GEOGRAPHY IGCSE 0460 EXAM

REVISION NOTES
Theme 1. Population and Settlement
1.1 Population dynamics
1.2 Settlement

Theme 2. The natural environment

2.1 Plate tectonics
2.2 Landforms and landscape processes
2.2.1 Weathering
2.2.2 River processes
2.2.3 Marine processes
2.3 Weather, climate and natural vegetation
2.3.1 Weather
2.3.2 Climate
2.3.3 Ecosystems
2.4 Interrelationships between the natural environment and human activities
Theme 3. Economic development and the use of resources
3.1 Agricultural systems
3.2 Industrial systems
3.3 Leisure activities and tourism
3.4 Energy and water resources
3.5 Environmental risks and benefits: resource conservation and management
Theme 1. Population and Settlement
1.1 Population dynamics
Reasons for recent rapid population growth (population explosion):
-improved medical care vaccinations, hospitals, doctors, new drugs
and scientific inventions
-improved sanitation and water supply
-improvements in food production (quality & quantity)
-improved transport moving food, doctors etc.
-decrease in child mortality
Population growth terms:
-Migration: the movement of people (or animals) from one country
or region to another
-Birth rate: average number of live births in a year for every 1000
people
-Death rate: average number of deaths for every 1000 people
Population growth is related to the amount of resources available for
example water, wood and minerals
Carrying Capacity The number of people the environment can support
without there being negative effects to the population.
Optimum Population This is the amount of people that a
region/country can ecologically support, usually less than carrying
capacity.
Under-population This is when country has declined too much that it
cant support its economic system.
Overpopulation Too much population of an area: overcrowding,
depletion of resources.
HIV/AIDS
Origins
HIV-1 arose in Central Africa
HIV-2 arose in West Africa
HIV mostly occurs in women. When women give birth, they infect the child
as well resulting in low death rate for infants.
Death rate of mothers results in a higher orphan generation. (Year 2000
600000 orphans). Due to the countries being poor, there is a lack in state
welfare, resulting in poverty and lack of education.
Population pyramid general format:
Stage 1: high birth rate; high death rates; short life expectancy; less
dependency (since there are few old people and children have to work
anyway)
Stage 2: high birth rate; fall in death rate; slightly longer life expectancy;
more dependency as there are more elderly
Stage 3: declining birth rate; declining death rate; longer life expectancy;
more dependency
Stage 4: low birth rate; low death rate; highest dependency ratio; longest
life expectancy

High death rates in LEDCs are caused by:

poor health care/few hospitals/doctors/nurses/clinics;
poor sanitation/poor hygiene/lack of toilets/dirty places;
poor access to safe/clean water/water borne diseases;
limited food supplies/malnutrition/starvation;
HIV/AIDS;
Natural disasters/drought/floods;
Lack of vaccinations/medicines/cannot cure diseases;
Lack of education about healthy lifestyles e.g. smoking/diet;
Lack of provision for elderly e.g. pensions/old peoples homes

Birth rates are low in MEDCs because:

availability of contraception/family planning/abortions;
educated re. contraception/family planning;
able to afford contraception/family planning/abortions;
traditionally small families/dont need to prove virility/not traditional to
have large families;
expense of bringing up children/childcare/dont have to send children to
work/can afford
to bring up children;
many women have careers/women are educated;
availability of pensions/do not need children to look after parents in old
age;
low infant mortality rate;
Lack of religious beliefs/dont object to contraception
The Demographic Transition Model:
Population distribution and density factors:
-Human: better housing opportunities, education, health, entertainment,
retirement areas,
-Physical: relief (for farming, defence), climate, water supply, resources
-Economic: ports, transport links, industrial areas, tourist areas, money
available for high-tech industries
Dependency ratio = non-economically active / economically active 100
%
Migration: the movement of people (or animals) from one area to
another, some types are:
Voluntary migration causes:
-find a job, or a better paid job
-pioneers developing new areas
-trade and economical expansion
-territorial expansion
-better climate
-social amenities
-be with friends/family
Forced migration causes:
-avoid religious/political persecution
-avoid war
-slavery/forced labour as a prisoner of war
-racial discrimination
-famine
-natural disasters
-overpopulation
Problems for international migrants include:
 lack of qualifications/skills/education/no experience/they have to do
unskilled jobs/work informally;
many are doing low paid jobs;
poor working conditions/dirty jobs/long hours/exploitation by employers;
many cannot speak the language;
some are unable to obtain employment/not enough jobs;
cant afford education/health care/food/housing etc.;
live in poor conditions/overcrowding/lacks sanitation;
some may have to live away from their families;
discrimination may occur/racism;
some may lack documentation/have to hide from authorities;
trouble adapting to culture/religion etc.
Internal migration is within a country e.g. rural/urban depopulation,
regional
External or international is between countries e.g. Negro slaves to
America (forced) or Mexicans into the US (voluntary)
(There are other types: seasonal, daily, permanent, temporary, semi-
permanent etc.)

Advantages
Losing country
Reduces pressure on resources
Decline in birth rate
Migrants can bring back new skills
Money is sent back
Receiving country
Overcomes labour shortage
Dirty unskilled jobs are done
Will work long hours & low salary
Cultural advantages and links
Disadvantages
Loss of people in working age group
Loss of the educated and skilled
people
Division of families
Left with an elderly population
high death rate
Pressure on jobs
Low quality& overcrowded housing
= ugly
racism
Language problems
Less healthy
Less religious amenities for
immigrants (but more are built, this
is a problem in Switzerland as the
Swiss dont like when Arabs build
their religious place thingy)
 1.2 Settlement
Settlement patterns:
Dispersed an isolated, individual building or a group of two or three
buildings, perhaps forming a hamlet, and separated from the next by 2 or
3 km.
Nucleated Buildings are grouped together, initially for defence, or a
common resource.
Linear buildings are strung along a line of communication, for example a
main road, a river valley, or canal or dyke

