PHOTOSYNTHETICALLY ACTIVE m mol with mean value of 0.323mol.

The
RADIATION (PAR) MEASUREMENTS IN
PART OF OWERRI WEST L.G.A,
SOUTHEASTERN NIGERIA: IMPLICATION
ON FOOD PRODUCTION AND SECURITY
maximum PAR for January 2017 was 1.630 mmol
with mean value of 0.321mmol. Results indicate
that the highest PAR value of 1.847m mol was
recorded in December, 2016. However, the daily
PAR recordings for the two months measurements
periods are quite favourable for production of
food. Daily maximum PAR was recorded between
the hours of 12 and 2pm corresponding to peak
period for radiation used in food production.

Prof. C. A. Ahiarakwem,
Omeire, O. * and Ibeh, J. C.*

+
Institute Of Erosion Studies (IES),
Federal University of Technology, Owerri
(FUTO)

*
Department of Geology. FUTO

ABSTRACT
Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) was
measured on a daily basis using Quantum QS5
Sensor for a period of two month: December, 2016
and January 2017. The results show that maximum
PAR for the month of December 2016 was 1.847
1
1 INTRODUCTION The PAR sensor used in this study is located at
Federal University of Technology automated
Photosynthetically active radiation, (PAR), Weather station Owerri Imo State. The sensor
designates the spectral range (wave band) of solar covers FUTO community and environs. The
radiation from 400 to 700 nanometers that purpose of the PAR measurement is to determine
photosynthetic organisms are able to use in the the amount of solar radiation during the study
process of photosynthesis. This spectral region period for food production/food security
corresponds more or less with the range of light
visible to the human eye. Photons at shorter 2.1 GEOLOGY
wavelengths tend to be so energetic that they can
be damaging to cells and tissues, but are mostly The study area is underlain by the Benin
filtered out by the ozone layer in the stratosphere. Formation which is a major stratigraphic unit in
Photons at longer wavelengths do not carry the Niger Delta Basin of Nigeria (Figure 1); the
enough energy to allow photosynthesis to take Formation is underlain by the Agbada Formation
place. and overlain by Alluvium deposit (Ahiarakwem,
2013). The Formation consists of friable sands,
Other living organisms, such as Cyanobacteria, clay lenses, sandstone, conglomerate and isolated
purple bacteria and Heliobacteria, can exploit gravel units.
solar light in slightly extended spectral regions,
such as the near-infrared. These bacteria live in
environments such as the bottom of stagnant
ponds, sediment and ocean depths. Because of
their pigments, they form colorful mats of green,
red and purple.
Typical PAR action spectrum, shown beside
absorption spectra for chlorophyll-A, chlorophyll-
B, and carotenoids
Chlorophyll, the most abundant plant pigment, is
most efficient in capturing red and blue light.
Accessory pigments such as carotenes and
xanthophylls harvest some green light and pass it
on to the photosynthetic process, but enough of
the green wavelengths are reflected to give leaves
their characteristic color. An exception to the
predominance of chlorophyll is autumn, when
chlorophyll is degraded (because it contains N and
Mg) but the accessory pigments are not (because
they only contain C, H and O) and remain in the
leaf producing red, yellow and orange leaves.
PAR measurement is used in agriculture, forestry Figure 1: The geology map of the study area
and oceanography. One of the requirements for
productive farmland is adequate PAR, so PAR is The Benin Formation is highly porous and
used to evaluate agricultural investment potential. permeable and serves as the major aquifer of the
area (Onyeagocha, 1980). The Formation was
PAR measurements are also used to calculate the initially known as Coastal Plain Sands. The
euphotic depth in the ocean. thickness of the Formation around the study area
site is 800m (Short and Stauble, 1967).

2
 preserved due to moderate population and
minimal of human activities such as bush burning,
farming, hunting, and others. Generally, most of
the species found in the course of study are listed
2.2 HYDROGEOLOGY/DRAINAGE
below:
The drainage of the study area is dendretic in
LagenariaCicerania; Amaranthushybridus;
nature and flows southwards. The area is drained
Tephroisaraeteslata; ImperataYlindrical;
by Otamiri River (Figure 1). The river is
Phyllanthusmarus; Tinthonisiversifolia;
commercially dredged and is used for recreational
Aspilliafucana; Acrocerasizanioides; Daniellia
and fishing activities. The depth to groundwater
Liven and; Cyperusotundus.
within the site is about 17m and the groundwater
potential is high (Onyeagocha, 1980).

2.5 SOIL AND LAND USE

2.3 CLIMATE/METEOROLOGY The soils of the area were derived from weathered
rocks. They are usually acidic with moderate
The study area is located in the tropical rain forest
nutrients level. The upper horizon of the soil is
belt of Southern Nigeria. The area is dominated
susceptible to leaching activities in some places
by two climate regimes, the wet and dry seasons.
(especially where there is absence or sparse
The wet season commences from April and
vegetation cover. The soil within the facility is
extends to October/November while the dry
dark brown in colour and generally sandy. The soil
season is experienced between December and
exhibits low dilantancy and non-plastic properties;
March. The range of rainfall in the rainy season is
this indicates the absence of expansive clays such
between 99mm and 251mm while the mean
as montmorrilonite. The sandy nature of the soil
annual rainfall is about 3100mm (Avobvo 1978).
makes it vulnerable to contamination.
There is usually a short dry spell in August during
Consequently, the porous and permeable nature of
which there are few intense thunderstorms.
the soil can result in groundwater contamination.
Relative humidity is highest (75%-85%) in the
Although there is absence of sorption materials
area in the months of April through October and
such as clays, the thick sequence of friable
lowest (54%-60%) in November through March,
material underlying the soil acts as a filter cake to
which corresponds to the periods in high and low
the underlying aquifer. However, the shallow
rainfall respectively, (Avobvo 1978).
water table of the area constitutes a threat to the
Temperature in the area varies from 27.50C to pollution attenuation mechanism provided by the
340C in the period between October and May and thick sand sequence underlying the soil profile and
from 270C to 300C in the period between June and overlying the aquifer.
September. The highest temperatures are recorded
The land use pattern includes residential,
between February and March, the onset of the
agriculture and forestry. The surrounding local
rainy season while the lowest temperatures are
communities practice subsistence agriculture and
usually between December and January, the peak
grow crops like yam, cassava, maize, plantain, etc.
of the harmattan (Avobvo 1978).
2.4 VEGETATION
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
The vegetation cover of the study area is
characterized by rain forest. The floristic Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) in the
composition of the study area is heterogeneous area study was measured on a daily basis using
and is characterized by shrubs, bambusa acacia, Quantum Q S5 Sensor for a period of two months:
African Teak, Raffia Palms and palm trees to December, 2016 and January 2017. The sensor
mention but a few. The vegetation of the area is was installed in an automated weather station
3
located at the Institute of Erosion Studies, Federal
University of Technology, Owerri. The sensor was
configured to take reading every five (5) minutes
and record average every twenty four hours (24).
The daily readings were processed using
Microsoft Excel.

