Review of Literature

In order to understand the complexities involved in the affective dimension of teaching

adult ESOL instructors I had to review literature in various fields. The following theories,

hypothesis, and other literature guided my exploration into whether or not adult ESOL

instructors value the affective dimensions of their classroom.

Social-Emotional Competence

Social emotional competency is considered to be a branch of social emotional learning,

according to the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (2008). Per their

widely accepted and used definition, social-emotional competence includes different areas

covering cognitive, behavioral, and emotional competencies. There are five competencies within

those areas, including: self-awareness, social awareness, responsible decision-making, self-

management, and relationship management (2008).

Figure 1: CASEL Social-emotional Competency Wheel

 High levels of the above competencies are associated with teachers considered to be

highly socially-emotionally competent. Teachers with higher levels of social-emotional

competence better facilitate the creation of a healthy classroom climate and beneficial student-

teacher relationships (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009), which are both key elements for an adult

ESOL classroom. More broadly, Dr. Sonia Nieto highlights that the primary aim of every

educational institution and every educational effort must be the maintenance and enhancement of

caring, (2012, p172). Caring is an inherently emotional and therefore subjective term. Because

of this, my study specifically focuses on exploring elements of teacher self-awareness and social

awareness to see what it means for adult ESOL instructors to care, and what that looks like in

their classroom. This study will be touching on the self-awareness and self-management

competencies, along with those of social awareness and relationship skills.

The Prosocial Classroom Model

Developed by Jennings & Greenberg (2009), the Prosocial Classroom Model outlines

what they refer to as the Prosocial Classroom Model, (Figure 2) demonstrates how the above

social emotional competencies outlined by the CASEL work together to form the optimal

classroom environment for K-12 schools. You will notice that healthy teacher-student

relationships and a healthy classroom climate are both included in the model, and both also stem

from the instructors overall social-emotional competence, including their personal well-being.

According to the Prosocial Classroom Model, a healthy classroom climate is connected to

healthy student-teacher relationships along with improved student outcomes. However, being

able to achieve a healthy classroom climate and effective instructor-learner relationships

originates with Teachers own personal well-being and level of social-emotional competence

(Jennings & Greenberg, 2009).

 Figure 2: The Prosocial Classroom Model

As previously mentioned, having relationships with students to better understand their

motivation and goals as learners can help lower their affective filters in class and facilitate better

learning (Caruth, 2014; Krashen, 1989; Nieto, 2013; Noddings, 2012; Schwarzer, 2009). Here,

Jennings and Greenberg also highlight the importance of a healthy classroom climate as an

important component of a holistically effective classroom (2009).

It is also important to examine what adult ESOL instructors consider to be an ideal

classroom environment, seeing as adult learners have much more complex personal histories

than younger students. Ultimately, the foundation of the Prosocial Classroom Model is the

instructors social-emotional competence and awareness.

Caring in the Classroom

Both the CASEL social-emotional competency requirements and the Prosocial Classroom

Model consistently mention the concept of care. One of the primary goals of teachers aware of

affective learning dimensions is to create academic communities that care (Collaborative for
Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning, 2008). For a teacher to meaningfully practice the

aforementioned social-emotional competencies, there needs to be a certain level of personal

investment, or, care, involved. However, the word care is difficult to operationalize

considering it is interpreted differently by everyone, as it is a subjective emotion, and therefore

externally manifested in various forms. For newer adult ESOL instructors, gaining a more

detailed understanding what emotive words related to affective teaching dimensions, such as

caring, actually look like in the classroom. However, the literature notes that the caring

required and practiced by many educators is often emotionally draining on instructors. Teacher

burnout is defined as a psychological response that results from repeated exposure to stressors

in the workplace environment (Ransford, Greenberg, Domitrovich, Small, & Jacobson 2009).

One of the main reasons for teacher burnout is emotional exhaustion, a feeling often described as

an instructor feeling they simply have no more emotional strength or energy to give to their

students (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter 1996).

Empathy. The literature involving social-emotional competence and caring continuously

touches back to the concept of empathy. The definition I have chosen for this case study analysis

is the ability to understand a circumstance or situation from another persons perspective or

worldview (Brown, 2006). This means the goal of empathy is to see, hear, and feel the unique

world of the other (Ivey, Pederson, & Ivey, 2001). Empathy involves emotions and emotional

responses, which are influenced by an individuals social-emotional competence. Because of the

need to be able to understand another humans emotional state, a teachers beliefs about and

ability to utilize empathy is directly related to social-emotional competence. Ultimately, the

student is infinitely more important than the subject matter, (Nieto, 2012) meaning the ability to
empathize with students and understand their overall well-being is one of the highest priorities

when practicing care within the classroom (Goralnik 2012).

Empathy without action, is null, as an educator needs to act on their empathetic ability in

order to influence students and the classroom environment (Brown, 2006; Jennings & Greenberg,

2009; Nieto, 2012; Noddings, 2013; Schwarzer, 2009). Additionally, attaching action and

specific behavioral methods to the umbrella term empathy, helps to make a somewhat abstract

concept concrete within educational settings. When empathy [is] seen as a set of behaviors [it]

is less a mystical phenomenon and more a learnable and teachable skill, (Keefe, 1979) so if

adult ESOL instructors are able to help make abstract emotional words related to empathy more

concrete, there will be more guidance for other teachers to reflect on their own practice.

