- -,e

*''.
'
>
'..vw-A1
*% %..
%%%x
+ ew .w
'.'
.%'
,..
-w>4#+#v.y
,. .g
,..*.4..
vp
4.
*. #
#'+'
..#wTwr.h
+
,A.
w,.
#.
v#:...w4.e,. . ,+ .*.!.,:*#
..# y.,..,.-.x..
,..,4 .. .
.
.
:'v#
-.. , ,
. . .
1
F4t
#
..
w+Y
*
+
.
'wN*'
. ,
4
<
..1
;..z.x
..
.
#
.
*
.h
,:i.
1'v'kwr
:
.V#' '% *'Y' +' *+* * *'*'4T v v'v 'v v v'* Yi**+'
#
.w
.>: y
.> 1
.-.y-. . ..:.j,,k
. .., . -
;.
.
#
.:i
.
.
L*
-.
.#D* 42
4&
.Vx
#. 2
.
-..*.4-. . 141
. . .. .
..e
w z'
>.
.
.; ..'q4
.
...,
.
..
v*
v%.
.,wv
?.p..
4
. ... .
, .
.
.* . 74
.i
.
-t
..
i
!v'
4 .
'
.
.Y-k;w'
.44-. -.
.
.
.*
-
.
+'+.w6+'
-
::
- .
-i
.
.*'
A$'
.
.. .
:
.
*'' + *' '*'* *=*
4 -.1
.t ...-
!
l#i*
k##
.* * *'
.,
.
*' *...'
-i .4
.'+
.
.. .... . ...... . . .. .... .
4. . ' ;
,
'+' 6+ v ,' ' '1# '+' '+.+= +'' *'+
.tit.; , -,. u .
. . . . .

. . .
. .1Y'
11 .l'z
Y'
i.. *'
1*'*'
.. ! .1'v.
..!
.. .
##
.
;,k)tv'
i. #..v$
.
+it
..
.
''
ll
. C hapter 2 *
j
e
r
.
#
!
*
#
N
m
*
v<
#
v
#
>
*
Y
X
#
+;
.
<
v
*
%
.
G
2
%+
Y4
%
#v
.
$
x
+
;
.

>
;
,#
e
>
w
Y*

A
Y
#
-
*
v
S
,*
A
.
*
Y
h
-
>
v
*=
+
*
v
.
'
f#
*
e
-
*
4
'*
'
o
v
#
r
W%
w
T
e
T
W
.
f
s*
4
s
%

In tro d u ctio n to th e
P o w e r S Y ste nn S ta b ility P ro b le m

T his chapter presents a general introduction to the POW CC system stability

problem including physical concepts, classis cation, and de nition of related ternls.
A nalysis of elem entary POW er system conf gurations by nAeans of idealized m odels
illustrates som e of the fundam ental stability proped ies of pow er system s. ln addition,
a historical review of the em ergence of different form s of stability problem s as pow er
system s evolved and of the developm ents in the associated m ethods of analysis is
presented. The objective is to provide an overview of the pow er system stability
phenom ena and to 1ay a foundation based on relatively sim ple physical reasoning.
This w illhelp prepare for a detailed treatm ent ofthe various aspects of the subject in
subsequent chapters.

2 .1 B A S IC C O N C E PT S A N D D E FIN IT IO N S

P ow er sy stem stabilis m ay be broadly def ned as that prop erty of a p ow er

system that enables it to rem ain in a state of operating equilibrium under norm al
operating conditions and to regain an acceptable state of equilibrium after being
subjected to a disturbance.
Instability in a pow er system m ay be m anifested 1 @11 m any different w ays
depending on the system cons guration and operating m ode. T raditionally, the stability
problem has been One of m aintaining synck onous op eration . Since pow er system s

17
 18 lntro d uctio n to th e P o w er S y stem S tab il.ity P ro b lem C h aP . 2

rely on synchronous m achines for generation of electrical pow er, a necessary

condition for satisfactory system operation is that a11 synchronous m achines rem ain
in synchronism or, colloquially, GEin step .'' T his aspect of stability is inf uenced by the
dynam ics of generator rotor angles and pow er-angle relationship s.
Instability m ay also be encountered w ithout loss of synchronism . F or exam ple,
a sy stem consisting of a synchronous generator feeding an induction m otor load
through a transm ission line Can beconae unstable because of the collapse of load
@

voltage. M aintenance of synchronism I @S nOt an issue ill this instance; lnstead, the
Concern I@S stability and control of voltage. T his form of instability Can also OCCUF 1
*11
loads Coverl@ng an extensive area supplied by a large system .
In the evaluation of stabilit)r the Concern is the behaviour of the PoW er system
w hen subjected fO a transient disturbance. T he disturbance m ay be sm all Or large.
Sm all disturbances in the form of load changes take place continually, and the system
adjusts itself to the changing conditions. The system m ust be able to operate
satisfactorily under these condition s and successfully supply the m axim um am ount of
load. lt m ust also be capable of surviving num erous disturbances of a severe nature,
such as a short-circuit on a transm ission line, loss of a large generator or load, or loss
of a tie betw een tw o subsystem s. T he system response to a disturbance involves m uch
of the equipm ent. F or exam ple, a short-circuit On a critical elem ent follow ed by its
isolation by protective relays Ahrill CaUSC variations 1*11 POW Cr tran sfers, m achine rotor
*

speeds, and bus voltages; the voltage variations A,;11l actuate both genertor and
@

transm ission system voltag regulators; the speed variations Alrill actuate Prlm e m over
governors; the change in tie line loadings m ay actuate generation controls; the changes
in voltage and frequency w ill affect loads on the system in varying degrees depending
on their individual characteristics. In addition, devices used to protect individual
equipm ent m ay respond to variations 1 @11 system variables and thus affect the system
perform ance. 111 any given situation, how ever, the CCSPOnSCS of only a lim ited am ount
@

of equipm ent m ay be signis cant. T herefore, m any assum ptlon s are usually naade to
sim plify the problem and to focus on factors ini uencing the specif c type of stability
*

problem . T he understanding of stability problem s IS greatly facilitated by the

classi cation of stability into various categories.
T he follow ing sections w ill explore different form s of pow er system instability
and associated concepts by considering, w here appropriate, sim ple pow er system
conf gurations. A nalysis of such system s using idealized m odels w ill help identify X

fundam ental properties of each form of stability problem .

2 .1 .1 R oto r A n g le S ta b ility

R otor ang le stability is the ability of interconnected synchronous naachines of .

a P oW er system to rem ain in synchronism . T he stability problem involves the study
of the electrom echanical oscillations inherent 1
*11PoW er system s. A fundam ental factor
* @

111 this problem IS the m anner 1 @11 w hich the p ow er outputs of synchronous nAachines
V ary as their rotors oscillate. A brief . discussion of synchTonous m achine
*

characteristics IS helpful aS a first step in developing the related basic concepts.