4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The weekly PAR results for the month of
December 2016 is summarized in Table 1 and
figure 1-5 while that of January, 2017 is shown in
Table 2 and in figures 6 -10.
December 2016 PAR Measurements
The maximum PAR value for week 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
were 1.8472, 1.5376, 1.5088 table 1. This shows a
consistent decrease in PAR values across the
week.
It was observed that the peak values of PAR were
recorded 11am to 3pm. This implies that this range
of time is for optimum photosynthetic activity. It
is further observed that PAR values reduce during
night hours. The results show that maximum PAR
measured for the month of December 2016 was
1.847 m mol with mean value of 0.323mol.

January 2017 PAR Measurements

The maximum PAR value for weeks 1, 2, 3, and 4
were 1.5504, 1.5184, 1.412 and 1.6304mmol table
2.

4
Table 1: PAR Measurement for the Month of 7am;
December, 2016 10-
D MEA MA Tmax MI Tmin 11pm
1 Sa 1.4 13:25: 0.0 12pm-
A N X N
7 t. 048 33 022 2am; 4-
Y
6am;
S
1 Th 12pm;2 0.342 10-
ur. am;4- 75 11pm
1 Su 1.2 14:25: 0.0 12pm
6am;
8 n. 0.313 008 33 022 6am; 9
0.452 1.6 12:25: 0.0 7pm; 9-
008 -10pm
746 752 33 026 11pm
1 M 1.5 13:25: 0.0 2am;
2 Fri 0.426 1.8 13:25: 0.0 3am
9 on 0.341 088 33 022 5am; 9-
. 238 472 33 022
3 Sa 0.312 1.4 12:25: 0.0 10pm 796 11pm
2 Tu 1.1 13:25: 0.0 12pm;1
t. 317 128 33 022
4 Su 0.308 1.3 11:25: 0.0 2, 4am; 0 es. 0.303 344 33 022 -3am;
n. 871 776 33 022 9-10pm 317 5am
5 M 0.333 1.5 13:25: 0.0 4-5am 2 W 1.2 12:25: 0.0 1am;
on 721 968 33 022 1 ed. 0.330 384 33 022 4am; 9-
6 Tu 12pm; 925 11pm
es. 0.348 1.4 11:25: 0.0 3am; 2 Th 1.0 12:25: 0.0 5am;
3 28 33 022 10pm 2 ur. 0.290 536 33 022 8pm;
7 W 0.333 1.5 13:25: 0.0 4-5am 521 11pm
ed. 721 968 33 022 2 Fri 1.2 13:25: 0.0 12pm;
8 Th 0.317 1.3 12:25: 0.0 12pm 3 . 424 33 022 1am;
ur. 246 528 33 022 8pm;
9 Fri 0.357 1.3 12:25: 0.0 1am 0.330 10-
. 621 936 33 022 933 11pm
1 Sa 12pm; 2 Sa 1.1 14:25: 0.0 12pm;
0 t. 0.299 1.1 13:25: 0.0 2-3 am 4 t. 0.286 232 33 022 1-5am;
854 896 33 022 11pm 279 8 -11pm
1 Su 0.269 1.1 13:25: 0.0 120m; 2 Su 1.4 13:25: 0.0 2-3am;
1 n. 604 792 33 022 2-3am 5 n. 272 33 022 5-6am;
1 M 0.298 1.5 12:25: 0.0 12pm; 0.356 8-9pm;
2 on 5 376 33 022 5am 8 11pm
1 Tu 0.326 1.1 13:25: 0.0 4-5am 2 M 0.245 0.9 12:25: 0.0 12pm,
3 es. 867 968 33 022 6 on 054 648 33am 022 6am,9p
1 W 12pm; m
4 ed. 0.397 1.5 12:25: 0.0 5-6am; 2 Tu 1.1 13:25: 0.0 12pm,
358 448 33 022 11pm 7 es. 0.275 256 33pm 022 1-3am.
1 Th 0.343 1.4 12:25: 0.0 5am; 55 8pm
5 ur. 104 968 33 022 10pm 2 W 0.308 1.1 12:25: 0.0 12pm ,
1 Fri 0.269 1.0 13:25: 0.0 1am; 8 ed. 633 44 33 022 7pm
6 . 663 496 33 022 3am; 5- 2 Th 0.279 1.0 13:25: 0.0 0,2,4,5,

5
9 ur. 525 448 33 022 6,12
3 Fri 0.315 1.2 12:25: 0.0 01
0 . 917 28 33 022 06am
3 Sa 0.293 1.1 13:25: 0.0 02,
1 t. 721 592 33 022 04,5am
10 ,
11pm

Like the December measurement, the peak values

of PAR were recorded between 12 noon and 2 pm.
This implies that this time is for optimum
photosynthetic activity. It is further observed that
PAR values reduce during night hours. The
maximum PAR for January 2017 was 1.630 micro
mol with mean value of 0.321mmol.
Comparatively, The PAR values measured in
December 2016 was higher than the one of
January, 2107. According, the PAR values for the
December, 2016 appear to be more favourable
relatively for photosynthetic activity.
However, the PAR values for the two months are
general favourable for photosynthesis/ food
production.