Factors that affect the position, size, growth and function of a settlement:
-fuel supply: for heating and cooking
-food supplies
-nodal points: where routes converge
Wet point sites - these have a good water supply. Many
settlements grew around wet point sites, eg villages in the South Downs.
Dry point sites - these are away from the risk of flooding, eg Ely in
Cambridgeshire.
Defensive sites - often found on higher ground so that in the past
enemies could be seen from a distance, eg Corfe Castle, Dorset, or in the
loop of a meander, eg Durham.
Aspect - settlements are often found on the sunny side of a deep
valley. This is common in settlements in the Alps.
Shelter - from cold prevailing winds and rain.
Gap towns - Lincoln is found in a gap between two areas of higher
ground.
Resources - important for industry, eg villages such as Aberfan in
the Welsh valleys is close to coal reserves.
Bridging point - settlements with 'ford' in their name often grew
around a fording point or bridging point, eg Watford is found on the River
Colne.
Trading centres - often settlements grow where natural route ways
and rivers meet, which helps the development of roads, railways and
canals.
 Hierarchy:
Determining order of importance:
1) the population size
2) the range and number of services
3) the sphere of influence
NOTE: there are least number of
capitals (1) and many hamlets.

Land use in towns and cities:

Central business district (CBD)

The land in urban areas is used for many different purposes:

leisure and recreation - may include open land, eg parks or built

facilities such as sports centres
residential - the building of houses and flats
transport - road and rail networks,
stations and airports
business and commerce - the
building of offices, shops and banks
industry - factories, warehouses and
small production centres

The CBD in the city centre is where most

business and commerce is located.

Features that identify the CBD

High/multi-storey buildings.
Expensive land values.
Department stores or specialist shops, like jewellers.
Shopping malls and pedestrian precincts.
Cultural/historical buildings, museums and castles.
Offices, finance, banks, administration, town hall (business sector).
Bus and railway stations (transport centres).
Multi-storey car parks.

The CBD is located in the centre because it is:

a central location for road/railways to converge

the most accessible location for workers
accessible to most people for shops and businesses
 -Residential areas:
-old inner city area: The inner city is also known as
the twilight zone. It is typically found next to the
CBD and has mainly terraced houses in a grid like
pattern. These were originally built to house factory workers who worked
in the inner city factories. Many of these factories have now closed down.
-inner city redevelopment: still high density, more amenities, high rise
flats, more modern, but there are dark corridors, built to improve on the
old buildings.
-suburbia: the urban sprawl (outward growth of city)
and rising popularity of owning cars led to the
construction of well planned and spacious houses
with normally garages, back and front gardens etc.
Suburban houses are usually larger than inner city
terraces and most have a garden. Typically, they are
detached or semi detached and the roads around
them are arranged in cul de sacs and wide avenues. Land prices are
generally cheaper than in the CBD and inner city, although the desirability
of housing can make some areas expensive.
-outer city estate: located on the fringes of cities with varied types of
housing (low rise, high rise and single story), where people were relocated
when the inner city was being redeveloped
The rural urban fringe: This is found at the edge of a town or city and is
where town meets country. It is common for this area to have a mixture of
land uses such as some housing, golf courses, allotments, business parks
and airports.
-Industrial areas: factories were built close as possible to the CBD
but with enough space, next to canals and railways to transport materials,
or rivers for cooling, power source or waste disposal and next to land
where lots of workers could live.
-Open spaces: for a relaxing atmosphere
-Transport routes

Land use in LEDCs

Although every LEDC city has its own characteristics, models can be used
to illustrate a typical LEDC city.
Model of an LEDC city
Both MEDC and LEDC cities have a CBD - often the oldest part of the city.
In LEDCs the poorest housing is found on the edge of the city - in contrast
to MEDC cities whose suburban fringe is very often a place of high quality
housing. The areas of poor quality housing found on the edge of cities in
LEDCs are called squatter settlements or shanty towns

Land use in a MEDC

The Burgess and Hoyt model

Geographers have put together models of land use to show how a 'typical'
city is laid out. One of the most famous of these is
the Burgess or concentric zone model.
This model is based on the idea that land values are highest in the centre
of a town or city. This is because competition is high in the central parts of
the settlement. This leads to high-rise, high-density buildings being found
near the Central Business District (CBD), with low-density, sparse
developments on the edge of the town or city.

The Burgess model

 However, there are limits to the Burgess model:
The model is now quite old and was developed before the advent of
mass car ownership.
New working and housing trends have emerged since the model was
developed. Many people now choose to live and work outside the city on
the urban fringe - a phenomenon that is not reflected in the Burgess
model.
Every city is different. There is no such thing as a typical city.
Another urban model is the Hoyt model. This is based on the circles on
the Burgess model, but adds sectors of similar land uses concentrated in
parts of the city. Notice how some zones, eg the factories/industry zone,
radiate out from the CBD. This is probably following the line of a main road
or a railway.

Problems of urban growth for people:

more crowded/overcrowded;
many people are unable to obtain jobs/more jobs are needed;
work for low pay/cannot afford housing/work in informal sector;
inadequate investment in housing stock/people live in squatter
settlements/more housing is needed;
pressure on schools/inadequate education provision;
pressure on hospitals/inadequate medical care provision;
increased crime rates or example (max 1);
difficulties of waste/litter disposal;
traffic congestion;
noise pollution;
spread of disease;
food shortages;
lack of sanitation/fresh water/poor hygiene;
poor quality of life/standard of living;
 loss of farmland etc.
Problems for environment:
loss of vegetation/deforestation;
loss of habitats;
impacts on food chains;
pollution of rivers;
death of fish/other species;
pollution of ground water/seepage of toxins from dumps;
air/atmospheric pollution;
rivers dry up due to water extraction/water table lowered etc.
Theme 2. The Natural environment
2.1 Plate tectonics
Oceanic crust: younger, heavier, can sink and is constantly being
destroyed and replaced
Continental crust: older, lighter, cannot sink and is permanent
Earthquake, volcano and fold mountain distribution:
Plate What happens Volcano Earthqua Fold
Boundary es? kes? mountains
?
A. Constructive 2 plates move Gentle Gentle No
margins away from each
other forming new
oceanic crust
B. Destructive Oceanic crust Violent Violent Yes
i) margins moves towards
continental and
sinks under it, and
is destroyed
B. Collision 2 continental None Yes there Yes
ii) zones crusts collide, is
neither can sink
so forced upwards
C. Conservative 2 plates move none violent no
margins sideways past
each other
Collision zones:

Earthquake distribution (in terms of places, not boundary types):

-encircle the whole of the Pacific Ocean
-extend down the entire length of the mid-Atlantic Ocean
-stretch across southern Europe and Asia, linking the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans
Volcanoes:
-encircle the whole of the Pacific Ocean
-extend down the entire length of the mid-Atlantic Ocean
-smaller areas in southern Europe, the Caribbean, east Africa and the mid-
Pacific Ocean
Fold mountains:

Plate movement is caused by convection currents in the mantle

Volcano features/vocab:
-The eruption column can collapse & flow down the volcano at over
200km/hr incinerating everything it touches. This is a pyroclastic flow (a)
-large crater called a caldera (b)
-crater
-poisonous gases
-blast wave
-volcanic bombs (ejected rocks)
-plume (ash cloud)
-Explosive eruption can produce mud flows called lahars. They are formed
from ash mixed with water which can come from heavy rain, melted snow
& ice or rivers (c)
lahars can be caused by:
melting snows;
heavy rainfall/water content of magma;
mix with ash;
flow down steep slopes/gravity;
triggered by earthquakes
They are problematic because:
loss of life;
destroy buildings/homes;
inundate farmland/destroy crops/livestock;
disrupt communications;
bring down power lines/damage water pipes;
destroy workplaces/damage factories;
occur without warning/at great speed etc.
-Most volcanoes at constructive boundaries erupt under the ocean. The
lava cools quickly to form ball shapes pillow lava. These volcanoes
usually occur along a rift, not from one main vent (d)
-a bulge (before eruption)
-Volcanic plugs are formed when lava solidifies in the pipe of an extinct
volcano. Over time, the volcanic cone made up of less resistant rocks
wears away, leaving behind the solidified volcanic plug (e)
-ash and steam (f)
-lava flow (g)

a) b) c) d) e)

f) g)
Earthquake features/vocab:
-focus: point of earthquake
-epicenter: point directly above the focus, on the ground surface
-seismic waves
-shaking ground
A subduction zone occurs at a destructive plate boundary, it is where one
plate goes under the other
Causes:
Earthquakes 2 plates stick; pressure builds up; one plate jerks forward
sending shock waves to the surface
Volcanoes
At constructive margin: plates move away from each other; magma
rises to fill the gap; there might be steam or ash ejections, explosions
At destructive margin: oceanic crust melts from friction and heat
from mantle; newly formed magma is lighter so it rises to the surface
A composite or stratovolcano
Found at destructive plate boundaries.
Formed by viscous (thick) lava.
Eruption starts violently creating ash & pulverised rock. Later lava
flows out.
Have alternating layers of lava and rock fragments
Usually large and conical
alternate layers;
ash/cinders and lava;
slopes steeper at summit;
main cone;
crater;
secondary cones;
vent/pipe;
magma chamber;
dyke
Preventing damage or deaths by earthquake:
Move away from areas of instability;
Forecasting/warning to public;
build earthquake proof buildings/or specific references to structures to
awareness/what action to take;
practise drills;
emergency services organised;
emergency food/supplies
Effects/difficulties of earthquakes:
cost;
may occur in country with low GNP;
devastation may cover a wide area/large-scale/affects many people;
magnitude of disaster/intensity;
 damage to infrastructure;
damage to economy;
impacts on food supplies/famine;
impacts of disease on recovery;
lack of hospitals/health care hinder recovery;
homelessness;
psychological impacts

2.2 Landforms and landscape processes

2.2.1 Weathering
Me no thinks we has to know:
Weathering is the disintegration and decomposition of rocks in situ.
There are several types:
-Physical weathering: weathering where there is no change in the
chemical composition of the rock, due to physical processes:
Freeze-thaw aka frost shattering occurs where there are cracked
rocks and temperatures fluctuate around freezing point, repeated freezing
and thawing causes the cracks to widen.
Associated landform: (screes)

Exfoliation aka onion weathering occurs in very warm climates where

there are exposed, non-vegetated rocks. The outer layers heat up and cool
down faster than the inner layers causing stresses in the rock; the outer
layer peels off.
Associated landform: (Ayers rock, Australia)

Granular disintegration: Like exfoliation this occurs where there are

extremes of temperature as in a desert. If the rock is made of different
minerals of different colours. The darker minerals will expand & contract
more than the lighter ones. This will form small angular pieces of rock like
sand which will collect at the base of the rock.

Biological weathering roots widen weaknesses in the rock until part of

the rock detaches
Associated landform:

Chemical weathering: occurs in warm, moist climates

Lichens produce organic acids that dissolve rocks so that they can
absorb the minerals.
Rotting vegetation also releases organic acids that will chemically
react with rocks.

Limestone solution aka carbonation

carbon dioxide in air reacts with rainwater;
forms carbonic acid/acid rain;
reacts with calcium carbonate/limestone or chalk;
pervious/seeps through cracks;
forms calcium bicarbonate/calcium hydrogen carbonate;
which is soluble in water;
widens/deepen cracks etc.
Associated landform: dry valleys and limestone pavement

Oxidation:
Many minerals in rocks can be oxidised in the presence of water.
 One on the most common minerals to oxidise is iron. It forms iron(III)
oxide (Fe2O3) or rust. This gives the rock a reddish brown colour.
The rock is weakened & eventually crumbles away.

2.2.2 River processes

 Terminology for the study of rivers
Drainage basin - the area of land drained by a river.
Catchment area - the area within the drainage basin.
Watershed - the edge of highland surrounding a drainage basin. It
marks the boundary between two drainage basins.
Source - The beginning or start of a river.
Confluence - the point at which two rivers or streams join.
Tributary - a stream or smaller river which joins a larger stream or
river.
Mouth - the point where the river comes to the end, usually when
entering a sea.