 S ec . 2 .1 B asic C o ncepts and D efin itio ns 19

Syn ch ron ous m ach in e ch aracteristics

T he characteristics and m odelling of synchronous rnachines w ill be covered 1 @11

considerable detail 1 @11 C hapters =
7n 4, and 5. llere discussion I @S lim ited to the basic
characteristics associated w ith synchronous operation .
A synchronous m achine has tw o essential elem ents: the f eld and the arm ature.
N orm ally, the f eld is on the rotor and the arm ature is on the stator. T he f eld w inding
is excited by direct current.W hen the rotor is driven by a prim e m over (turbine),the
rotating m agnetic f eld of the s eld w inding induces alternating voltages in the three-
phase arm ature w indings of the stator. T he frequency of the induced alternating
voltages and of the resulting currents that ; ow in the stator w indings w hen a load is
connected depends on the speed of the rotor. T he frequency of the stator electrical
quantities is thus synchronized w ith the rotor m echanical speed: hence the designation
(dsynchronous m achine.''
W hen tw o or m ore synchronous m achines are interconnected, the stator
voltages and currents of a11 the m achines m ust have the sam e frequency and the rotor
m echanical speed of each is synchronized to this frequency . T herefore, the rotors of
a11 interconnected synck onous m achines m ust be in synchronism .
The physical arrangem ent (spatialdistribution) ofthe stator arm ature w indings
is such that the tim e-varying alternatiqg currents i ow ing in the three-phase w indings
produce a rotating m agnetic f eld that,under steady-state operation, rotates at the sam e
speed as the rotor (see Chapter 3,Section 3.1.3).The stator and rotor selds reactw ith
each other and an electrom agnetic torque results from the tendency of the tw o S elds
to align them selves. In a generator, this electrom agnetic torque opposes rotation of the
rotor, so that m echanical torque m ust be applied by the prim e m over to sustain
rotation.The electrical torque (or pow er) output of the generator is changed pnly by
changing the m echanical torque input by the prim e m over. T he effect of inzreasing
the m echanical torque input is to advance the rotor to a new position relative to the
revolving m agnetic S eld of the stator. C onversely, a reduction of m echanical torque
or pow er input w ill retard the rotor position . U nder steady-state operating conditions,
the rotor eld and the revolving S eld of the stator have the sam e speed H ow ever,
.

there is an angular separation betw een them depending on the electrical torque (or
pow er) output of the generator.
ln a synchronous m otor, the roles of electrical and m echanical torques are
*

reversed com pared to those 11l a generator. T he electrom agnetic torque sustains
rotation w hile m echanical load OPPOSCS rotation . T he effect of increasing the
@

m echanical load I
*S to retard the rotor posltion w ith respect to the revolving f eld of
the stator.
ln the above discussion, the ternls torque and # OW er have been used
interchangeably . T his is com m on practice in the pow er system stabilit)? literature,
since the average rotational velocity of the m achines is constant Cven though there
m ay be sm all nAonlentary excursions above and below synchronous speed T he Per .

unit values of torque and POW er are, 1

*11 factj Very nearly equal.
 20 Intro d uctio n to th e P o w e r S y ste m S tab ility P ro b lem C h aP . 2

P ower lvrsllf angle relationsh

A n im pod ant characteristic that has a bearing On P oW er system stability is the

relationship betw een interchange POW er and angular positions of the rotors of
*

synchronous m achines. T his relationship IS highly nonlinear. T o illustrate this 1et US

@

consider the sim ple system show n 111 Figure 2.1(a). It consists of tw o synchronous
naachines connected by a transm ission line having an inductive reactance X z but
negligible resistance and capacitance. L et US aSSUDAC that m achine 1 represents a
gen erator feeding PoW er to a synchronous nAotor represented by m achine 2 .
*

T he POW er transferred from the generator to the m otor ls a function of angular

separation () betw een the rotors of the tw o m achines. T his angular sep aration is due
to three com ponents: generator internal angle c (angle by w hich the generator rotor
leads the revolving f eld of the statorl; angular difference betw een the term inal
voltages of the generator and m otor (angle by w hich the stator feld of the generator
leads that of the m otorl;and the internal angle of the m otor (angle by w hich the rotor
lags the revolving stator feld). Figure 2.1(b) show s a m odel of the system that Can
be used to determ ine the POW Cr Versus angle relationship . A sim ple m odel com prising
an internal voltage behind an effective reactance is used to represent each synchronous
m achine. T he value of the m achine reactance used depends on the purpose of the
study . F or analysis of steady-state perform ance, it is appropriate to use the
synchronous reactance w ith the internal voltage equal to the excitation voltage. T he
@ @ '

basis for such a m odel and the approxlm atlons associated w ith it are presented 1 *11
C hapter 3.
A phasor diagranA identifying the relationships betw een generator and nAotor
voltages I @11Figure 2.1(c).The PoW er transferred from the generator to the
*S show n 1
nzotor I
*S given by

#
X EMsin (2 1)
.

Xv

w here

Xv X G +X L +X M

T he corresponding PoW er Versus angle relationship I @S plotted in F igure 2.1(d). W ith

the som ew hat idealized m odels used for representing the synchronous m achines, the
P oW er vari es aS a sine of the angl e: a highly nonlinear relationshi p . s?itll nlore
accu rate m achine m odels including the effects of autom atic voltage regulators, the
variation 1 *11 PoW er w ith angle w ould deviate signif cantly from the sinusoidal
@

relationship ; how ever, the general form w ould be sim ilar. W hen the angle IS Z e ro , n O
*

P OW er IS transferred. A s the angle I *S increased, the p ow er transfer increases UP to a

*

m a x lm u m . A fter a certain angle, nom inally 90O5 a further l 'ncrease 1@11 angle results 1 *T1
a decrease 1 @11PoW er transferred. T here is thus a m axim um steady-state P oW er that can
@

be transm itted betw een the tAArtl m achines. T he m agnitude of the m axlm um POW CC I @S
S ec . 2 .1 B asic C o ncepts an d D efin itio n s 21

M achine 1 M achine 2
L ine
G M (a) Single-line diagranA

XG Xo XM

fs E T1 I ED E
M (b) Idealized m odel

Eo

IX o

E v1

s IX (c) Phasor diagranl

En L
s

I
v
IX u 6 = G + 6L + 6M

Eu

(d) Pow er-angle Curve

Figure 2.1 Pow er transfer characteristic of

a tw o-m achine sy stem
 22 Intro d u ctio n to th e P o w er S y stem S tab ility P ro b le m C h ap . 2

directly proportional to the m achine internal voltages and inversely proportional to the
reactance betw een the voltages, w hich includes reactance of the transm ission line
coM ecting the rnachines and the reactances of the m achines.
W hen there are nAore than tsA?tl m achines, their relative angular displacem ents
affect the interchange of POW ef 1 @11 a sim ilar m aM er. H ow ever, lilllitirlj values of
p ow er transfers and angular separation are a com plex function of generation and load
distribution . M angular separation of 90O betw een any tw o m achines (the nom inal
lilzxitilljvalue for a tw o-m achine system ) in itself has nO particular signiscance.

T h e stability p h en om en a

Stability I*S a condition of equilibrium betw een opposing forces. T he

m echanism by w hich interconnected synchronous m achines m aintain synchronism
w ith One another I *S tk ough restoring forces, w hich act w henever there are forces
tending to accelerate or decelerate one or m ore m achines w ith respect to other
m achines. U nder steady-state conditions, there is equilibrium betw een the input
m echanical torque and the output electrical torque of each m achine, and the speed
rem ains constant. If the system is pel urbed this equilibrium is upset, resulting in
acceleration or deceleration of the rotors of the m achines according to the law s of
m otion of a rotating body . If one generator tem porarily runs faster than another, the
angular position of its rotor relative to that of the slow er m achine Ahrill advance. T he
resulting angular difference transfers pa= of the load from the slow m achine to the
@

fast m achlne, depending On the pow er-angle relationship . T his tends to reduce the
speed difference and hence the angular separation . T he pow er-angle relationship, as
discussed above, is highly nonlinear. B eyond a certain lim it, an increase in angular
@

separation IS accom panied by -' a decrease in pow er transfer; this increases the angular
separation further and leads to instability . F or any given situation, the stability of the
sy stem depends On w hether Or not the deviations 1 @1l angular positions of the rotors
*

result 111 sufs cient restoring torques.