6
Figure 2: PAR Reading in First week of Figure 4: PAR radiation for the Third week of
December, 2016 December, 2016

Figure 3: PAR radiation for the Second week of Figure 5: PAR radiation for the Four week of
December, 2016 December, 2016

7
 8 Su 0.2 1.0 1:25:33 0.0 12pm;
n. 680 688 pm 026 2-
6am;
8-
11pm
9 Mo 0.3 1.5 1:25:33 0.0 2-3am
n 888 504 pm 022
1 Tu 0.3 1.3 12:25:3 0.0 1am
0 es. 209 528 3am 022
1 We 0.3 1.4 1:25:33 0.0 05:25:
1 d. 810 008 pm 025 33
1 Th 0.2 1.1 11:25:3 0.0 1am;
2 ur. 708 496 3pm 022 3am;
1 Fri 12pm-
3 . 1am;
3am;
5-
Figure 5: PAR Reading for the Fifth week of 6am;
December, 2016 0.2 1.0 11:25:3 0.0 8-
656 256 3pm 026 11pm
Table 2: PAR Measurement for the Month of 1 Sat 0.3 1.4 1:25:33 0.0 9-
January, 2017 4 . 335 48 pm 022 10pm
PAR MEASUREMENT FOR THE 1 Su 0.3 1.3 1:25:33 0.0 5am,
MONTH OF JANUARY, 2017 5 n. 427 992 pm 022 10pm
S/ Da Me Ma Tmax Mi Tmin 1 Mo 0.3 1.4 12:25:3 0.0 1am;
N y an x n 6 n 707 32 3am 022 3-6am
1 Su 0.3 1.3 1:25:33 0.0 1 am; 1 Tu 4-
n. 536 48 pm 022 4pm 7 es. 0.3 1.5 12:25:3 0.0 6am;
9pm 774 184 3am 022 9pm
2 Mo 0.3 1.2 12:25:3 0.0 6am; 1 We 12pm-
n 416 936 3pm 022 11pm 8 d. 2am;
3 Tu 0.3 1.2 1:25:33 0.0 12pm; 0.2 1.0 2:25:33 0.0 4am;
es. 187 304 pm 022 2am; 685 192 pm 022 8pm
6am 1 Th 2-
4 We 0.3 1.2 12:25:3 0.0 12pm; 9 ur. 0.3 1.2 2:25:33 0.0 3am;1
d. 187 488 3am 022 4am 341 568 pm 022 1pm
5 Th 0.3 1.2 1:25:33 0.0 2am, 2 Fri 12pm;
ur. 082 136 pm 022 4am 0 . 5am;
6 Fri 0.2 1.1 1:25:33 0.0 12pm- 0.3 1.3 1:25:33 0.0 9pm;
. 877 36 pm 026 6am; 359 704 pm 022 11pm
7- 2 Sat 0.3 1.3 2:25:33 0.0 3-4am
11pm 1 . 686 992 pm 022
7 Sat 0.2 1.0 1:25:33 0.0 4am; 2 Su 0.2 0.9 2:25:33 0.0 9pm
. 748 16 pm 022 6pm 2 n. 553 216 pm 022
2 Mo 0.2 1.1 12:25:3 0.0 2am;
8
3 n 965 296 3am 022 6am
2 Tu 12pm
4 es. -2am;
0.3 1.2 12:25:3 0.0 6am
068 536 3am 022 10pm
2 We 3-
5 d. 4am;
6am;
0.3 1.4 1:25:33 0.0 10-
418 12 pm 022 11pm
2 Th 0.2 0.7 3:25:33 0.0 5am
6 ur. 115 744 pm 022
2 Fri 1-
7 . 2am;
0.3 1.4 1:25:33 0.0 4am;
677 616 pm 022 11pm
2 Sat 0.3 1.4 1:25:33 0.0 1, 5am
8 . 563 344 pm 025
2 Su 3am; Figure 6: PAR Reading for the First week of
January, 2017
9 n. 0.3 1.6 1:25:33 0.0 6am;
833 304 pm 022 10pm
3 Mo 12pm-
0 n 2am;
0.3 1.4 1:25:33 0.0 4am;
330 008 pm 022 10pm
3 Tu 0.2 1.0 12:25:3 0.0 8pm
1 es. 571 528 3am 022

Figure 7: PAR Reading for the Second week of

January, 2017

9
Figure 8: PAR Reading for the Third week of
January, 2017
Figure 10: PAR reading for the Fifth week of
January, 2017

CONCLUSION
Photosynthetic active radiation is specifically for
food production by plants and crops. This study
shows that the measured PAR values for the
months of December 2016 and January 2017 are
quite for photosynthetic activity and this will
enhance the production of fruits, vegetables and
other crops in the study area. It is important to
note that climatic condition is a major factor that
determines the amount of PAR that is generated.
Lower values of PAR were obtained in the
morning and evening night period respectively.