Changes in a river from top to bottom:

Drainage basins act as a system with inputs, (precipitation) transfers

(stemflow, infiltration, percolation, surface runoff, throughflow, &
groundwater flow) stores, (interception, surface storage, soil moisture
storage & groundwater storage) and outputs (evaporation & transpiration
or evapotranspiration)
Transportation river transports material by 4 processes
Traction rolling stones along the bed
 Saltation sand-sized particles bounce along the bed in a leapfrog
motion
Suspension silt and clay-sized are carried within the water flow
Solution minerals dissolve in the water
Erosion the wearing of land and rocks, there are 4 types
Attrition large particles such as boulders collide and break into
smaller pieces (occurs at higher part of river)
Hydraulic action the sheer force of the river dislodges particles
from its banks and bed
Corrasion smaller particles rub against the river banks and bed
like sand-paper; also called abrasion; occurs at low part of river (where
there are smaller particles)
Corrosion acids in the river dissolve rocks (occurs at any part of
river)
Deposition when a river lacks the energy to carry its load; it begins with
the heaviest particles; happens when there is less water (a dry spell) or
where the current slows down (e.g. the inside of a meander). Large
boulders are deposited at the top, and very small particles are deposited
at the end, resulting in sorting.
Associated landforms:
V-shaped valleys: Near its source, a river is high above sea level so
most of the erosion is vertical.
In theory this would produce vertical valley sides, but once exposed the
valley sides are weathered. The loose material falls down the slope & is
carried away by the river, resulting in a steep sided V-shape.
Interlocking spurs: In the upper valley a river is in the mountains.
Water takes the easiest path downhill so twists & turns around the high
land (spurs) forming interlocking spurs.
Waterfalls: They occur because the river flows over hard rock which
erodes slowly.
Beneath is softer rock which is eroded faster to form a step.
The force of the water erodes the bottom of the waterfall to form a
plunge pool.
The hard rock gets undercut as the soft rock erodes so that it eventually
collapses.
 Rapids: They form also where the river passes
over hard rock, but either the band of rock is not
very deep or there are a series of shallow rock
bands.
Potholes: Can be found in the upper & middle
valley where a river flows over solid rock.
Swirling water forms eddies which can cause
stones to move in circular motions so eroding
circular holes in the rock.
Meanders: Wide sweeping bends found in the
lower part of the river.
They are formed by a combination of lateral erosion & deposition.
They help form the flood plain.

Ox-bow Lakes: Ox-bow lakes form when the neck of the meander
becomes very narrow.
During high flow or floods the river cuts through the neck & straightens
its course.
Deposition occurs on the bank of the river
The cut-off meander is an ox-bow lake.
Delta: Form when a large river is carrying a high sediment load. Ex: Nile
Delta. The river loses energy as it enters a lake or sea. The sea is sheltered
and has few currents to carry away the sediment so it is deposited in the
mouth.
 Sediment is deposited and chokes up the channel forming islands. The
river breaks up around these deposits forming several channels called
distributaries.

Flood plain: The river widens its valley by lateral erosion. At times of
high discharge, the river has plenty of energy so carries a lot material in
suspension. When the river floods, the water spreads across the flat land.
The sudden increase in friction will reduce the waters velocity and the fine
silt is deposited. Each time the river floods, it deposits a layer of fine silt.
This is a flood plain.
Leves: when a river floods, the coarsest material is deposited first (so
on the edges of the river) forming a natural embankment called a leve.
Causes of flooding:
A steep-sided channel - a river channel surrounded by steep
slopes causes fast surface run-of.
A lack of vegetation or woodland - trees and plants intercept
precipitation (ie they catch or drink water). If there is little vegetation in
the drainage basin then surface run-off will be high.
A drainage basin, consisting of mainly impermeable rock - this will
mean that water cannot percolate through the rock layer, and so will run
faster over the surface.
A drainage basin in an urban area - these consist largely of
impermeable concrete, which encourages overland flow. Drains and
sewers take water quickly and directly to the river channel. Houses with
sloping roofs further increase the amount of run-off.
Deforestation, overgrazing and overcultivation, and
population pressures cause soil erosion causes sediment to go into
rivers decreasing the cross-sectional area
Flood management: afforestation, dams, canalising rivers, artificial
leves, flood relief canals, warning systems, dredging, cutting off
meanders to straighten river, flood gates
 Dams:

Dams are often built along the course of a river in order to control
the amount of discharge. Water is held back by the dam and released in a
controlled way. This controls flooding.
Water is usually stored in a reservoir behind the dam. This water can
then be used to generate hydroelectric power or for recreation purposes.
Building a dam can be very expensive.
Sediment is often trapped behind the wall of the dam, leading to
erosion further downstream.
Settlements and agricultural land may be lost when the river valley
is flooded to form a reservoir.
River engineering:
The river channel may be widened or deepened allowing it to carry
more water. A river channel may be straightened so that water can travel
faster along the course. The channel course of the river can also be
altered, diverting floodwaters away from settlements.
Altering the river channel may lead to a greater risk of flooding
downstream, as the water is carried there faster.

Afforestation:

Trees are planted near to the river. This means greater interception of
rainwater and lower river discharge. This is a relatively low cost option,
which enhances the environmental quality of the drainage basin.

Managed flooding:
The river is allowed to flood naturally in places, to prevent flooding in
other areas - for example, near settlements.

Planning:
Local authorities and the national government introduce policies to
control urban development close to or on the floodplain. This reduces the
chance of flooding and the risk of damage to property.
There can be resistance to development restrictions in areas where
there is a shortage of housing. Enforcing planning regulations and controls
may be harder in LEDCs.

Hydrographs:
2.2.3. Marine processes
Types of waves:
Constructive waves: have a low wave height & usually the beach
gradient is gentle.
The waves spill forward gently creating a strong swash. The water drains
away through the beach material so the backwash is weak.
These waves deposit material & build up beaches.
Destructive waves: have a high wave height & the beach tends to be
steep.
The wave plunges forward onto the beach so the swash is weak, but the
rotation of the water causes a strong backwash.
These waves tend to erode beaches.

Components of Waves:
Swash: when a wave breaks & washes up the beach.
Backwash: when the water drains away back into the oncoming wave.
The size of waves depends upon three factors:
1. The strength of the wind.
2. The length of time the wind has been blowing.
3. The fetch or distance over which the wind can blow.
Methods of erosion:
Corrasion large waves hurl beach material at the cliff
Corrosion salts and acids slowly dissolve a cliff
Attrition waves cause stones to collide and disintegrate
Hydraulic action force of waves
compresses air in the cliffs
Longshore Drift:
When waves approach the
coast at an angle the swash
moves up the beach at an angle.
The backwash, however, drains
straight back down the beach.
This will gradually move
sand/stones along the beach in a
zig-zag motion.