svhen a synhronous m achine loses synchronism or falls out of step'' w ith the
rest of the system , its rotor runs at a higher Or loqver speed than that required to
gen erate voltages at system frequency. T he iiSjI *P 55 betw een rotating stato r f eld
@

(corresponding to system frequency) and the rotor feld results large i uctuations
111

in the m achine P OW er output, current, and voltage; this Causes the protection system
to isolate the unstable m achine from the system .
L oss of synck onism Can OCCUF betw een One m achine and the rest of the
sy stem Or betw een grOuPS of m achines. 111 the latter CaSC synchronism m ay be
m aintained Alritlzill each group after its separation from the others.
T he synck onous operation of interconnected synchronous m achines is in som e
W ay s analogous to several Cars speeding around a circular track w hile joined to each
other by elastic links Or rubber bands. T he cars represent the synchronous m achine
rotors and the rubber bands are analogous to transm ission lines. % en a11 the C a r s ru n
@ *

side by side, the rubber bands rem aln lntact.lf force applied to one of the cars Causes
it to speed UP tem porarily, the rubber bands coM ecting it to the other Cars AArill
S ec . 2 .1 B asic C o n ce pts and D efin itio n s 23

stretch ; this tends to slow dow n the faster Car and speed UP the other Cars. A chain
reaction results lzlltil al1 the Cars run at the Sanle sp eed OnCC agal
@n . If the pull On One
of the rubber bands exceeds its strength, it Alrill break and One Or m OrC Cars sArill pull
aW ay from the other Cars.
slJitll electric POW er system s, the change in electrical torque of a synchronous
m achine follow ing perturbation Can be resolved illttl tAA?tl com p onents:

16 T L6+FpAY (2.2)

w here

* @

Tsh & IS the com ponent of torque change 111 phase Ahritll the rotor angle
@S referred to aS the synchronizing torque com ponent; Ts
perturbation A and I
*

IS the synck onizing torque coeff cient.

@

@11 phase w ith the speed deviation A and

Fo A IS the com ponent of torque 1
@ *

ISreferred to aS the dam p ing torque com p onent; TD IS the dam ping torque
coef cient.

System stability depnds on the existence of both com ponents of torque for each of
the synchronous m achines. L ack of suff cient synchronizing torque results 1
@11
instability through an aperiodic dri ft ill rotor angle. O n the other hand, lack of
*

suff cient dam ping torque results 111 oscillatqry instability .

F or convenience 1@11 analysis and for gaining useful insight illttl the nature of
stability problem s, it is usual to characterize the rotor angle stability phenonaena 1
@11
ternls of the follow ing tw o categories:

(a) Sm all-signal (or sm all-disturbance) stability is the ability ofthe pow er system
to m aintain synchronism under sm all disturbances. Such distgrbances occur
continually on the system because of sm all variations in loads and generation .
T he disturbances are considered sufs ciently sm all for linearization of system
equations to be pernlissible for PUCPOSCS of analysis. lnstability that m ay result
can be of tw o form s:(i)steady increase in rotor angle due to lack of suff cient
*

synck onizing torque, or (ii) rotor oscillations of lncreasing am plitude due to

lack of suff tient dam ping torque. T he nature of system response to sm all
disturbances depends on num ber of factors including the initial operating, the
transm ission system strength, and the type of generator excitation controls
used. F or a generator connected radially to a large PoW er system , 1
@11 the
absence of autom atic voltage regulators (i.e.,w ith constant seld voltage) the
instability is due to lack of suff cient synchronizing torque. T his results in
instability through a non-oscillatory m ode, aS show n 1 @11 Figure 2.2(a). sTitlz
* @

continuously acting voltage regulators, the sm all-disturbance stablllty problem

#

IS One of ensuring suff cient dam ping O f'system oscillations. Instability I *S

norm ally through oscillations of increasing am plitude. Figure 2.2(b) illustrates
24 Intro d u ctio n to the P o w er S y ste m S ta b ility P ro b le m C haP ,

A
0

S =lS
A
@
t
a
P
b
o
l
s
e
it
v
eF
T
D
sAF
*
DAF
l
I
'
A
F
eA
=
.

N on-oscillatory A
Instability g -ej
T --.-.-- -
A 'D
T
@ N egative Ts I
@ P ositive FD l
l a
l > -

h Ts
0 = t

(a) ss?itllconstant feld voltage

A
A
0

Sr'
fS
@
*
t
a
P
b
o
l
s
e
it
v
eF
T
D
sAF
Y
DAF
I
'
l
A
F
eA
=

O scillatory A ar a
Instabilip I
l
1
@ P ositive Ts I
I
I
I
* N egative Tn I

A FD ----------- 'h T
e

0 = t

(b) shritllexcitation control

F igu re 2.2 N ature of sm all-disturbance reSPonse

S ec . 2 .1 B asic C o ncepts and D efin itio ns 25

the nature of generator reSPOn Se Apritll autom atic voltage regulators.

ln today's practicalgower system s,sm all-signal stability is largely a problem

of insufs cient dam plng of oscillations. T he stability of the follow lng types of
oscillations is of concern :

@ f ocal m odes or m achine-system m odes are associated w ith the sw inging of

units at a generating station w ith respect to the rest of the pow er system .
T he term local is used because the oscillations are localized at one station
Or a sm all pa= of the PoW er system .

@ Interarea m odes are associated w ith the sw inging of DAany nlachines in one
part of the system against nxachines in other parts. T hey are caused by tw o
Or m ore group s of closely coupled m achines being intercoM ected by w eak
ties.

@ C ontrol m odes are associated Alritll generating units and other controls.
P oorly tuned exciters, speed gov ernors, H V D C converters and static Var
com p en sators arC the usual causes of instability of these m odes.

@ Torsional m odes arC associated snritll the turbine-generator shaft system

rotational com ponents. Instability of torsional m odes m ay be caused by
interaction w ith excitation controls, speed governors, H V D C controls, and
series-capacitor-com pensated lines*

(b) Transient stabilip is the ability of the PoW er system to m aintain synck onism
w hen subjected to a severe transientdisturbance.The resulting system response
involves large excursions of generator rotor angles and is ini uenced by the
nonlinear pow er-angle relationship . Stability depends on both the initial
operating state of the system and the severity of the disturbance. U sually, the
* @

sy stem IS altered SO that the post-disturbance steady-state operation dlffers

from that prior to the disturbance.

D isturbances of w idely varying degrees of severity and probability of

OCCUCCCnCC Can OCCUC On the system . T he system 1 *S, how ever, designed and
@

operated SO RS to be stable for a selected set of contingencles. T he

contingencies usually considered are short-circuits of different types: P hase-to-
ground, phase-to-phase-to-ground, Or three-phase. T hey are usually assum ed
to O,CCur on transm ission lines, but occasionally bus 0r transform er faults are
also considered. T he fault I *S assum ed to be cleared by the opening of
appropriate breakers to isolate the faulted elem ent. I11 Sonle CaSCS, high-speed
reclosure m ay be assunzed.