Figure 9: PAR Reading for the Fourth week of

January, 2017
REFERENCES

10
Ahiarakwem, C. A. Nwankwor, G. I, Chinemelu, GEOTEXTILE TUBE AND FLOOD
E. S. and Paschal, C.C.( 2014), Variations in CONTROL
Groundwater Flow Potential in parts of Imo State.,
Niger State, Southeastern Nigeria. International
Journ. Of Engineering Innovations Vol. 3, Issue 6,
pp8-16,. Engr. Dr. (Mrs) G.C. Onuegbu
Ahiarakwem, C. A., (2013) Impact of Gaseous
Emissions from E Flow Station on Ogutalake
and its associated Tributaries, Niger Delta Basin, Department of Polymer and Textile
Southeastern Nigeria. ISSESCO Journ., Science & Engineering
Tech. Vol.8, No.16, pp9-17,.
Ananaba, S.E, Onu, N.N and Iwuagwu, C. J., School of Engineering and Engineering
(1993) Geophysical study of gravel deposit in Technology
Ihiagwa, Owerri, Nigeria, Journ. Of Min &
Geol.Vol.29, No. 2, pp95-100,.
Avovbo, A.A; (1978): Tertiary
lithostratigraphy of Niger Delta American Federal University of Technology, Owerri
Association of petroleum geologist bulletin, V. 62,
Pg. 295-300.
National Root Crop Research Institute, (2013).
Umudike, Climate Data, Abuja State.
National Environmental (Surface water and
Groundwater Quality Control) Regulations, 2011,
B693-727.

Onyeagocha, A.C. (1980) Petrography and

depositional environment of the Benin formation,.
Nigeria journal of Mining and Geology. Vol. 17
No. 2, Pg. D147-151.
Short K.C. and A.J. Stauble, (1967). Outline on
geology of Niger Delta. AAPG Bulletin Vol. 51.
Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON),
(2007).5542-2007
United States Environmental Protection Agency,
(2000) Office of Air Quality Planning and
standards, hot mix asphalt plants emission
assessment report, December 2000.

11
 They are used in structural (marine) applications.
ABSTRACT The general goal is to contain a material (e.g.
sand, slurry, water) within a thin membrane for the
Geotextile tubes minimize environmental damage, purpose of developing a resistance to applied
reduce the cost and time needed to construct loads (Biggar, 2010).
flood-protection levees. Its proponents argue that
geotextile tube technology could solve some of the 1.1 GEOTEXTILE TUBE.
major problems associated with raising flood- The first geotextile tube was installed in 1962 and
control levee. The article also addresses the as of 2008, over 240km of shoreline have been
fabrication, construction and applications of protected using this product. Geotextile tubes
geotextile tubes in controlling flood. Categories of gained prominence in the early 1990s and have
geotextile tubes and their installations are also proven effective for shoreline erosion control
treated. (Gibeant et al., 2003) and in numerous
environmental applications (e.g. Fowler et al.,
2007).
Geotextile tubes are manufactured by sewing
1.0 INTRODUCTION together multiple sheets of high strength polyester
Geotextiles have contributed to the erosion or polypropylene fabrics (typically woven fabrics)
control industry for over 50 years (Mitchell et to create an enclosed tube. Geotextile tubes may
al.,2003) and are mainly used in Civil engineering be filled with untreated soils, stabilized soils, or
projects, such as dam retaining wall, bases for even concrete (Cantre, 2002). A geotextile tube
roads and reservoir slope stabilization consists of a stable network that retains its relative
(Davies,2000) structure during handling, placement and long-
Geotextiles are defined as permeable textiles used term service (Leshchinsky, 1996).
in conjunction with soil, foundation, rock, earth or
any geotechnical engineering related material
(Lalit, 2005). Geotextiles are permeable fabrics
which, when used in association with soil, have
the ability to separate, filter, reinforce, protect or
drain. There are three basic forms of geotextile;
woven (resembling sack), needle punched
(resembling felt), and heat bonded geotextiles
(resembling ironed felt) (Koerner,et al. 2008). Fig 1.1 Polyester material
Geotextiles have different configurations such as
geotextile tube, geotextile bags, and geomembrane
tube.
Geotextile bags are similar in concept to
conventional sand bags, though they are typically
larger. Geomembrane tubes are manufactured by
placing two independent water-tight membrane
tubes inside a larger tube or sleeve that is typically
made from a woven geotextile. They are rapidly
deployable barrier when filled with water that has
been successfully used for multiple applications.
Sing tubes filled with water could not support
water, but frictional fences in the outer geotextile Fig1.1 Constructed geotextile tube
allow water to be supported with two interior
water tubes (Landis, 2000).

12
2.1 FABRICATION OF
GEOTEXTILE/GEOMEMBRANE TUBES
Four categories of geotextile tubes are identified
base on their fabrication methods:
i. Longitudinal seamed
ii.Circumferential seamed
iii.Helical rib supported
iv.uniaxial
Smaller circumference tubes (e.g. 10.4m) are
typically manufactured using longitudinal
seaming, while larger circumference tubes (in
excess of 13.7m) are typically manufactured using
circumferential seaming. To fabricate a geotextile
tube using longitudinal seaming, two geotextile
sections each slightly wider than half the desired
circumference and equal to the desired length are
placed on top of one another.
A seam is sewn along both sides and along the end
of the geotextiles to produce the tube (Huong et
al., 2002). To fabricate a geotextile tube using
circumferential seaming, multiple geotextiles
sections are sewn together. The width of the
geotextile is placed in the longitudinal direction of
the tube and the length of the geotextile is cut
slightly longer than the desired circumference of
the tube as can be seen in Figure 2.1.

Fig. 2.1:
Helical rib supported geotextile tubes have four
times the strength of the outside shell of the fabric,
which allow essentially any fill material (e.g. silt,
clay, organic matter) to be used.

13
Fig. 2.2: Helical Rib supported Geotextile

Uni-axial type keeps seams in lower stressed

areas. Key seams are perpendicular to the
circumferential closure seam along the bottom of
the tube. The concept of the seaming method is to
allow production of a geotextile tube with the (c) Baffled type
same strength as other methods using a lower Fig. 2.3: Fabrication style
strength fabric (Koerner, 2008).

