remotely. Moreover, since the location of the outage is known, the crew is sent
to the precise location instead of asking to go in a general area. Thus, the whole process of
outage location and service restoration can be accomplished more efficiently by less people
in much less time.

3 Feeder Reconfiguration and Transformer Balancing

The load in a distribution system varies by hour, by day and by season. For every load level,
the system has an optimal configuration of feeders. So far the optimality has been defined in
terms of minimum loses, but restructuring of the utility industry has made service reliability a
more important criterion for system operation. Hence, optimality can be either defined in
terms of maximum reliability or as a weighted combination of reliability and losses.
Moreover, the total transformer losses can be minimized if the substation transformers are
loaded in proportion to their capacity instead of loading some transformers very heavily and
others very lightly. In a manual system, the reconfiguration of system is done on a seasonal
basis, perhaps at the most a few times in a year. Since such reconfiguration may require
several manual switching operations, it is not feasible to do it more frequently.

The reconfiguration of the system for reliability and loss reduction can be accomplished in an
automated mode using the same sectionalizers which are used for fault isolation and service
restoration. Only extra need will be for application software. Since the operation of the
sectionalizers is controlled remotely, system reconfiguration can be done as frequently as the
dispatcher desires. From a practical point of view, however, reconfiguration once in a few
hours would be sufficient. Additional benefit of more frequent reconfiguration will be very
minimal.

4 Transformer Life Extension

The substation transformers normally operate at loads lower than their capacity. However,
during emergencies, such as failure of another transformer, they can be operated at loads
higher than the rated capacity. But overloading can be done only for a limited time without
jeopardizing the life of the transformer. Higher the overloading, lower is the time allowed for
overloading. In a manual process, the dispatcher has to rely on trial-and-error to get proper
level of loading. The dispatcher would close the switch to supply additional load with an
expectation that the total load would be less than a certain value. But if the load after
switching happens to be higher than expected, he would have to open the switch, drop a few
feeders, and then close the switch again. The process would have to be repeated until the load
is at a desired level. The switching on and off of load can stress the transformer significantly
and thus reduce its total life. Using an automated procedure, this task can be performed
without stressing the transformer.

Automation of this function requires equipment for monitoring the transformer including oil
and winding temperature. Equipment for monitoring the health of the transformer based on
dissolved gas analysis are also available. Data and measurements from the feeders connected
to the transformer are needed too. The oil and winding temperatures determine the level of
overloading possible under the given loading conditions. Then the feeders can be selected
such that there is a balance between the desired loading and the loads of the feeders. Thus
overloading of the transformers can be controlled precisely without too many unwanted
switching operations. Hence, stress on the transformers can be avoided and life extension of
transformers can be achieved.

5 Recloser/Breaker Monitoring and Control

In the manual mode, no remote monitoring and control is available on the breakers and
reclosers. The settings of the relay and recloser timings can be changed only by going to the
location of the equipment. In case of pole mounted reclosers, it is extremely time consuming
to change settings. Further, since no monitoring is available, the recloser and breaker contacts
are refurbished at fixed intervals whether it is necessary or not. This maintenance frequency
is usually based on the duty level the recloser or breaker is expected to perform. Generally,
the maintenance interval is estimated conservatively (i.e., refurbishment are made, on the
average, sooner than is necessary). Hence, in many cases the contacts are serviced before it is
necessary.

The advantages of automating this function are many. In an automated scenario, firstly the
relay settings and recloser timings can be set remotely. This will allow for better control of
the system whenever the system configuration changes. Moreover, the labor needed to reset
the relay and recloser timings can be saved because these settings can be done remotely
instead of going to the location. Secondly, monitoring of the energy interrupted by the
recloser and breaker can provide a precise estimate of the health of the contacts. Using this
information refurbishing of the contacts can be scheduled whenever necessary. Hence, too
early or too late servicing of the recloser and breakers contacts can be avoided.

6 Capacitor Switching for Voltage and Reactive Power Control

Capacitors are used in the distribution systems for voltage and reactive power support. The
capacitors are placed at strategic locations to improve overall system operation. These
capacitors can be fixed type or switched type. The switched capacitors switch-on or switch-
off upon receipt of a signal from a controlling device attached to the capacitor. This control
device may be a timer, a temperature sensitive relay, a voltage sensitive relay, a current
sensitive relay, a reactive power sensitive relay, or a combination of the above. The timers
are set based on an assumed load curve. However, on a given day the load may not be the
same as the assumed load curve. Moreover, the timer does not discriminate a working day
from a holiday. The temperature-sensitive device is set based on an assumption that the load
is high when the temperature is high because the air conditioning demand goes up during
hot weather. This type of control does not work very well because there is a lag of few hours
between the outside temperature and air conditioning load because of thermal inertia of the
houses. Other types of controls also have problems, which are discussed in the available
literature [18].