Cliff and wave-cut platform formation:

Wave erosion is concentrated at the foot of the cliff so a wave-cut notch
is formed.
The cliff is undercut & collapses.
Repeated collapse causes retreat of the cliff producing a platform of flat
rock at the cliff foot extending out to sea.
Caves, Arches and Stacks:
A band of weaker rock
extends through a headland.
More erosion occurs
producing caves on both
sides of the headland.
Continued erosion produces
an arch through the
headland.
Eventually the roof is
weakened & collapses
forming a stack
Beaches: In bays the waves
diverge outwards. The wave
energy is dissipated creating
a low energy environment
hence deposition to form
beaches.

Bays and Headlands:

Bays are formed due to softer rock getting eroded easily.
Headlands are usually formed since they are made of resistant rock and
so is eroded more difficultly.
Spits:
Spits form when the coastline changes direction. Longshore drift
continues to carry material in the same direction.
Sand & shingle is built up to form the spit.
The end of the spit curves round due to wave refraction or secondary
winds.
Sand Dunes:
Sand dunes form behind wide sandy beaches.
 Onshore winds pick up the dry sand from above the high-water mark &
carry it landward by saltation.
If they encounter an obstacle the wind loses energy & deposits sand in
the lee of the obstacle.
Eventually a dune is formed. Plants then grow on it which stabilize it &
trap more sand.
Salt Marsh:
Mud is deposited by the tides. The beach builds up above sea level
forming mudflats.
Plants start to grow in the mud & trap more sediment. This forms into a
salt marsh.
Coral Reefs:
-Conditions required for the growth of coral reef:
Warm water/seas; temperatures above 20 degrees C (dev)
Shallow water; not more than 60 metres deep (dev)
Water free from sediment/clear/availability of light;
Plentiful supply of oxygen in water/unpolluted;
Plentiful supply of plankton;
Lack of strong currents etc.
- Fringing reef: Coral reefs grow in the shallow water of the coast in
tropical areas (4A)
- Barrier reef: Due to plate tectonics the island starts to sink the reef
grows to keep up with the sinking, but a lagoon develops between the reef
& the land (4B)
- Coral atoll: These form around islands that are sinking. The coral growth
keeps up with this & the island keeps sinking (4C)
- Eventually the island sinks below sea level forming a ring of coral with a
lagoon in the centre.

2.3 Weather, climate and natural vegetation

2.3.1 Weather
Weather Instruments
1. Rain gauge: Is a fixed diameter so that they
collect the same amount of water & so comparisons
can be made.
Made of a hollow cylinder (C) containing:
Funnel (A) to collect the water.
A container to collect the water. This might be
graduated or water can be poured into a measuring
cylinder. It is emptied once every 24hrs at the same
time. Rain is measured in millimetres.
Is sunk into the ground, but not level with the
surface so that splashes or surface water cannot get
into it.

2. Maximum-minimum thermometer: Records

max. & min. temps. over a 24hr period.
Maximum thermometer contains mercury the
minimum contains alcohol.
As temperature rises mercury expands &
pushes up a metal index when it cools & mercury
contracts the index is left in place at highest
temp.
As temperature falls alcohol contracts & pulls
metal index with it, but as the alcohol expands it
flows passed the index leaving it in place at the
lowest temp.
Both indexes are read once every 24hrs from the bottom of the index.

3. Wet and dry bulb thermometer

(hygrometer): Dry bulb is a normal mercury
thermometer it measures actual air temp.
Wet bulb is the same but the bulb is covered with
a fine cloth which is connected to a reservoir of
water.
Water evaporates from the cloth & cools the
temperature so it reads a few degrees lower than
air temp.
Both the wet & dry bulb temperatures are read.
4. Barometer: Measure air pressure.
An aneroid barometer has a corrugated
chamber containing a vacuum.
As air pressure rises & falls the chamber
contracts & expands.
Levers conduct this movement to a
spindle which moves the pointer on
the dial which records the air pressure in mm
of mercury.

5. Anemometer: Measures wind speed.

Three light rotating cups are blown around by the wind the revolutions
are counted & converted into; metres per sec.; km per hour; knots etc.
6. Wind vane: Records wind direction.
The fang is blown by the wind so that the arrow head points into the
wind.
Both are mounted on a high pole.

Stevensons Screen: Contains the

thermometers.
Painted white to reflect the sun with a double
lid for insulation.
Slatted sides to let the air circulate, but
slanted downwards to prevent light getting in.
Legs 1m long to prevent heating from ground.
On short grass so its standardised i.e. same amount of reflectivity.
Cloud types:
Cumulus: These clouds
usually have flat bases lumpy
tops & distinctive boundaries.
Cumulonimbus: The cloud
type associated with a
thunderstorm & heavy rain,
(at high levels cooled water
droplets convert to ice
crystals).
Altocumulus: These clouds
are a good indicator of medium level instability and high moisture content
-and often the precursor for widespread thunder activity within the
following 24 to 48 hours.
Stratocumulus: Low-level cloud type, varying from thin, well broken
layers with little impact for general weather, to deep, sometimes unstable
character, and a risk of moderate turbulence & moderate icing. Little rain.
Nimbostratus: Heavy cloud layer, often dark in appearance. Often
combined with continuous falling rain/drizzle or snow
Stratus: Are thin-layered clouds
Are low to the earths surface
Look like stripes or streaks in the sky.
No rain.
Cirrus: Thin because they form in the higher levels of the atmosphere
where little water vapor is present. No rain. Made of ice crystals

Locating weather stations

They should be on short grass. (Concrete reflects heat, tarmac
absorbs it.)
They should be in an open area away from obstacles like buildings &
trees so there is no shade or protection from the wind or rain

Weather symbols
Cloud cover is measured in eighths: Hold the sheet directly above your
head & estimate the cloud cover directly above you.
Warm and cold front symbols:

2.3.2 Climate
Tropical rainforest:
Location: Tropical rainforests are located in a band around the equator,
mostly in the area between the Tropic of Cancer (23.5 N latitude) and the
Tropic of Capricorn (23.5 S latitude). This 3,000 mile (4800 km) wide band
is called the "tropics." Tropical rainforests are found in South America,
West Africa, Australia, southern India, and Southeast Asia.
Mean temperature of the hottest month: about 25C
Mean temperature of the coldest month: about 25C
Annual temperature range: less than 5C
Rainfall amount: exceeds 2000mm
Rainfall seasonal distribution: same throughout year
Wind: low
Cloud: heavy
Humidity: high
Pressure: low

Tropical desert:
Location: between 5 and 30 north and south of the equator
Mean temperature of the hottest month: 30C
Mean temperature of the coldest month: no less than 18C
Annual temperature range: less than 5C
NOTE: during the day it can get to 50C but during the night it gets to
about 0C so the average is lower.
Rainfall amount: less than 250mm in a year
Rainfall seasonal distribution: irregular rainfall
Wind: strong
Cloud: virtually cloudless skies
Humidity: low
Pressure: high
Contributing factors:
distance from oceans;
winds blow over large areas of land;
winds blow offshore/do not blow from sea hence no source of
moisture/water sources;
low humidity;
lack of evaporation;
sparse vegetation;
lack of transpiration;
high air pressure;
descending air;
cold offshore currents etc.
Factors affecting temperature:
-latitude: closer to the equator = higher temperature
-distance from the sea: coastal area = warmer winters and cooler
summers
-prevailing winds: the seasonal difference in heating between land
and sea (land heats up more quickly in summer and cools more
rapidly than the sea in winter) affects the temperature of the
prevailing wind. Warm prevailing wind = rise in temperature
-ocean currents: warm currents raise winter temperatures in
coastal areas; cold currents cool them down in summer
-altitude: higher altitude = lower temperature (1 per 100m)
-Pressure systems & wind belts:
 The angle of the sun creates
pressure belts: low pressure at
the equator & mid latitudes;
high pressure at the tropics &
poles.
Wind blows out of high
pressure into low pressure
creating a global pattern of
winds.
The direction of the prevailing
winds affects the climate of
places. Making it warmer or
colder, wetter or dryer.
The pressure & wind belts
move with the overhead sun.
So prevailing wind directions
can change with the seasons.

Types of rainfall:
Convectional rain:
1. The suns rays heat the ground.
2. This heats the air above it so it rises.
3. As the air rises it cools.
4. Condensation point is reached & cloud forms producing thunder
storms.
Frontal Rain:
This happens mostly at mid-latitudes where warm tropical air meets cold
polar air.
1. Warm air moves towards the cold air.
2. Being less dense the warm air rises over the cold air.
3. The air cools as it rises.
4. Condensation occurs & clouds form to produce rain.
Relief Rain:
1. When warm, moist air hits mountains it is forced to rise.
2. As it rises it cools. Condensation occurs producing clouds & rain or
snow.
3. On the leeward side the cool air sinks getting warmer.
4. The air behind the mountains is warmer & dryer so theres less rain.
The rain shadow area.
2.3.3 Ecosystems
Tropical rainforest:
Vegetation grows in distinct layers.
Emergent layer: tall trees up to 50m. Few lower branches. Grow
above others to get full sunlight.
Main canopy: trees 30-40m forming a continuous canopy. Few lower
branches.
Under canopy: trees 20m high (& young trees) less dense can
survive in less sunlight.
Shrub layer: low shrubs & saplings. Shade plants.
Forest floor: little grows except fungi too little light.
Since the trees grow so tall they have large buttress roots to give
them support.
Lianas use the large trees as a support in order to reach the sunlight.
Epiphytes grow on trees to get light & have hanging roots that
collect rainwater.
Leaves shed the water easily having drip tips & channels to direct
the water.

Tropical desert:
Plants such as cacti:
have thick, waxy cuticles to reduce transpiration;
fleshy stems to store water;
leaves reduced to spines to reduce surface area for transpiration &
prevent animals eating them & sunken stomata.
Shrubs have:
 small, waxy leaves & like cacti long tap roots to reach down to the
water table and/or shallow roots to collect any moisture before it
evaporates.
Seeds can lie dormant for years. After rain they germinate quickly,
flower & produce seeds within 2-3 weeks.

2.4 Inter-relationships between the natural environment and

human activities
Environmental hazards to humans include:
-volcanic eruptions
-earthquakes
-tropical storms
-flooding
-drought
Environmental opportunities for humans:
-energy source renewable e.g. solar, hydroelectric etc, or non-
renewable e.g. coal
-where there are droughts, lack of cloud is ideal for solar power
-volcanic areas are good for geothermal energy
-medical research and genetic engineering of crops using genetic
material
-flooding rivers have alluvium deposits which make very fertile land
-exotic foods from Amazon rainforest
-tourist destination = source of wealth
-tropical rainforests provide wood for making paper, furniture etc.
-volcanic eruptions (and forest fires) produce fertile soil (Merapi)
Corals create a tourist attraction:
-it is beautiful/unique/visually attractive/spectacular/to see one
before they die out completely;
-fishing;
-diving;
-boat trips;
-lots of species of fish/exotic fish/plants/large biodiversity etc.
Volcanoes:
Positive:
fertile/volcanic soils;
 geothermal power;
attract tourists/tour guides/souvenirs etc.;
resource extraction/or examples e.g. sulphur;
researchers/vulcanologists live close by to study volcanoes;
they have lived there all their lives/sentimental attachment;
close to family/friends;
work/education in area;
cannot afford to move;
pressure of living space;
confidence in prediction/safety;
willing to take the risk/they dont think it will erupt etc.
Negative:
-death by jumping in volcano :p
-death by tripping over tree root which has grown because of the fertile
ash deposits
-if the ash and mud from a volcanic eruption mix with rain water or
melting snow, fast moving mudflows are created (lahars)
-clears settlements/woodland/agriculture
-changes landscape