2.1 Fabrication Styles 3.0 APPLICATION OF GEOTEXTILE TUBE

During fabrication, three styles are available: The applications of geotextile tubes are shown
(a.) Closed-ended: It has an open end that must be below:
elevated, while the other end is closed.The closed
end:It is often fitted with a collar to allow a water-
tight attachment of a second unit.
(b.) Double closed-ended unit: It has both ends
closed with pre-inserted fill hoses Double, and
collars can be used to extend these units in both
directions.
(c.)Baffled type: The fabrics are rolled onto a solid
core (packaged similar to a carpet roll) and the
inner and master tubes unroll perpendicular to the
core due to water pressure as they are filled with
water (Bygness, 2009).

Fig. 3.1: Bank Protection

14
 CONCLUSION
Geotextile tubes minimize environmental damage
and reduce the cost and time needed to construct
flood-protection levees. Geotextile-tube
technology could solve some of the major
problems associated with raising flood-control
levees.

REFERENCES
Biggar, K. & Masala, S. (2010). Alternatives to
Sand bags for Temporary Flood
Protections. Report to Alberta Transportation and
Utilities Disaster Services
Branch, Pp. 78.
Fig. 3.2: Temporary Blocking of Waterway Bygness, R. (2009). Grand Isle to Get Storm
Surge Protection before 2009
Hurricane Season, Geosynthetics, 27(3), 39.
Canter, S. (2002). Geotextile Tubes Analytical
Design Aspects Geotextile and
Geomembranes, 20(5), 305-309.
Cardno, C.A. (2009). Geotube Reinforced Sand
Dunes to Buffer Louisiana Barrier
Island from Hurricanes, Civil Engineering 79(10),
20-21.
Fowler, J., Duke, M., Schmidt, M.L., Crabtree, B.,
Bagby, R.M. & Trainer, E.
(2007). Dewatering sewage sludge and hazardous
sludge with geotextile tubes.
Gibeant, J.C., Hopner, T.L., Waldinger, R.,

Fig.3.3: Aquatic dam used for flood control Andrews, J.R., Smyth, R.C. &
Fig. 4.4: Residential Dwelling Protection.
15
 Institute of Erosion Studies
Gutierrez, R. (2003). Temporary Erosion Control Federal University of Technology
and Storm Surge Protection Owerri
Along the Gulf of Mexico, Shoreline of Texas,
Proceedings of the 13th Biennial
Coastal Zone Conference Baltimore, MD, July
13-177
Huong, T.C., Plant, R.H., Filz, G.M. (2002).
Wedges Geomembrane Tubes as
Temporary Flood-Fighting Devices, Thin Wall
Structure, 40, 913-923.
Koerner, R.M., Hsuan, Y.G. &Koerner, G.R.
(2008). Fresh water and
Geosynthetic: A perfect marriage. The First Pan
American Geosynthetics
Conference and Exhibition.
Landis, K. (2000). Control Floods with Geotextile
Cofferdams. Geotechnical
Fabrics Report, 18(2), 24-29.
Leschinsky, D., Leshchinsky, O. Ling, H.I.,
Gilbert, P.A. (1996). Geosynthetic
Tubes for Confining Pressurized Slurry. Some
Design Aspects. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering. 122(8), 682-690.
Mitchell,D.J., A.P., Barton, M.A. Fullen, J.J.,
Hocking, and Zheng, Y.(2003). Field studies of the
effects of jute geotextiles on runoff and erosion in
shropshere, U.K. Soil Use and Management 19,
182-184.
Davies, K (2000). An evaluation of the
effectiveness of palm-mat geotextiles on the
conservation of loamy soil of the Bridgenorth
series. University of Wolverhampton, U.K., 18
Lalit, J.(2005).Geotextiles-Functions, properties
and Applications, Asian Textile Journals, 89-93.

GLOBAL WARMING: A MESSAGE FOR ABSTRACT

CONCERN This paper presents the critical issue of global
warming in a bid to send an alert message. Global
Uja E.U, NwachukwuP.C., OmeireO. warming refers to the increases in the average