F igure 2 .3 illustrates the behaviour of a synchronous m achine for stable and

unstable situations. It show s the rotor angle FCSPOnSCS for a stable Case and for
tw O unstable CaSeS. In the stable Case (Case 1),the rotor angle increases ttla
 26 Intro d u ctio n to th e P o w e r S y stem S ta b ility P ro b lem C hap . 2

C ase 2
. '
Z
Z

Z
e * z
Z
.

a C ase 3 zZ
' - z
Q / N z
, : & l
J &! tl
' l t
l & I
Y l l I
l ! l

l
l Il I
I
C ase 1
l l l
l l l
l I
I l l
l / l l
& I t l
l / l l
t l l l
A z l l
N z ;

- z

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2 .5 3 .0

T im e 1
*11 seconds

F igu re 2.3 Itotor angle reSPOnSe to a transient disturbance

m axim um , then decreases and oscillates Alritll dereasing am plitude lllltil it

reaches a steady state.ln C ase 2, the rotor angle continues to increase steadily
@Slost.This form
lllltilsynchronism I of instability I
*Sreferred to asflrstmswing
instability and I@S caused by insufs cient synchronizing torque. In C ase 3: the
@

sy ytem ls stable in the s rst sw ing but becom es unstable aS a result of grow ing
oscillations aS the end state is approached. This form of instubility generally
OCCUCS w hen the postfault steady-state condition itself is ttsm all-signal''
unstqble, and not necssarily RS a result of the transient disturbance.

111 large PoW er system s, transient instability m ay not alW ays OCCUC aS f rst-
instability; it could be the result of the SuPerPOsition of several m odes
of oscillation causing large excursions of rotor angle beyond the f rst Sm @ng.

111 transient stability studies the study period of interest I

@S usually lim ited ttl
3 to 5 seconds follow ing the disturbance, although it m ay extend to about ten
sconds for Very large system s Alritll dom inant interarea m odes of oscillation.

T he ternl dynam ic stability has also been w idely used 1 @11 the literature aS a
class of rotor angle stability. H ow ever, it has been used to denote different aspects of
the phenoraenon by different authors. In N orth A m erican literature, it has been used
m ostly to denote sm all-signal stability in the presence of autom atic control devices
(prim arily generator voltage regulators) as distinct from the classical steady-state
stability w ithout autom atic controls (1,21.In the French and G erm an literature, ithas
been used to denote w hat w e have term ed here transient stability . Since m uch
confusion has resulted from use of the term dynam ic stability , both C IG R E and IE E E
 S ec . 2 .1 B asic C o ncepts an d ,D efin itio ns 27

have recom m ended that it not be used (3,41.

2 .1 .2 V o lta g e S tab ility an d V o ltag e C o llap se

Voltage stability is the ability of a pow er system to m aintain steady acceptable

voltages at al1 buses in the system under norm al operating conditions and after being
subjected to a disturbance. A system enters a state of voltage instability w hen a
disturbance, increase in load dem and, or change in system condition causes a
progressive and uncontrollable drop in voltage. T he m ain factor causing instability I @S
@

tlltl inability of the PoW er system to m eet the dem and for reactlve POW er. T he heal
of the PrOblenl is usually the voltage drop that occurs w hen active p ow er and reactive
P OW CC S ow through induct ive reactances associated Ahr
itll the transm ission netw ork
(5-7J.
A criterion for voltage stability is that, at a given operating condition for every
bus in the system , the bu s voltage m agnitude increases as the reactive pow er injection
at the sam e bus is increased. A system is voltage unstable if, for at least one bus in
the system , the bus voltage m agnitude (l) decreases aS the reactive PoW er injection
@ *

((?) at the San;e bus IS lncreased. In other w ords, a system I*S voltage stable if V-Q
sensitivity is positive forevery bus and voltage unstable if V-Q sensitivity is negative
for at least One bus.
Progressive drop in bus voltages can also be associated w ith rotor angles going
out of step . F or exam ple, the gradual loss of synck onism of m achines as rotor angles
@

betw een tw o grOuPS of m achlnes approach Or exceed 1800 w ould result 1 @11 Very l()A4,
@

voltages at internzediate points 11lthe netw ork (see C hapter 13, Section 13.5.3). ln
con trast, the type of sustained fall of voltage that is related to voltage instability
* ,

OCCUCS w here rotor angle stability IS n Ot an 1@SSu e .

@

V oltage instability IS essentially a local phenom enon; how ever, its

consequences m ay have a w idespread im pact. Voltage collap se is m ore com plex than
sim ple voltage instability and is usually the result of a sequence of events
accom panying voltage instability leading to a low -voltage pro le in a signif cant part
of the pow er system .
*

V oltage instability m ay occur 111 several different W ays. 111 its sim ple form it
Can be illustrated by considering the tsA?tl term inal netw ork of Figure 2.4 (51. lt
consists of a constant voltage Source (05s) supplying a load (Zzo) through a series
@

inapedance (Zzx).This ls representative of a sim ple radial feed to load or a load area
served by a large sy stem through a transm ission line.
T he expression for current I in F igure 2 .4 I
*S

E
I (2.3)
Z LN + Z LD

w here I and Es are phasors,and

ZLN zoxzo, ZLD .= Zzoz

28 lntrod uctio n to the Po w er S y stem S tab ility P ro b lem C haP . 2

Z zx Z 0 FR

I J'x+jQp
E ZzozY

F igu re 2.4 A sim ple radial system for illustration

of voltage stability phenonaenon

T he m agnitude of the current I

*S given by

Es
I
(Q xcos0+zoscoslz+tzsxsino+zzosinlz

This m a# be expressed RS

I 1 ES (2
OJ .

4)
zw

w here

Z zp 2 Z
F 1+ +g zo cos(: -4)
XN XN

T he m agnitude of the receiving end voltage I

*S given by

Fa Z LD I

1 Z (2.5)
Lo
JF zoxEs

T he POW er supplied to the load I

@.
S

PR qkfcoss
Z LD ES 2 (2.6)
cos
F Z zx
 S ec . 2 .1 B asic C o ncepts and D efin itio n s 29

P lots of f, F Rn and # R arC show n 1

@11 F igure 2.5 aS a function of zzx /zzo , for the Case
w ith tano =10.0 and cosp =0.95.T o m ake the results applicable to any value of Zzx,the
values of f, VS, and # R are appropriately norm alized.
A s the load dem and I @S increased by decreasing Zzo , P R increases rapidly at
first and then slow ly before reaching a m axim um , after w hi ch it decreases. T here is
thus a m axi m um val ue of active pow er that can be transm itted through an im pedance
from a constant voltage Source.

1.0 I
I
l
I IIISC
l
0 .8 I I I
l I i

I l
I l 17R //7RMAX
I
I I I
I c I
l o
M l
Q I I I
I I -> I
0.5 o j I d j
-> l 1 >
O l
d I
n
o j o
xjI FR LE s m j
I
-X . I
I > I -x j
l I I
d l - I Q I
O I l I w I
-I .
ao I
j jI
j
Zo I
1 -
1r '
l m
< I
I I I
I I l
ZLN/;rLD
0 1 2 3

F igure 2.5 R eceiving end voltage, current and PoW er aS a function

of load dem and for the system of F igure 2.4
(1SC=F,/zox; cos =0.95 lag ; tano =10.0)

T he POW er transm itted is m axim um w hen the voltage drop in the line is equal
@