To alleviate some of the problems associated with the above mentioned schemes of
controlling capacitors many companies have introduced microprocessor based controllers. In
some cases, these controllers have facility included for communication with the central
station. These controllers can be programmed to use a combination of several factors to
switch the capacitors. These controllers perform significantly better than the conventional
controllers. However, they do not provide the most optimal capacitor configuration. A major
drawback of these controllers is that they respond to the local conditions existing at the
location of the capacitor. They do not take into account the impacts of switching a capacitor
on other parts of the system.

An optimal capacitor configuration can be obtained by implementing a higher level of

automation where switching of all the capacitors can be coordinated under different load
conditions. In such a scheme, meters are needed at different locations to measure real and
reactive power, voltage and current. The metered data and status of capacitors is sent to the
central computer via communication lines. The computer then determines the optimal
switching configuration of the capacitors for the measured system conditions. Under the
optimal configuration the system losses are kept at a minimum value. Since the system has
real-time measurement capabilities, the switching configuration can be changed as frequently
as desired. From a practical point of view it is not desirable to switch capacitors too
frequently to prevent failure of switches or capacitors and due to power quality concerns.
However, in the future, power electronics based schemes will be available for control of
reactive power, which will eliminate the above mentioned concerned associated with
mechanical switching of capacitors.

7 Regulator Operation for Voltage Control

Voltage regulators are used in distribution systems for finer control of voltage, particularly on
long distribution lines where voltage drops are high. These regulators are set to maintain
voltage within a specified band and when the voltage becomes lower than the low setting, the
tap on the regulator moves to increase the number of turns of the output side. Similarly, when
the voltage goes above the high setting, the tap moves to reduce the number of turns on the
output side. The regulators are set to regulate the voltage at a specified point on the
downstream side. Since actual measurements are not available, line impedance from the
regulator to the regulated point and measured current at the regulator are used to estimate the
voltage at the regulated point. This method has been called line drop compensation in the
literature

It is quite obvious that if distribution automation is implemented, actual voltage at the

regulated point can be metered and can be used in control of regulators. Moreover, operation
of regulators can be coordinated with capacitor switching to reduce losses and to obtain better
voltage profile on the feeders under different load conditions. Better voltage profile on the
feeders will result in lesser low voltage complaints from the customers.

Remote control of regulators also provides an advantage during emergencies. Since load is
directly correlated with voltage, it can be reduced by reducing voltage during emergencies by
overriding the normal operation of the regulator. Such control is not available without
automation.

8 Transformer LTC Control

The substation transformers have LTC control which changes the tap position in response to
load. Since higher load results in higher voltage drop, the tap moves to higher position to
maintain the voltage at proper level on the feeders. Similarly, under low load conditions, the
tap moves to lower setting to compensate for the increase in voltage due to lesser voltage
drop on the line. If the substation has two transformers that are operated in parallel, the LTC
control devices on the two transformers coordinate with each other to maintain the same
output voltage to prevent circulating current in the transformers. Existing control devices
work quite well, therefore, there is little benefit from further automating this function using
remote control. However, since the new control devices are digital, they may need lesser
maintenance and diagnosis of malfunctioning devices will be easier. A major advantage of
remote control of LTC becomes realizable under emergency situations. As mentioned in the
previous section, load can be reduced by reducing the voltage. Hence, using remote control
the tap on the transformer can be moved to a lower setting under emergency conditions to
alleviate load. Thus, visits to substation which will be necessary to manually override the
control and set the tap to a lower value will be avoided.

9 Distribution System Monitoring

The purpose of distribution system monitoring is very similar to SCADA in the traditional
sense. Monitoring is necessary to acquire data for many of the distribution functions. Some of
these functions require real-time data from the system to make control decisions. Real-time
data is also useful in providing information to operators on abnormal system conditions in the
form of alarms. In addition to the real-time data, system data can be gathered and archived for
later use. Such data can then be used for forecasting and planning purposes. As defined in the
EPRI report [7], there are three components of distribution system monitoring, namely, data
monitoring, data logging, and analog data freeze.

The main purpose of data monitoring is to maintain system databases for alarms, user
interface and logging. Thus, under abnormal system conditions alarms can be enunciated to
alert the operator of those conditions. In addition to the alarm, operators are provided with the
relevant data, which can be used by them to take corrective actions.