16
surface temperatures of the earth and Oceans,
caused by increasing concentrations of Carbon
dioxide CO2 and other greenhouse gases
emissions, automobile emissions in the
atmosphere such as methane CH4, Ozone 03,
Nitrous Oxide NO2. Human activities like the
burning of fossils, deforestation, pollution,
industrialization increase greenhouse gas levels.
These greenhouse gases absorb heat that would
otherwise bounced off the earths surface and
oceans. The atmosphere is thus heated up, driving
global warming and associated climate change.
While carbon dioxide concentrations and other
gases are naturally present in the atmosphere,
emissions from human activities have greatly
amplified this natural greenhouse effects and calls
for attention.
Key words: Global warming, fossils,
deforestation, industrialization.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The consumption of fossil fuels has contributed
much to the degradation of our environment.
Global warming, climate change, extinction of
wildlife species and habitat, depletion of Ozone
layer, increases in air and water pollution have
continued to create problems and on these our
environment is suffering. (http://www.conserve-
energy-future.com). The alarm calls for some
action and need to be addressed. The issue of the
global warming requires cautious handling.
Though the earths average surface temperature
increases due to such greenhouse gases like
Carbon dioxide and methane, these gases are
required for the presence of life on earth. The
global warming is really happening due to over-
emittance of these gases. The enrichment of the
gases in the atmosphere often results through air
and water pollution. Wars have also greatly
contributed to global warming. This should not
surprise us. All the bombs going off, all the
rockets, all the planes and helicopters. All the
fuels of various kinds that are being used. They
pollute the air and water of the very fragile and
interconnected plane. (Alice Walker in
http://www.conserve.energy-future.com)
2.00OVERVIEW OF GLOBAL
WARMING(CONSEQUENCES)
17
The effects of global warming cannot be over-
emphasised. Certain facts have been made
available. According to IPCC 2007 report,sea
levels are likely to rise by 0.18m by the end of this
century due to global warming; since 1880, the
average temperature of the earth has risen by
0.7degrees celcius.; the last two decades of the
20th century have been the hottest in 400years;the
Arctic has been identified as one of worst places
being effected by global warming as the Arctic ice
is rapidly melting up, tending to ice summer.
According to the multinational Arctic climate
impact assessment report,2004: the Arctic ice
region is likely to have ice summer by 2040,the
polar ice not being an exception; the Montana
Glacier National Park has 25 glaciers instead of
the 150 that have been there in 1910; coral reefs
are suffering the worst bleaching with a highest
dying number since 1980; there are easily grave
forest fires, heat waves, drought, hurricanes and
severe tropical storms globally ;there has been
tremendous increase in evaporation of water
vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide
and other greenhouse gases due to polluting
substances emitted as a result of industrialization,
pollution, deforestation; humans are emitting
more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, faster
than the absorbing plants and the oceans; sea
levels have risen about 0.18m in the past
100years,threatening the lives of people
particularly in the coastal areas; around
100million people live with 0.91m sea level, being
vulnerable; melting of glaciers cause sea levels to
rise; more than 1million species are becoming
extinct due to the disappearance of habitants and
ecosystems; the rate at which carbon dioxide is
being dumped in the environment is 37 billion
metric tons per year, with much of this from
human activities; the carbon dioxide levels in the
20th century is the highest650,000years; burning
of fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas has been
responsible for many respiratory diseases and
large scale deaths; each year of the 21st century so
far ranked among the 14 hottestyears since 1880;
the colder areas of the world are becoming hot
more and more vulnerable to diseases; heat
related illness and deaths are expected to rise
globally; global warming leads to massive food
and water shortages and these are life threatening
both to humans, plants and wildlife. The depletion
of the Ozone layer because of global warming was
alarmed in the mid-1970s. An atmospheric
chemist (Frank Rand Mario M 1987) discovered
that chlorofluro carbons while inert in the
atmosphere breakdown in the stratosphere in the
presence of Ultra-Violent radiation, freezing
chlorine atoms that combine with oxygen obtained
from Ozone molecules. As a result of the
incidence, there is a thinning down ofthe Ozone
layer that protects the earths surface from lethal
amounts of Ultra-Violent radiation. Knight, J et
al 2009, had hinted that the amount of dissolved
Oxygen in the Oceans may decline because of
global warming, raising adverse consequences to
marine life. The Oceans serve as a sink for carbon
dioxide, taking up much that would otherwise
remain in the atmosphere, but increase levels of
the carbon dioxide have led to Ocean
Acidification. The acidification makes life difficult
for organisms that build shell out of calcium
carbonate. The organisms include corals, shellfish
and pteropods that form the foundation of marine
food webs. As the temperature of the Ocean rises,
the ability to absorb excess carbon dioxide wanes.
The effects of global warming on Oceans are
continually being cited by researchers. The effects
in rising sea levels due to thermal expansion and
melting of glaciers and ice sheets, and warming of
the Ocean surface , leading to increased
temperature stratification was again noted.(White,
1995). The greenhouse effect, a process by which
absorption and emission of infrared radiation by
gases in the atmosphere warms the earths surface
has been continued to be of interest to researchers.
(Meehi et al,2005)
From the United Nation fifth (2014) report (AR5)
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change: temperature increased 0.65-1.08 degrees
celcius from 1880 to 2012; carbon dioxide
dumping into the air is rising and was about
1300tons/second in 2013;carbon dioxide level was
noted highest in 650,000years, up by 40 percent
due to industrialization.
(http://zfacts.com/p/783.htm)
The earth is seen to be getting hotter day by day;
roughly 10 times faster than any time since the
past 800,000years.National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) had taken a look at the
18
global temperatures back 800,000years and saw
that the global mean temperature has never risen
this fast .As the earth moved out of the ice age, the
global temperature according to the report rose a
total of 4-7degrees celcius over a period of
5,000years. They predicted rate of warming for
the next century to be at least 20times faster. On
carbon dioxide levels, the report had it that the
atmospheric carbon dioxide has never been as
high as today-0ver 400parts per million, never at
any time during the past 400,000years.In those
years, it hovered just between 200-280 parts per
million. On sea level, the report had it that the
global sealevel continues to rise at 0.32cm
annually, due to meltingglaciers and ice sheets,
increase rate of carbon emissions and the
thermal expansion of the ocean waters as they
warm.
(http://www.cleveland.com/weather;https://ww
w.nasa.gov.american space agency)
According to National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Releases
2016 Arctic Report Card: Emissions of
pollutants warm the climate. A specific culprit is
Ozone, which results from the emissions from
cars, power plants, industrial boilers, refineries,
and chemical plants reacting with sunlight in the
atmospheric. If Ozone depletion continues to
increase, this will cause widespread health
problems: shortness of breath; pain when taken a
deep breath; coughing; sore or scratchy throat;
inflamed and damaged airways; aggravation of
diagnosed lung diseases: asthma, emphysema, and
chronic bronchitis. The same report has it that
marine species are moving to the poles to stay
cool as the average ocean temperature rises and
that the large shifts can cause ecological
disruptions as predators are separated from their
typical prey. (www.noaa.gov.;www.weather.gov.)
3.00 THE GREENHOUSE GASES
3.10 METHANE (CH4)
The atmospheric content of methane has been
increasing annually at rate of 0.8 to 1.0 percent.
Increases in methane track well with population