111 m agnitude to FRn that I @S w hen Zzx /Z zo = 1. A s Zzo is decreased gradually, f

increases and VR decreases. Initially, at high values of Z the increase in 1 dom inates
over the decrease 1 @11 V#,and hence P R lncreases rapidlyLD n
@

w ith decrease in Zzo . A s Z zo

approaches Z L# , the effect of the decrease in I is only slijlltl)r greater than that of the
decrease 1*I1 V R. W hen Zzo I@S less than Zzx, the decrease 1 *11 VR dom inates Over the
increase in f, and the net effect I@S a decrease ill JRR.
T he critical operating condition corresponding to m axim um POW CC represents
the lim it of satisfactory operation . F or higher load dem and, control of POW CC by
varying load w ould be unstable; that is, a decrease in load im pedance reduces POW er.
W hether voltage Arpill progressively decrease and the system AArill beconae unstable
depends On the load characteristics. sTitll a constant-im pedance static load
characteristic, the system stabilizes at pow er and voltage levels low er than the desired
values. O n the other hand, w ith a constant-P OW er load characteristic, the system
30 Intro d u ctio n to th e P o w e r S y stem S tab ility P ro b lem C h ap . 2

becom es unstable through collap se of the load bus voltage. W ith other characteristics,
the voltage is determ ined by the com posite characteristic of the transm ission line and
load. If the load is supplied by transform ers w ith autom atic underload tap-changing
(U LTC),the tap-changer acti on Alr
i ll try to raise the load voltage. T his has the effect
@ *

of reducing the effective ZLD aS Seen from the system . T hls 1C1 turn loNvers VR still
further and leads to a progressive reduction of voltage.T his is a sim ple and Pure form
of voltage instability .
From the view point of voltage stability, the relationship betw een P R and VR is
of interest. T his I
@S show n 1@11 F igure 2.6 for the system under consideration w hen the
load PoW er factor I @S equal to 0.95 lag.
F rom E quations 2 .5 and 2 .6,w e see that the load-pow er factor has a signi cant
effect on the pow er-voltage characteristics of the system . T his is to be expected since
*

the voltage drop 111 the transm ission line is a function of active aS w ell aS reactive
P oW er transfer. V oltage stability, in fact, depends On the relationships betw een # ,
and F . T he traditional form s displaying these relationships are show n in F igures 2 .7
and 2 .8.
F igure 2.7 show s, for the POW er system of F igure 2 .4, CUrVCS of the VR-P P
relationship for different values of load PoW er factor. T he locus of critical operating
points is show n by the dotted line in the l gure. N orm ally, only the operating points
above the ctitical points represent satisfactory operating conditions. A sudden
*

reduction 111 pow er factor (increase in QR) can thus cause the system to change from
a stable operating condition to an unsatisfactory, and possibly unstable, operating
condition represented by the loqver pa= of a V-P Curve.

V E
/ s

1.0

0.8

U C ritical voltage
s U XWXWWOOOWWWOOOOWOXWWWWXWWWWOOX'

0.4

0.2

0.0 ,----w PR /#w xx

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

F igure 2.6 P ow er-voltage characteristics of

the system of F igure 2 .4
(cos =0.95 1ag ; tano = 10.0)
 2 .1 B asic C o n ce pts and D efin itio n s 31

V E
/ s 0.9 lag 0.95 1ag 1.0 0.95 lead 0.9 lead power factor

1.0

0.8 .-- e
---- L ocus of critical points
0.6 . # *
.
'
- -
-

0.4
N ote: Pv xx is the m axim um pow er
0.2 transfer at unity pow er factor

0.0 PR f'w xx
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

F igu re 2.7 VR-P R characteristics of the system of

F igure 2.4 w ith different load-pow er factors

IRIPRMdx

1.00 N ote: Pu xx is the m axim um pow er

transfer at unity pow er factor
1.0
0.75 .
'

0.9
0.50
L ocus of critical points

0.25 0.75

0.00 #l 06 .

zl PR
-
0.25 =
0.5
, 'w xx

-
0.50 1 I # ! : : . . .. r V /Es
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

Figure 2.8 VR-QR characteristics of the system of

Figure 2.4 Alritlldifferent PR /#w xx ratl
*o .
32 Intro d uctio n to th e P o w er S y ste m S ta b ility P ro b le m C h aP . 2

T he ini uene of the reactive POW CC charact eristics of the devi ces at the
receiving end (loads and com p en sating devices) I *S D3ore apparent 1 *11 Figure 2.8.lt
show s a fam ily of curves applicable to the POW CC system of F igure 2.4, each of w hich
represents the relationship betw een VR and for a S xed value of P R. T he system I @S
*

IS
stable in the region w here the derivative dQRIdVR positive. T he voltage stability
lim it (critical operating point) is reached w hen the derivative is zero.Thus the parts
of the Q -V curves to the right of the m inim a represent stable operation, and the parts
to the leftrepresent unstable operation. Stable operation in the region w here dopldvp
is negative can be achieved only w ith a regulated reactive pow er com pensation having
suffcient control range and a high QIV gain w ith a polarity opposite to that of the
norm al.
stability phenonaenon is basic and
The above descrijtion of the voltage
intended to help classif catlon and understanding of different aspects of p ow er sy stem
stability. A nalysis has been lim ited to a radial system because it presents a sim ple, yet
clear, picture of the voltage stability problem . 111 com plex practical P0W er system s,
m any factors contribute to the process of system collap se because of voltage
instability : strength of transm ission system ; pow er-transfer levels; load characteristics;
generator reactive pow er capability lim its; and characteristics of reactive pow er
com pensating devices. In som e cases, the problem is com pounded by uncoordinated
action of various controls and protective system s.
F or purposes of analysis, it is useful to classify voltage stability into the
follow ing tw o subclasses:

voltage stabilit
y IS concerned AAritll a system 5s ability to
(a) farge-disturbance
control voltages follow ing large di sturbances such as sy stem faults, loss of
*

generation, or clrcult contingencies. T his ability is determ ined by the system -

*

load characteristics and the interactions of both contlnuous and discrete

controls and protections. D eterm ination of large-disturbance stability requires
the exam ination of the nonlinear dynam ic perform ance of a system over a
period of tim e suff cient to capture the interactions of such devices as U L T C S
and generator f eld-current lim iters. T he study period of interest m ay extend
from a few seconds to tens of m inutes. T herefore, long-term dynam ic
sim ulations are required for analysis.

A criterion for large-di sturbance voltage stability is tllft

t, follow ing a given
disturbance and fol low ing system -control action s, voltages at all buses reach
acceptable steady-state levels.

(b) Sm all-disturbance voltage stability IS concerned Alr

itll a system s ability to
control vol tages follow ing sm all perturbations such as increm ental changes 1
@11
system load.T his form of stability is determ ined by the characteristics of load,
continuous controls, and discrete controls at J g iven instant of tim e. This
concept IS@
useful 1
@11 determ ining, at any instant, how the system voltage Arr
i ll
respond to sm all system changes.
 S ec . 2 .1 B asic C o ncepts and D efin itio ns 33

The basic PCOCeSSCS contributing to sm all-disturbance voltage instability are

*

essentially of a steady-state nature. T herefore, static analysls can be effectively

used to determ ine stability m argins, identify factors ini uencing stability, and
exam ine a w ide range of system conditions and a large num ber of P 0 St-
contingency scenarios (81.
A criterion for sm all-disturbance voltage stability is that, at a given operating
condition for every bus in the system , the bus voltage m agnitude increases as
*

the reactive PoW er lnjection atthe SanAe bus I@S increased. A system is voltage-
unstable if, for at least One bus in the system , the bus voltage m agnitude (D
decreases RS the reactive POW er injection ((?) at the Sanle bus I
*S increased.I11
*

other w ords,a system I*S voltage-stable if V-Q sensitivity IS positive for every
* * @ @ *

bus and unstable if V-Q sensltlvlty IS negatlve for at least OnC bus.
V oltage instability does not alw ays occur in its pure form . O ften the angle and
voltage instabilities go hand in hand. O ne m ay lead to the other and the distinction
m ay not be clear. H ow ever, a distinction betw een angle stability and voltage stability
K

is im portant for understanding of the underlying causes of the problem s in order to

develop appropriate design and operating procedures.
A m ore detailed discussion of voltage stability, including analytical techniques
and m ethods of preventing voltage collapse, is presented in C hapter 14. A
com prehensive treatm ent of the subject,w ith an in-depth analysis of the problem , is
presented in the com panion book P ow er System Voltage Stabilip by C .W . T aylor.