Food Shortages:
Causes:
Human Causes:
-poverty
-poor distribution/transport difficulties
-war and civil conflict
-commercial farming
-overpopulation
-poor government management of resources
Physical causes:
-soil exhaustion
-drought
-flood
-tropical cyclones
-pests
-disease
Effects:
-hunger
-susceptible to infectious diseases
-impair physical and mental development
-reduce labour productivity
-increase risk of premature death
-5 to 10% reduction in lifetime earnings
Solutions:
The Green Revolution
The introduction of modern farming methods to poorer countries to
increase their food production, such as:
1. High-yield Varieties (HYVs)
Advantage: faster growing & resistant to disease
 Disadvantage: need N fertilisers & pesticides = less sustainable due
to damage to the environment
2. Irrigation - overcoming unreliable weather
3. Appropriate technology simple wells, low cost sustainable schemes
4. Land reform improve efficiency, increase farm size for small
landowners, set an upper limit of land owned by the wealthy, give
surplus land to landless people (this is done in the Lower Ganges
Valley)
5. Nitrogen fertilisers increasing yield, surplus can be sold for profit
but, expensive, possible eutrophication
Food aid - collecting and transporting food to crisis areas

Theme 3: Economic development and the

use of resources
3.1 Agricultural systems
An agricultural system is made up of three parts: inputs, outputs and
processes.

Inputs can be physical: amount of rain, season temperatures, length of

growing season, relief, soil and drainage
Inputs can be human/economic/social/political: labour, rent, transport
costs, machinery/technology, fertiliser and pesticides, market demand,
accessibility to market, government control, seeds livestock, farm
buildings, energy (electricity)

Processes include the patterns and methods of farming

Outputs are the products (milk, meat etc.) and in developed countries,
usually a profit

Classification of farming types:

Specialisation: either arable (crops), pastoral (animals) or mixed
(both)
Economic Status: either commercial (for profit) or subsistence (for
yourself)
Intensity of land use: either extensive (farm size is very large in
comparison with either the amount of money spent on it or the number of
workers) or intensive (small farm size in comparison with either the
amount of money spent on it or the number of workers).
Land tenure: either shifting (and nomadic) where farmers move from
one area to another or sedentary farm location is permanent
Factors influencing farming:
temperature determines crops grown;
crops need to be grown where there is an adequate growing season;
there must be sufficient rainfall for crops to grow/irrigation needed if
insufficient rain;
cereal crops/vines need sunshine to ripen;
too much rainfall may waterlog/flood crops/require a drainage system;
in areas with frost/long winter hardy animals may be kept;
if it is windy wind breaks are needed etc.
3.2 Industrial systems
Primary industry: an industry, such as farming, fishing, forestry and
mining, that extracts raw materials directly from the land or sea.
Secondary industry: an industry that processes or manufactures primary
raw materials (such as steelmaking) assembles parts made by other
industries (such as cars) or is part of the construction industry.
Tertiary industry: an occupation, such as health, education, transport
and retailing, which provides a service to people

Employment structure (how the workforce is divided up between

employment sectors) of an MEDC e.g. UK
Low proportion of people working in primary industry.
Mechanisations of jobs in the primary sector.
Also, as primary resources have become exhausted (e.g. coal)
A lot of resources are now imported.
The number of people employed in the secondary sector is falling.
 Mechanisation - as machines are taking over jobs in factories.
The tertiary sector is the main growth area.
Most people work in hospitals, schools, offices and financial
services.
Greater demand for leisure services as people have more free
time and become wealthier.
More jobs become available in the tertiary sector.
Employment structure of an LEDC e.g. Ghana
The majority of people work in the primary sector.
This is due to the lack of machinery available in farming,
forestry and mining.
Farming is very important because people often grow the food
they eat.
Few people work in secondary industries due to the lack of factories

machinery is too expensive
Multi-national companies rely on the raw materials available in
Ghana to assist in manufacturing products
Tertiary sector can be larger than secondary sector.
Most informal work is in the tertiary sector
Growth of jobs in tourism
Employment structure of a NIC e.g. Brazil
Brazil is a NIC or Newly Industrialized Country. While it is developing its
economic base there are still a large number of people employed in
primary industries such as farming. There are a large proportion of people
employed in tertiary industries. One reason for this is because of the
growth of Brazil as a tourist destination. Also, there have been significant
improvements in the provision of health care, education and transport.

The industrial system has 3 parts: inputs, processes and outputs

Inputs include: physical (natural) which are the resources such as coal and
iron ore, or human/economic (artificial) such as labour and costs.
Processes include: turning raw materials into usable things such as
steelmaking and also turning the usable things into other things for
example assembling cars.
Outputs include: profit or loss + waste materials e.g. slag + products for
sale
Locating an industry:
Physical factors:
-power/energy: the industry should be near the raw materials or a
port/station where the materials come from
-natural routes: river valleys and flat land is good for transport
-site and land: flat land & enough space might be needed, cheap land
Human and economic factors:
-labour: quantity (industry might need many people) and/or quality (very-
skilled workers, close to a university)
-capital (money)
-markets: size and location of market
-transport: cost increases when items are bulky (steel), fragile
(glassware) , heavy (steel) or perishable (fruit/veg.)
-government policies
-improved technology: e.g. people who reply to phone calls as a job
(noobs)
-leisure facilities: countryside views / amenities
High-tech industries are footloose as they do not need to be near raw
materials so are located:
-in a pleasant working environment near to large markets and major
transport routes
Or
-especially in the case of foreign companies, been tempted by government
policies to locate in former industrial areas which often had
higher levels of unemployment