growth rates. (Glantz and Krenz, 1992) Human
activities such as wet rice cultivation, domestic
ruminant breeding, landfills, biomass burning,
coal mining and natural gas venting including
leaks from natural gas pipelines have contributed
to the atmospheric concentration of methane.
(IPCC, 1990)
There are natural sources of methane of methane
emissions such as termites, wetlands, both of
which can be influenced by human activities.
Methane is produced by the activity of bacteria
breaking down organic matter in relatively oxygen
free condition. Warmer condition are likely to
increase the ecosystems and, in the process,
methane emission. (DACEY et al, 1994)
3.20 OZONE (03)
High level Ozone layer is a major absorber of
short-wave Ultra-violent radiation and is
primarily important in maintaining the
temperature structure of the stratosphere. Ozone
at lower level is also an important absorber of
long-wave infrared radiation. The addition of
Ozone at height below 30km causes net
atmospheric warming while above this height
there is cooling of the stratosphere zone that
accounts for about 90 percent of the atmospheres
concentration. About 10 percent of atmospheric
zone occurs lower breaks down the in the
troposphere. Troposphere Ozone down under
Ultra-violent radiation into oxygen atoms which
reacts with water vapour to produce hydroxyl
radical, which helps to regulate the levels of
methane. (White, 1995)
3.30 CHLORO FLUOROCARBON (CFCS)
Chlorofluoro carbon (CFCs) was discovered in
1920 and are used as cleansing solvents, blowing
agent(s, refrigerants, fire retardants and as
propellants in aerosol sprays. Glantz and
Krenz,1992) They are chemically inert and have a
long residence time in the atmosphere, estimated
at 60 to 200years. In the stratosphere, they are
subjected to photo dissociation after which the
free chlorine combines with Ozone to form other
compounds. This process make very efficient
Ozone destroyer. In addition to the destructive
tendency, CFCs are also efficient in trapping long
wave radiation, thereby enhancing the greenhouse
effect. (Glantz and Krenz, 1992)
3.40 NITROUS OXIDE (N2O)
Nitrous oxide is generated mainly from soils,
especially by the use of fertilizers and agriculture.
About 90 percent of the global emissions come
from soils. The huge rise in the production of
synthetic fertilizers in recent decades has
19
increased the release of nitrous oxide to about 100
tonnesgrammes of nitrogen annually.
(Levenberger M and Siegenthaler U, 1992)
Other identified sources of nitrous oxide occur in
the production of nylon and nitric acid. Nitrous
oxide is fairly stable in the atmosphere with a
lifetime of about 150 years. (White, 1995) The
potential as a greenhouse gas is about 230times
that of carbon dioxide molecule to molecule. Even
where the concentration is far lower, it is
potentially a significant contributor to global
warming, accounting for about 5 percent of the
cumulative radioactive force to date. Nitrous oxide
is broken down in the stratosphere by ultraviolent
radiation in a photochemical reactions which
contribute to the depletion of Ozone. (Glantz M H
andKrenz J H, 1992)
Conversion of rain forest to pasture has also been
seen as an important source of nitrous oxide.
Research has shown that there is an increase in the
release of nitrous oxide from soils cleared for
pastures in the Amazon compared with the
original rain forest soils. The conversion of forest
to pasture contributed up to 25 percent increase
in nitrous oxide. The investigation however
revealed that rate of increase of the nitrous oxide
from such land only lasts for a few years, after
which the amount falls off to half or one third of
those of the original forest soils (Keller M etal.,
1993).
4.00 HEALTH ALARM OF GLOBAL
WARMING
The global warming increases the frequency of
Hurricane and other natural disasters such as
coastal erosion, flooding, landslides, loss of
wetlands, salt water intrusion by affecting weather
patterns. As global temperatures rise, the oceans
warm up and expand, ice caps and glaciers melt,
and more precipitation falls as rain instead of
snow. This causes sea levels to rise. Coastal
communities are particularly vulnerable. (John V
A, 2016; Olugbenga A O, 2016). In consequent to
these, there are increases in the appearance and
development of disease vectors. Hurricanes can
cause the spread of water-borne disease such as
cholera and salmonellosis. Vector-borne diseases
of concern include leishmania, dengue fever,
Asthma, and malaria. Malaria infects
approximately 500,000 people and cause more
than two million deaths per year.(Amadi A N,
2014).
4.0 CONTROL OF GLOBAL WARMING
On the strength of the knowledge of global
warming and the havoc associated with it
particularly on humans and the environment, there
is the urgent need for a clarion call for a control of
the cankerworm. Scientists have used
sophisticated computer models called general
circulation models to incorporate observations of
many factors that have an influence on the
vagaries of weather in order to study past, present
and future weather patterns. These models
projected an increase in global average
temperatures that will continue for decades as a
result of the greenhouse gas emissions. In a bid to
tackle the problem of global warming, nations
around the world in the late 1980s and early 1990s
rallied round to develop policies of control to the
emission of the greenhouse gases. Toward this
end also the World Meteorological Organization
and the United Nations Environment Programme
formed the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) in 1988 to monitor, advice, and
proffer possible checks to the global warming.
Further development on this is contained in the
United Nations fifth 2014 report, aimed at
creating the awareness of the global warming,
advising on control and mitigation strategies
through communiqu (unfccc.int./Kyoto-
protocol/items 2830 php). Presently in Nigeria
different bodies like : Nigerian Erosion and
Watershed Management (NEWMAP), Nigerian
Standards and Regulation Enforcement Agency
(NESREA), Nigerian Meteorological Agency
(NIMET), Nigerian Hydrological Agency
(NHSA), National Emergency Agency (NEMA),
Nigerian Airspace Research and Development
Agency (NASRDA),Nigerian Geological Survey
Agency (NGSA), River Basin Development
Authorities, Environmental Consultants,
Institutions of higher Learning and Ministries
have been working in synergy to tackle
relentlessly the issue of global warming. Late last
year the World Bank in collaboration with the
Food and Agricultural Organisation and National
Erosion and Watershed Management, in a well
thought out idea, set up a State of the Act
20
automated Meteorological Station in the Institute
of Erosion Studies, Federal University of
Technology, Owerri, Nigeria to empower the
University in particular and Nigeria in general to
monitor, study the weather trend on a continuous
basis to possibly produce weather digest that could
help inform, advise on strategies and practices that
could ameliorate global warming.
5.00 MITIGATION OF GLOBAL WARMING
Mitigation of global warming could be
accomplished through reductions in the rate of
anthropogenic greenhouse gas release. Global
warming requires global solution. The worlds
primary international agreement in reducing
greenhouse gas emission, the Kyoto protocol,
covers more than 160 countries and over 55
percent of global greenhouse gas emissions have
been achieved
(http://unfccc.intresource/docs/convkp/kpeng.p
df). There are considerable efforts to improve
energy efficiency and moves towards the use of
alternative fuels such as nuclear energy are
advocated. In January 2005, the European Union
introduced its own European Union Emission
Trading Scheme, through which companies in
conjunction with Government agree to cap their
emissions through a carbon cap and carbon tax
agreement. Australia unilaterally announced its
carbon pollution reduction scheme in 2008
(https://een.anu.edu.au/). United States of
America has also announced plans to introduce an
economic wide cap and trade scheme to check and
mitigate on global warming and climate change.
(World Bank 2010).
8.00 CONCLUSION
Global warming has been proved beyond
reasonable doubt to be wrecking the earth and as
such we should not wait tirelessly for solution. It
is a common enemy. Much have been unfolded in
this report on the causes of global warming.
Efforts has also been made in no small measure to
unveil globally the havocs which the global
warming has caused. It is in opinion of the authors
that all hands are to be put on deck in
researching and adopting policies cum attitudes
that will not enhance global warming.