The main purpose of data logging is to prepare printed reports of the system operating
conditions or events for future use. The data types that can be logged using this function are
various, for example, alarms and their summaries; periodic logs, such as off normal
summary, substation bus voltage log, tagged and out-of-service equipment; on demand logs,
such as present values of the variables, limits, settings, and status; log of operator control
actions; one-line diagrams of substations and feeder real-time configurations; fault reports;
sequence-of-event logs.

Analog data freeze function gives a "snapshot" of the quantities of interest. This function can
be set to start capturing pertinent data based on threshold value of certain variables. Thus, the
system conditions prior to a disturbance can be obtained. This information can be used by the
operators to restore the system to original conditions following a disturbance. The operators
can also freeze the data during normal operating conditions. Such data can be used by the
operators to study the system and for planning purposes.

10 Advanced Distribution Automation

Although we have seen some progress in DA implementation, business uncertainties due to

deregulation and restructuring of the power industry slowed implementation of distribution
automation over the past 15 years. Now, there is renewed interest in distribution automation
due to emergence of new technologies, specifically new measuring devices and sensors, more
powerful and refined communication equipment, highly advanced computing equipment,
advanced power electronics equipment, and new control and protection ideas. Efficiency
improvement was the main driver of distribution automation in its initial stages. Now,
distribution automation has to address enhancements in efficiency as well as reliability and
quality of power distribution. Today the utilities are more concerned about improving
reliability due to implementation of performance based rates and improving power quality
due to their impact on sensitive loads. Hence, new tools to quantify benefits of distribution
automation are needed. These tools should be able to include functionality of new devices
and the benefits provided by them. Specific tools that need attention for implementation of
advanced distribution automation (ADA) include tools for cost/benefit evaluation, system
analysis, and reliability evaluation. The following issues must be considered while
developing these tools.

Features of Automation Devices

The automation devices available now have significantly higher capability than that of the
past. The same device can do multiple tasks. For example, a device that is used to control
equipment in the field can also gather system data and provide protection function.
Additionally, these devices can have local intelligence, which can be used to filter data or to
make local decisions. Since the devices have multiple capabilities, cost/benefit analysis of
automation functions becomes more complex. In the past, separate devices were used for
each function, thus the cost of a specific device was allocated to that functions. The new tools
must consider different automation functions in an integrated manner for cost/benefit
evaluation.

Value of Higher Reliability and Quality to Customers

Different customers need different levels of reliability and quality, and some are willing to
pay for it. ADA can be implemented for higher reliability and quality. Some utilities have
implemented power quality parks to attract customers with sensitive needs to locate in these
parks. However, before these parks are built, utilities need to know their customer base. That
is, how many potential customers are there and how much they are willing to pay for the
premium service. Some form of direct survey of the customer base is needed to obtain this
information. It is easier for the utility to provide premium service to the customers, if all the
customers that need such service are located in a physical congruous area. It is much more
difficult and expensive to provide premium service to a customer served from a feeder where
nobody else needs it.

Probabilistic Nature of Failure Rates

In addition to providing premium service, ADA can help in improving service reliability of
the system. Different parts of distribution systems experience different levels of failures due
to exposure to different elements. For example, feeders exposed to higher number of trees
have more likelihood of failures. Similarly, wind, lightning, and animals can cause failures.
Although higher exposure to these elements increases probability of failures, the actual
failures occur in a very random nature. Mapping the impact of various elements on failures
rates of distribution feeders is a difficult task. However, such mapping will allow
identification of feeders with higher probability of failure. Once these feeders are identified,
they can be targeted for improvements including application of ADA.

Real-time Analysis
ADA requires faster decisions and thus real-time analysis of distribution systems.
Distribution state estimator is an example of analysis tools needed for ADA. The input data
for analysis includes system topology, parameters of different components in the system,
status of switches and breakers, and measured data from various points in the system. Since
more data can be measured the analysis becomes more complex. The tools should be able to
use these data effectively.

Distributed VS Central Computational Intelligence

Since large amounts of data are expected in ADA implementation, computational burden can
become very large. Also, there is a possibility of communication bottlenecks due to
transmission of large quantities of data. Distributed computational intelligence must be
utilized to avoid such bottlenecks. The system can have several such devices located at
strategic locations. Data from specific parts of the system is directed to the selected devices.
These devices process the information to make local decisions. Each device also
communicates important information to other distributed devices as well as the central
computer. The central computer receives data from each distributed device and then
processes the data to make global decisions for the system. An appropriate balance between
local and central computational intelligence is needed for an efficient ADA scheme.