Affective Dimensions of Adult Education

The above sections outlined ideas, theories, and hypothesis specifically relating to the K-

12 educational sector. The following sections will review affective dimensions of learning in

adult learners, including more specific information regarding second language acquisition theory

and adult learners.

Language and Culture

Language and culture have been undeniably intertwined since the beginning of

linguistic development (Mazlaveckiene, 2012). Teaching English to adult speakers of other

languages is not simply about teaching a language, but it involves teaching a complex set of

often new and different cultural elements (Nieto 1999). This adds a whole new dimension

of instruction to the realm of adult ESOL instructors. I am interested in investigating

whether or not the intersection of language and culture encompass affective dimensions of
teaching and learning. If they do, I am interested in knowing how adult ESOL instructors

manifest their value of culture into their teaching style.

Second Language Acquisition Theory. Considered to be one of the most foundational

works of Second Language Acquisition theory, linguist Stephen Krashens Input Hypothesis is

comprised of five different hypotheses: the acquisition-learning hypothesis, the natural-order

hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the input hypothesis, and the affective filter hypothesis

(Krashen, 1986). Most pertinent to this study is the affective filter hypothesis. Krashen defines

the affective filter as, a mental block that prevents acquirers from fully utilizing the

comprehensible input they receive for language acquisition (Krashen, 1986, p3). In other words,

English language learners are unable to transfer new information to long-term memory if a high

affective filter (Krashen, 1986) is in place. When a learner has a high affective filter, they may

lack confidence in and/or outside of the classroom, feel anxious, or perhaps fears being

vulnerable with peers and/or the instructor in a second language-learning classroom. Conversely,

a low affective filter enables learners to embrace the inevitably challenging and messy process of

language learning without fear of judgment (Krashen, 1986). This means a student needs to feel

emotionally secure in order to effectively learn English or transfer any kind of knowledge into

long-term memory. (Krashen, 1986).

Figure 3: Krashens Input Hypothesis Model

 The affective filter hypothesis is especially pertinent to adult second language learners,

who tend to have a higher affective filter than children (Krashen, 1986). Oftentimes, adult

second language learners are so accomplished in other areas of their life that it is difficult to be a

beginner, novice, or even advanced language student (Caruth, 2014). Many adult ESOL students

enter the classroom with specialized knowledge from their previous academic or professional

careers, or may have worked in highly esteemed positions such as doctors, or surgeons

(Schwarzer, 2009). Especially among the culturally diverse student demographic of adult ESOL

learners, have extremely complex lives, (Caruth, 2014, p24) which may necessitate a unique

approach to lowering adult ESOL students affective filters. Being considered a learner again is

often a humbling and difficult experience.

While overcoming the affective filter can be very difficult, tapping into students

motivations for learning English can help provide a reason for the language acquirers to push

through the initial, and sometimes lasting, fear of failure. Ultimately, thegoal of learning a

language is to be able to communicate and interact with the people that speak it (Schwarzer,

2009, p27). Therefore, if an instructor understands students individual motives for choosing to

put themselves in the vulnerable and challenging position of learning English as a speaker of

another language they can help motivate their students (Schwarzer, 2009). Knowing students

goals and motivation requires a degree of student-teacher interaction and/or relationships,

making it important to investigate how adult ESOL instructors go about cultivating these student

relationships.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs. The affective filter hypothesis is not the only educational

theory that demonstrates the importance of a classroom environment where students feel safe

enough to learn. Abraham Maslows hierarchy of needs (Figure 4) establishes that certain
needs must be met, starting with lower needs, in order for higher level needs to become

important or achievable to an individual (Seifert & Sutton, 2009). Lower order needs include

basic survival necessities and safety measures, but also include ideas surrounding love and

belongingness, as well as esteem needs. In order for students to reach the higher order need of

cognitive or academic fulfillment through linguistic instruction, learners must feel safe enough to

learn.

Figure 4: Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

In Maslows hierarchy, people satisfy their need for love and belongingness through trust

and feeling a connection to a group, meaning a certain level of these elements should be present

in a classroom. Further, esteem needs being met includes feeling respected by others. For adult

learners, this includes being respected by their peers along with being respected by their

instructor. It has been shown that adult learners are more willing to invest in their learning and

continue attending the ESL class when they feel welcome and part of a caring learning

community (Schwarzer, 2009). Because of this, it would be helpful to learn from adult ESOL
instructors what they feel a caring learning community looks like, and how they go about

cultivating it inside of their classrooms.

Within Maslows hierarchy, people satisfy their need for love and belongingness through

trust and feeling a connection to a group, meaning a certain level of these elements would serve

useful in a classroom. Further, esteem needs being met includes feeling respected by others. For

adult learners, this includes being respected by their peers along with being respected by their

instructor. It has been shown that adult learners are more willing to invest in their learning and

continue attending the ESL class when they feel welcome and part of a caring learning

community (Schwarzer, 2009). Because of this, it would be helpful to learn from adult ESOL

instructors what they feel a caring learning community looks like, and how they go about

cultivating it inside of their classrooms.