2 -1 .3 M id -T erm a n d Lo n 9 -T e rm S tab ility

T he ternAs long-term stability and m id-term stability are relatively new to the
literature on pow er system stability. T hey svere introduced aS a result of the need to
deal w ith problem s associated w ith the dynam ic response of pow er system s to Severe
up sets (9-13j.Severe system upsets result in large excursions of voltage, frequency,
and P OW er i ow s that thereby invoke the actions of slow PFOCCSSCS, controls, and
@ @

protectlons not m odelled ln conventional transient stability studies. T he characteristic

tim es of the PrOCCSSCS and devices activated by the large voltage and frequency shifts
slrill range from a m atter of seconds (the C(CS POnSCS of devices such aS generator
the @

controls and protections) to severalm inutes CCSPOnSCS of devices such aS Prlm e

m over en efgy supply '
system s and load-voltage reglators) (10,14j.
f ong -term stability analysis RSSUDACS that inter-m achine synchronizing PoW er
oscillations have dam ped Ou t, the result being uniform system frequency (3,11,15j.
T he focus is on the slow er and longer-duration phenom ena that accom pany large-scale
system upsets and on the resulting large, sustained m ism atches betw een generation
and consum ption of active and reactive pow er. T hese phenom ena include: boiler
dynam ics of therm al units, penstock and conduit dynam ics of hydro units, autom atic
generation control, pow er plant and transm ission system protection/controls,
transform er saturation, and off-nom inal frequency effects on loads and the netw ork.
 34 Intro d uctio n to th e P o w e r S y stem S tab ility P ro b lem C h aP . 2

T he m id-term reSPOnSe represents the transition betw een short-term and long-
ternl CCSPOnSCS. 111 m id-term stability studies, the focus is On synchronizing POW CC
oscillations betw een m achines, including the effects of Sonle of the slow er
phenom ena, and possibly large voltage Or frequency excursions.
T ypital ranges of tim e periods are as follow s:

Short-term or transient: 0 to 10 seconds

M id-term : 10 seconds to a few m inutes
L ong-term : a few m inutes to 10's of m inutes

lt should, how ever, oased

be noted that the distinction betw een m id-term and long-
ternl stability I
*S prim arily On the phenonaena being analyzed and the system
representation used, particularly w ith regard to fast transients and inter-m achine
scillations, rather than the tim e period involved.
G enerally, f/itl long-term and m id-term stability p roblem s :re associated w ith
inadequacies equipm ent responses, pO0r coordination of control and protection
equlpm ent, Or insufflcient active/reactive poWer FCJCrVCJ.
L ong-term stability is usually concerned w ith system rCSPOnSC to m aJ*0r
disturbances that l'nvolve contingencies beyond the norm al system design criteria.T his
m ay entail cascading and slllittillj of the poW er system illttl a num ber of separate
*

islands w ith the generators 111 each island rem aining in synck onism . Stability this
CJSC iu% J questionof whether Or not each island ;#j// reach JD acctptable state
operating equilibrium with m inim al loss of //JJ lt I@S determ ined by the overall
reSP On Se of the island RS evidenced by its DAean frequency, rather than the relative
m otion of m achines. ln an extrem : Case, the sy stem and unit protections m ay
*

com pound the adverse situation and lead to a collapse of the island aS a w hole Or ln
p art.
O ther applications of long-term and m id-term stability analysis include
dynam ic analysis of voltage stability requiring sim ulation of the effects of transform er
tap-changing, generator overexcitation protection and reactiv PoW er lim its, and
therm ostatic loads. ln this case, inter-m achine oscillations are not likely to be
im portant. H ow ever, Care should be exercised not to neglect SunAe of the fast
dynam ics.
T here is lim ited experience and literature related to the analysis of long-term
and m id-term stability. A s nlore experience is gained and im proved analytical
techniques for sim ulation of slow aS w ell aS fast dynam ics beconae available, the
distinction betw een m id-term and long-term stability beconaes less signif cant.

2 .2 C LA S S IFIC A T IO N O F STA BILITY

P ow er system stability IS a single problem ; how ever, it is im practical to study

it aS such. A s Seen 1*11 the previous section, instability of a POW er system Can take
different fornAs and can be ini uenced by a w ide range of factors.A nalysis of stability
S ec . 2 .1 B asic C o ncepts and D efin itio ns 35

Problem s, identif cation of essential factors that contribute to instability, and form ation
of m ethods of im proving stable operation are greatly facilitated by classif cation of
stability into appropriate categories. T hese are based on the follow ing considerations.
.

@ T he physical nature of the resulting instability ;

@ T he size of the disturbance considered;

@ T he devices, PCOCCSSCS, and tim e Span that m ust be taken into consideration 1
*11
order to determ ine stability; and

@ T he m ost appropriate m ethod of calculation and prediction of stability .

F igure 2.9 gives an overall picture of the pow er system stability problem ,
identifying its classes and subclasses in term s of the categories described in the
previous section. A s a practical necessity, the classif cation has been based on a
num ber of diverse considerations, m aking it diff cult to select clearly distinct
categories and to provide def nitions that are rigorous and yet convenient for practical
u Se . F or exam ple, there is Sorne overlap betw een m id-term /long-term stabilit)r and
voltage stability. W ith appropriate m odels for loads, on-load transform er tap changers
and generator reactive pow er lim its, m id-term /long-term stability sim ulations are
ideally suited for dynam ic analysis of voltage stability. Sim ilarly, there is overlap
betw een transient, m id-term and long-term stability : al1 three use sim ilar analytical
techniques for sim ulation of the nonlinear tim e dom ain response of the system to large
disturbances. A lthough the tk ee categories are concerned w ith different aspects of the
stability problem , in term s of analysis and sim ulation they are really extensions of one
another w ithout clearly des ned boundaries.
W hile classif cation of pow er system stability is an effective and convenient
m eans to deal w ith the com plexities of the problem , the overall stability of the sy stem
should alw ays be kept in m ind. Solutions to stability problem s of one category should
not be at the CXPCnSC of another. It is essential ttl look at a1l aspects of the stability
*

phenonaena and at each aspect from nlore than One vieqvpolnt. T his requires the
developm ent and w ise uSC of different kinds of anal lticaltools.ln this regard, SO D AC
degree of overlap 1 *1l the phenonaena being analyzed ls in fact desirable.
 36 Intro d u ctio n to th e P o w e r S y stem S tab ility P ro b le m C h ap . 2

P ow er Sy stem Stability

A bility to rem ain in operating equilibrium

E quilibrium behveen opposing forces

A ngle Stability V oltage Stability

A bility to m aintain - A bilil to m aintain

synchronism steady acceptable
-
T orque balance of voltage
synchronous m achines - R eactive pow er
balance
# *

T ransient @ m@m@.@ 4* .@+*s@ s1 s@ v@.@.@ .