New Sensors

Advances in sensor technology are making new sensors available for deployment in
distribution systems. These sensors can provide information that was not available in the past.
If the cost of sensors is low, large quantities can be placed at critical locations in the system.
The information available from these sensors can be used to implement new applications.
Distribution Sensors Requirements

Asset Management

Asset management is an important aspect of utilitys operation in the present business

environment. ADA can enhance asset management for the utilities. The new sensors can
monitor condition of equipment, which can be used to schedule maintenance. Real-time
analysis based on measured data provides real-time loading of equipment. This information
can be used to manage loading to equipment in an efficient manner and thus enhancing
utilization of the assets.

Advanced Communication and Internet Technology

The communication technology has seen rapid advances in recent years. Better and more
effective communication equipment utilizing fiber optics, satellite, and radio are available. In
addition, the Internet is available for web-based applications. The ADA schemes should
utilize the new communication media and the Internet. The communication media should be
appropriate for the intended application.

References

1. K. Clinard and John Redmon, Editors, Distribution Management Tutorial, IEEE PES
Winter Meeting, Tampa, FL, February 1998.
2. A. Pahwa and J.K. Shultis, Assessment of the Present Status of Distribution Automation,
Report No. 238, Engineering Experiment Station, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS,
March 1992.

3. D. Bassett, K. Clinard, J. Grainger, S. Purucker, and D. Ward, Tutorial Course:

Distribution Automation, IEEE Publication 88EH0280-8-PWR.

4. T.Moore, "Automating the Distribution Network," EPRI Journal, September 1984, pp. 22-
28.

5. T. Moore, J.B. Bunch, Guidelines for Evaluating Distribution Automation, EPRI Report
EL-3728, November 1984.

6. T. Kendrew, "Automated Distribution," EPRI Journal, January/February 1990, pp.46-48.

7. J.B. Bunch, Guidelines for Evaluating Distribution Automation, EPRI Report EL-3728,
November 1984.

8. J.S. Paserba, N.W. Miller, S.T. Naumann, M.G. Lauby, and F.P. Sener, "Coordination of a
Distribution Level Continuously Controlled Compensation Device with Existing Substation
Equipment for Long Term Var Management," Paper No. 93 SM 437-4 PWRD, IEEE PES
Summer Meeting, Vancouver, Canada, July 1993.

9. G.T. Heydt, Electric Power Quality, Stars in a Circle Publications, West Lafayette, IN,
1991.

10. J. Douglas, "Power Quality Solutions,", IEEE Power Engineering Review, v. 14, no. 3,
March 1994.

11. P.A. Gnadt and J.S. Lawer, Editors, Automating Electric Utility Distribution System: The
Athens Automation and Control Experiment, Prentice-Hall Advanced Reference Series,
Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1990.

12. Proceedings: Transmission and Distribution Automation Systems, EPRI Report EL-6762,
March 1990.

13. E.A. Undren and J.R. Benckenstein, "Protective Relaying in Integrated Distribution
Substation Control Systems," Presentation for Panel Session on Integration of Demand-Side
Management and Distribution Automation, IEEE Power Engineering Society Winter
Meeting, Atlanta, Georgia, Feb 90.

14. E.H. Davis, S.T. Grusky, and F.P. Sioshansi, "Automating the Distribution System: An
Intermediary View for Electric Utilities," Public Utilities Fortnightly , Jan 19, 1989, pp. 22-
27.

15. C.D. Leibrandt and R.A. Rhodes, "Integration of SCADA and AM/FM Systems," T&D
Automation EXPO91, March 1991.

16. D. Block, "Utility Automation Technology," Electric Power Industry Outlook and Atlas
1997 to 2001, PennWell Books, Tulsa, OK, 1996.
17. P.D. Rodrigo, A. Pahwa, and J.E. Boyer, "Location of Outages in Distribution Systems
Based on Hypotheses Testing," IEEE Transactions in Power Delivery, January 1996, pp. 546-
551.

18. B.W. Coughlan, D.L. Lubkeman, and J. Sutton, "Improved Control of Capacitor Bank
switching to Minimize Distribution System Losses," The Proceedings of the Twenty-Second
Annual North American Power Symposium , Oct 90, pp. 336-345.

19. J.K. Shultis and A. Pahwa, Economic Models for Cost/Benefit Analysis of Eight
Distribution Automation Functions, Report No. 234, Engineering Experiment Station, Kansas
State University, Manhattan, KS, June 1992.

20. H.L. Willis, Power Distribution Planning Reference Book, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New
York, NY, 1997.