3.3 Leisure activities and tourism

Tourism has increased because:
-greater affluence: higher salary + holiday with pay
-greater mobility: increase in car ownership + more aircraft
-improved accessibility and transport facilities:
-better roads
-larger airports, online reservation, package holidays
-more leisure time: longer vacations, shorter working hours,
people work from home, more elderly
-changing lifestyles: changing fashions, earlier retirements
-change in recreational activities
-advertising of holiday destinations: TV and interwebz
-green tourism
Advantages of tourism:
-growth in income
-an increase in foreign exchange
-employment opportunities
-the development of infrastructure and facilities which may be used
by the local population
-the encouragement of other developments to take place in an area
-cultural advantages
Disadvantages of tourism:
-seasonal unemployment
-under-use of facilities at certain times of the year (ski-towns in
summer)
-increased congestion, pollution (the Lake District)
-a shortage of services e.g. water supplies
-social/cultural problems
-damage to the physical landscape (foot path erosion in the
Lake District)
Growth of tourism in an area will depend on factors such as:
-accessibility
-scenery
 -climate
-accommodation
-amenities
-sustainability
3.4 Energy and water resources
FIY the syllabus only asks for the significance of renewable and non
renewable and the siting of 3 types of power station but Im going to add a
little bit more to that.
Types of resources
Non-renewable resources: These are finite. Fossil fuels were initially
produced by photosynthesis. In theory they are renewable, but it
takes millions of years for them to form. E.g. coal, oil, gas,
(uranium).
Renewable resources: These are continuous e.g. solar, wind, water,
geothermal. They are therefore sustainable.
Non-renewable resources:
Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) used mainly by MEDCs
Uranium for nuclear energy
Fuel-wood non-commercial source of energy in MEDCs but important in
LEDCs; women have to walk long distances each day to collect wood. They
cook over open wood fires or wood burning stoves.

Renewable energy supplies:

-reduce dependence upon fossil fuels
-alleviate the worlds energy crisis
-offer opportunities for the development of alternative energy
sources
-they do not pollute
-they do not add to Global Warming
-the source lasts forever

Renewable energy supplies are:

-geothermal
-wind
-solar
-bio fuel (since photosynthesis equals the amount of CO2 from combustion)
-hydroelectric
-tidal

Thermal power stations:

In a thermal power station, fuel (coal or natural gas) is burned in a
boiler to convert water to steam.
The high-pressure steam is directed into a turbine, which turns the
turbine shaft.
This shaft, connected to an electrical generator, produces electricity as
it turns.
 A condenser converts the spent steam from the turbine back to water
that is reused in the boiler.
The condenser cooling water comes from the reservoir and is returned
for reuse.
They need:
A large area of flat land
A water source
A rail link
Isolated area for nuclear
Cooling towers
Positioning a power station (the 3 you have to know):
Generator house Chimney stacks
Cooling towers

Water source e.g. river

Rail link Large area of flat land

Water source

Reactor house

Cooling tower
Cooling ponds

Large area of flat land with security zone

Isolated area
 Mountains = more cloud & rain Impermeable rock

Steep-sided narrow valley

Reservoir to create head of water

Small surface area = less evapor

Little occupied rural area

Short, high dam

Heavy precipitation (relief rainfall) over high mountains

Snow and glaciers provide spring water
Large drainage basin traps more water
Natural glacial lake or reservoir provides constant supply of water
Impervious rock prevents water infiltration = surface runoff
Steep-sided glaciated valley helps dam construction, water
travels faster
Site of former waterfall provides a head of water
Nearby industrial and domestic demand
Small surface area = less evaporation

Resour Advantages Disadvantages

ce
Coal Lasts 300yrs, now Cost of production high,
become more efficient, produces lot of GH gases,
needed to make coke dangerous, open cast =
visual pollution, costly to
transport, acid rain
Oil More efficient than Lasts only 50-70yrs, oil spills,
coal, easier to releases GH gases, prices
transport, diversity of fluctuate, refineries use lot of
uses, petro-chemicals space, acid rain
Gas Cleanest of fossil fuels, Releases methane,
cheaper than oil, easy explosive, prices fluctuate,
to distribute acid rain, GH gases.

Water uses:
-Agriculture: to water the plants etc.
-Domestic: cooking, cleaning and drinking
-Industrial: heated to make steam in order to turn turbines, and for cooling
down reactors
 3.5 Environmental risks and benefits:
resource conservation and management
Problems with development:
Soil erosion: occurs in farms, where the rainforest is cleared soil is
washed away by rain because there are no tree roots to retain it. In the
Amazon rainforest, eroded soil goes into rivers and pollutes the drinking
water.
Global warming: the greenhouse effect is when infrared radiation passes
through the atmosphere, and some is absorbed and re-emitted in all
directions by greenhouse gas molecules. The effect of this is to warm the
Earths surface and lower atmosphere. Global warming happens as a result
of too much greenhouse gas
The effects:
-melting ice-sheets
-rising sea levels
-increase in storms
-change in the distribution of precipitation
-plants and wildlife might not have the time to adjust
-lower crop yields in Africa, parts of Asia and Latin America too, may
increase in northern America and Europe
-more people at risk from insect-borne and water-borne diseases
Greenhouse gases are:
-CO2 from burning fossil fuels or wood in power stations, cars and homes
-methane from decomposing organic matter and waste gases from
digestion cows farting haha
-CFCs or chlorofluorocarbons from aerosols, air conditioners, foam
packaging and refrigerators (now banned)
-nitrous oxide from car exhausts, power stations and agricultural fertiliser
Air pollution: cars (transport) and power stations (energy production)
Carbon monoxide incomplete combustion of carbon-containing
substances causes oxygen starvation
Sulphur dioxide combustion of fossil fuels causes respiratory problems
and acid rain
Nitrogen oxides nitrogen and oxygen from air combine in a hot
environment (hot furnace or car engine) same effect as sulphur dioxide
Lead oxide: damages nervous system, from burning leaded petrol/diesel
Water pollution:
-industrial waste because it is cheap, does not take up land (as opposed to
a land-fill site), and people favour economic growth over the protection of
the environment
-soil in rivers due to soil erosion (as shown in the Amazon)
-nitrates from fertilisers and phosphates from manure cause
eutrophication
-oil spilling into the sea
-acid rain lowers pH (increases acidity) of lakes/ponds and leaches
aluminium out of the soil causing:
-the fishes gills to be damaged eventually killing them, fixed by adding
calcium hydroxide (slaked lime)
-destroys the top of the trees and the aluminium damages tree roots =
dead tree, important nutrients leached away
-health hazards for humans
-damages limestone buildings and sculptures
-fewer crops can be grown on an acidic field
Visual pollution: all those things are ugly compared to unspoiled nature
Noise pollution: vehicles (including planes) transport, tractors
agriculture, mining or quarrying (Lake District) probably produces noise,
noisy tourists who stay up late partying, music tourism.