M id-term .*.V .* .@.@ .* @ .@ V .* @.* .*.@ *
L ong-term
=**R + @ * * @ @ @ @ * @ * * @ @
L arge-
Stability Stability Stability D isturbance
V oltage
-
L arge disturbance - Severe upsets; large voltage stability
-
F irst-sw ing and frequency excursions
aperiodic driA - F ast and slow - U niform system - L arge
-
Study period dynam ics frequency disturbance
up to 10 s - Study period - S low dynam ics - Sw itching events
to several m in. - Study period - D ynam ics of
S to tens of m in . U L T C , loads
m all-signal
St -
C oordination of
ability
protections and
controls

N on-oscillatory O scillatoa Sm all-

lnstability Instability D isturbance
V oltage
-
Insufs cient - Insufficient Stability
synchronizing dam ping torque
torque U nstable control action Steady-state
P/Q - F relations
St biliT m argins,
Q reserve
L ocal P lant Interarea C ontrol T orsional
M odes M odes M odes M odes

* W ith availability of im proved analytical techniques providing unis ed approach for analysis
of fast and slow dynam ics, distinction betw een m id-term and long-term stability has
becom e less signl *f cant.

F igu re 2.9 C lassis cation of PoW er system stability

 S ec . 2 .3 H isto rical R ev '
IeW o f ,
s tab ility P ro b lem s 37

2 .3 H IS T O R IC A L R EV IEW O F S T A B ILIT Y P R O B LE M S

P ow er system stability is a com plex subject thathas challenged pow er system

engineers for rnany years. A review of the history of the subject is useful for a better
understanding of present-day stability problem s .

T he stability of pow er system s w as s rst recognized as an im portant

*
g161.Results of the frst laboratory tests on m iniature system s w ere problem
11I 1920 reported
@

11l 1924 g17j; the s rst f eld tests On the stability On a practical PoW er system svere
@

conducted 111 1925 (18,19J.

E arly stability problem s w ere associated w ith rem ote hydroelectric generating
stations feeding into m etropolitan load centres O V e r long-distance transm ission . F or
econom ic CCaSOnS, such system s svere operated close to their steady- state stability
*ts. In a few instances, instability occurred during steady-state operation , but it
ll@m l
occurred nxore frequently follow ing short-circuits and other system disturbances g20) .

The stability problem w as largely ini uenced by the strength of the transm ission
system , w ith instability being the result of insufs cient synchronizing torque T he fault-.

clearing tim es svere slow , being 111 the order of 0.5 to 2.0 seconds Or longer .

T he m ethods of analYSIS and the m odels used Nvere dictated by developm ents
in the art of com putation and the stability theory of dynam ic system s. Slide rules and
m echanical calculators svere used; hence, the m odels and m ethods of analysis had to
be sim ple.In addition, graphical teclm iques such as the equal-area criterion and circle
diagram s w ere developed. Such techniques w ere adequate for the analysis of the
sim ple system s that could be treated effectively as tw o-m achine system s Steady-state.

and transient stability w ere treated separately T he form er w as related to the slope and
.

peak of the pow er-angle curve; it w as taken for granted that dam ping w as positive .

A s pow er system s evolved and intercoM ections betw eep independent system s
w ere found to be econom ically attractive, the com pletity of the stability problem s
increased. System s could no longer be treated as tw o-m achine system s A signif cant
.

step tow ards the im provem ent f stability calculations w as the developm ent in 1930
of the netw ork analyzer (or the ac calculating board). A netw ork analyzer is
essentially a scaled m odel of an ac pow er system w ith adjustable resistors, reactors
and capacitors to represent transm ission netw ork and loads, voltage sources w hose
m agnitude and angle can be adjusted to represent generators, and m eters to m easure
voltages, currents, ahd pow er anyw here 1 *11 the netw ork T his developm ent perm itted
.

P0W er-flow analysis of m ultim achine system s; how ever, the equation of m otion or the
*

SW ln g equation still had to be solved by hand using step-by-step num erical integration .
T he theoretical w ork carried out in the 1920s and early 1930s laid the
foundation for the industry 's basic understanding of the PoW er system stability
phenom ena. T he principal developm ents and know ledge of PoW er system stabillty 111 * @

this early period C a m e about RS a result of the study of long-distance transm ission
,
@

rather than aS an extension of synchronous m achlne theory T he em phasis W aS on the

.

netw ork; the generators svere view ed as sim ple voltage Sources behind f xed
reactances, and loads svere considered as con stan t lm pedances. T h is W aS a practical
 38 Intro d uctio n to th e P o w e r S y ste m S tab ility P ro b le m C h aP . 2

necessity since the com putational tools available during this period svere suited for
@

solution of algebraic equatlons, but not differential equations.

Im provem ents to system stability Cam e about by W ay of faster-fault clearing
@ @

and contlnuous-actlng voltage regulators w ith no dead band. T he benef ts of an

excitation system w ith a high degree of response for increasing steady-state stability
w ere in fact recognized in the early 1920s; how ever, initially this region of (dynam ic
stability'' w as not recom m ended for norm al operation but w as treated as additional
m argin in determ ining operating lim its. W ith the increased realization of the potential
bene ts of faster-responding excitation system s in lim iting f rst-sw ing transient
instability as w ell as increasing steady-state pow er transfer lim its, their use becam e
nAore com m onplace. H ow evet, the use of high-response exciters in som e cases
resulted 1 *11 decreased dam ping of POW Cr sw ings. O scillatory instability thus becam e
a Cause for Concern, w hile steady-state m onotonic instability w as virtually elim inated.
T hese trends required better analytical tools. Synchronous m achine and excitation
*

sy stem representatlon had to be D3ore detailed and sim ulations had to be carried out
for longer tim e periods.
111 the early 1950s, electronic analog com puters svere used for analysis of
special problenAs requiring detailed m odelling of the synchronous m achine, excitation
sy stem , and speed governor. Such sim ulations SVCCC suited for a detailed study of the
'

effects of equlpm ent characteristics rather than the overall behaviour of m ultim achine
system s. T he 1950s also saw the developm ent of digital com puters: the f rst digital
com puter program for pow er system stability analysis w as developed about 1956. T he
m odels used in the early stability program s w ere sim ilar to those of netw ork analyzer
studies. lt W aS SOOn recognized that digital com puter program s w ould 1tl1()5h?
im provem ents Over netw ork analyzer m ethods in both the size Of the netw ork that
could be sim ulated and the m odelling of equipm ent dynam ic characteristics. T hey
@ *

w ould provide the ideal DAeans for the study of stablllty problen:s associated w ith
@

grow th 111 interconnections betw een form erly separate p ow er sy stem s.

ln the 1960s,m ost of the PoW er system s in the U nited States and C anada svere
'

Joined aS pa= of one of tw o large interconnected system s, One 1 *11 the east and the
other in the w est.ln 1967, low c>pacity H V D C ties w ere also established betw een the
east and w est system s. A t present, the pow er system s in the U nited States and C anada
.

form virtually one large system . W hile interconnections result in operating econonAy
and increased reliability through m utual assistance, they also contribute to increased
com plexity of stability problerns and increase the Consequences of instability . T he
northeast blackout of N ovem ber 9, 1965 naade this abundantly clear; it brought the
problem of stability and the im portance of PoW er system reliability beyond the focus
@ @

of engineers and to the attention of the publlc and of the regulatory agencles (251.
A4uch of the industry effort and interest related to system stability since the
1960s has been concentrated On transient stability . P ow er system s are designed and
operated to criteria concerning transient stability. A s a consequence, the principal tool
for stability analysis in pow er system design and operation has been the transient
stability program . V ery pow erful program s have been developed, w ith facilities for
representing very large system s and detailed equipm ent m odels. T his has been greatly
 S ec . 2 .3 H isto rical R ev iew o f S tab ility P ro b lem s 39

facilitated by developm ents ill num erical m ethods and digital com puter technology .
T here have also been signif cant developm ents 1 *11 equipm ent m odelling and testing,
particularly for synchronous m achines, excitation system s, and loads. In addition,
significant im provem ents in transient stability perform ance of pow er system s have
been achieved tk ough use of high-speed fault-clearing, high initial-response exciters,
series capacitors, and special stability aids.
A ccom panying the above trends has been an increased tendency of pow er
system s to exhibit oscillatory instability . H igher-resp onse exciters, w hile im proving
tran sient stability, adversely affect sm all-signal stability associated w ith local p lant
*

m odes of oscillation by introducing negatlve dam ping. T he effects of fast exciters are
com pounded by the decreasing strength of transm ission system s relative to the size
of generating stations. Such problem s have been solved through use of P0W er system
stabilizers (see Chapter 12).
A nother source of the oscilltory instability problem has been the form ation,
as a consequenc of grow th in interconnections am ong pow er system s, of large groups
N

of closely coupled m achines connected by w eak link s. W ith heavy pow er transfers,
such system s exhibit interarea m odes of oscillation of 1()A4? frequency. 111 D3any
situation s, the stability of these m odes has beconae a Source of concern .
Present trends in the plaM ing and operation of pow er system s have resulted
@

111 new kinds of stability problem s. F inancial and regulatory cnditions have caused
electric utilities ttl lllliltlPOW er system s w ith less redundancy and op erate thenA closer
*

to transient stability liln lts. Interconnections arC continuing to grow w ith m ore uSe of
neW technologies such aS m ultiterm inal H V D C transm ission . h4ore extensive uSe I *S
being m ade of shunt capacitors. C om position and characteristics of loads re
changing. T hese trends have contributed to signis cant changes in the dynam ic
chafacteristics of m odern POW Cr system s. s4odes of instability are becom ing
*

increasingly nAore com plex ahd requlre a com prehehsive consideration of the various
asp ects of system stability . I11 particular, voltage instabilit)r and low -frequency
interarea oscillation s have beconae greater SOUrCCS of Concern than in th past.
W hereas these PrOblenAs used to OCCUr ill isolated situations, they have novv beconae
EROCC com m onplace. T he need for analyzing the long-term dynam ic reSP On Se
* @

follow lng m alof up sets and ensuring Prop er coordination of protection and control
*

system s I *S also being recognlzed.

Signif cant research and developm ent w ork has bee undertaken in the lst few
years to gain a better insight into physical aspects of these new stability problem s and
to develop analytical tools for their analysis and better system design . D evelopm ents
in control system theory and num erical m ethods have had a signis cant ini uence on
this w ork. T he follow ing chapters describe these new developm ents and provide a
coraprehensive treatm ent of the subject ofPOW Cr system stability.
40 Intro d uctio n to th e P o w e r S y stem S ta b ility P ro b le m C h aP . 2

R E FE R EN C ES

E11 D .N .Ew artand F.P.deM ello,&tA D igital C om puter P rogram for the A utom atic
D eterm ination of D ynam ic Stability L im its,'' IE E E Trans., V ol. P A S-86, pp .
867-875, July 1967.

(21 H .M .Rustebakke (editor),Electric Utilip System s and Practices,John W iley

& Sons, 1983.

(31 CIG RE W orking G roup 32-03, GiTentative Classifcation and Term inologies
R elating to Stability P roblem s of P ow er S y stem s,'' E lectra, N o. 56, 1978.

(41 IEEE Task Force, ltproposed Term s and D esnitions for Pow er System
Stability,'' IE E E Trans., V o1. PA S-IO I, PP . 1894-1898, July 1982.

(51 C .Barbier and J.P.B arret,<&A n A nalysis of Phenom ena of V oltage Collapse
on T ransm ission System ,55R evue G enerale d 'E lectricite, PP .672-690, O ctober
1980.

(61 CIG M Task Force 38-01-03, i

ip jannjng against V oltage C ollapse,
'' E lectra,
N o . 111, PP . 55-75, M arch 1987.

(71 IEEE Special Publication, Voltage pftpdij/j/l/ of Power Systems.. Concepts,

A nalytical Tools, and Industry E xp erience,
-' 901 110358-2-P W R , 1990.

(81 B .G ao, G .K .M orison, and P.K undur, giy ojtage Stability E valuation U sing
M odal A nalysis,'' IE E E Trans., V o1. P W R S-7, N o. 4, PP . 1529-1542,
N ovem ber 1992 .

E91 D .R . D avidson, D .N . Ew art, and L .K . K irchm ayer, tGlwong T erm D ynam ic

R esponse of P ow er System s A n A nalysis of M ajor D isturbances,'' IEEE
Trans., V ol. P A S-94, PP . 8 19-826, M ayJ une 1975.

(101 C .Concordia,D .R .D avidson,D .N .E w art, L .K .K irchm ayer, and R .P . Schulz,

iiL oug T erm P ow er System D ynam ics -
A N ew P lanning D im ension,'' C IG R E
P aper 32-13, 1976.

(111 EPM Report EL-596, GtM idterm Sim ulation of Electric Pow er System s,''
Project R2745,June 1979.

(121 EPRI Report EL-983, iLong T erm P ow er System D ynam ics, P hase 1115''
Research Project 764-2, M ay 1982.
q efere n ces 41

f13J R .P.Schulz,itcapabilities of System Sim ulation Tools for A nalyzing Severe

Y P SCtS,'' Proceedings of lnternationalSymposium on Power System Stability
A m es, low a, PP . 209-2 15, M ay 13-15, 1985.

(141 E.G .Cgte,K .H em m aplardh, J.W .M aA e,and D .P.G elopulos,&:T*

1m C Franle
N otion and T im e R esponse of the M ethods in T ransient, M id-T erm and L ong-
T erm Stability Program s,'' IE E E Trans., V o1. PA S-103, PP . 143-15 1, January
1984 .

f15J K .H em m aplardh, J.W .M anke,W @R . P auly, and J.

W .L am ont,il
c onsiderations
for a L ong T erm D ynam ics Sim ulation Program ,''IE E E Trans., V ol.P W R S-I,
PP . 129-135, F ebruary 1986.

f16J C .P.Steinm etz,iipow er Controland Stability ofElectric G enerating Stations,''

A IE E Trans., V ol. X X X IX , P a= ll,PP . 12 15, July-Ilecenaber, 1920.

f17J R .D .Evans and R .C.Bergvall,GiExperim ental A nalysis of Stability and P ow er

L im itations,'' A IE E Trans., PP . 39-58, 1924.

f18J R .sllillcills,GtpracticalA spects of System Stability,''AIEE Trans., PP.41-50,

1926.

(19j R .D . Evans and C.F. W agner, GtFurther Studies of Transm ission System
Stability,'' A IE E Trans@; PP . 5 1-80, 1926.

(20J A IEE Subcom m ittee On Interconnections and Stability F actors, iy jryt R eport
of P ow er System Stability,''A IE E Trans', PP . 26 1-282, F ebruary 1937.

(21) S.B .Crary,Power System Stabilip, Vol.I..Steady-state plff/diilit?),John W iley

& Sons, 1945.

(221 E.W . K im bark, Power System ?l/t7dif//J/, Vol. I.. E lem ents Stability
C alculations, John W iley & Sons, 194 8.

(23) W estinghouse Electric C orporation, E lectric Transm ission and D istribution

Reference B ook, E ast P ittsburgh, P a.
, 1964.

(241 C . Concordia, iigow er System Stability,'' Proceedings of the International

Sym p osium on P ow er System plftpdif//l/, A m es,low a,pp .3-5,M ay 13-15, 1985.

(25) G .S.V assell,dlN ortheast Blackoutof 1965,'5IEEE Power Engineering Review,

PP . 4-8, Jahuary 199 1.
n
 P A R T 11

E Q U IP M E N T
C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S
A N D
M O D E L L IN G
n