REFERENCES
Amadi A N (2014) Environmental health solution
to healthcare problems, 25th Inaugural lecture of
the Federal University of Technology, Owerri,
Nigeria.
Bulletin America Auteorology Social 90 (8) 877-
579 retrieved 2009-09-08.
Dacey, J.W, Drake, B.G and Klug, M.L (1994)
simulation of methane emission by carbon dioxide
enrichment of marsh vegetation Nature 370, 47-
49.
Frank.R and Molino M,www.human touch of
chemistry,com
Glantz M.H, and KrenzJ.H (1992) Human
component of the climate system: climate system
modelingTrenberth K.E, (eds) Cambridge
University press, pp 27-33.
http://unfccc.in./kyoto-protocol/item(assessed
1/29.2017)
http://unfccc.int./resource/docs/convkp/kpeng/pdf
http://www.cleeland.com/weather(assessed
1/24/2017)
http://www.conserve.energy-foture.com(assessed
1/24/2017)
http://www.nasa.gov.america space agency
http://zfacts.com/p/783.htm(assessed 1/24/2017)
http:www.weather.gov (assessed 1/29/2017)
https://een.anu.edu.au/pdf(assessed 28th Jan.2017.
https://unfcc.int./Kyoto-protocol/items
2830(assessed 1/29/2017
https://unfccc.int/resource/docs.pdf.(assessed 28th
Jan.2017.
https://www.ipcc.ch. (2007)
IPCC (1990) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
change:the scientific
assessment,https:www.ipcc.ch/
John V A (2016) Effects of climate change on
coastal erosion and flooding in Proceedings of the
First International Workshop of the Institute of
Erosion Studies (IES),Federal University of
Technology,Owerri,Nigeria,February,2016,IES
2016 ISBN 978-978 54526-6-2,R.ATLAS Ent.
p.45-57.
Keller, M, Veldkanp, E, Wertz, A.M (1993) The
effect of pasture age in soil trace gas emission for
a deforested area of crask rice Nature 365,244-2.
21
Knight, J, Kenney, J.J Folland, C, Harns G. (2009)
Do temperature trends over the last decade falsify
climate predication in state of the climate in
2008,
Levenbergen, M and Siegenthaler, U. (1992) Ice
age atmosphere composition of nitrous oxide from
the antartic ice core. Nature 360, 449-451.
Meehi, and Gerald, A. (2005) How much more
global warming and sea level rise ,Science 307
(5700) 17-19 1777.
Multinational arctic climate impact assessment
report,2004.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administratio,www.noaa.gov
Olugbenga A O (2016) Health hazards associated
with flooding in Proceedings of the First
International Workshop of the Institute of Erosion
Studies (IES),Federal University of
Technology,Owerri,Nigeria,February,2016,IES
2016 ISBN 978-978 54526-6-2,R.ATLAS
Ent.p.115-121.
White L.D, (1995) Climate and human
societyUSA ,Halsted,Wiley and sons Ltd.
World Bank (2010) World development report
2010: Development and climate change. The
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developments, 1818 H street New, Washington
DC 20433 p. 192 ISBN 978082 1379875.
http://go. World Bank org/Bk LQ9 DSDUO
retrieved 2010-04-06
 GIS-BASED MULTI-CRITERIA
EVALUATION (MCE) APPROACH FOR
ASSESSMENT OF URUALLA GULLY
EROSION WATERSHED
1
Dike, B.U.,2Agunwamba, J.C. and 1Alakwem,
O.P.
Department of Civil Engineering,
1
Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo
State
2
University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria
Soil erosion remains a major threat to Urualla and
itsenviron.The time required for data collection
and high cost of research, is the difficulty in
identification of area sensitive to water induced
soil erosion by conventional methods. However,
these problems can be solved by the use of GIS
based predictive models both at local and regional
scale. Theobjective of this study is to assess the
vulnerability of Uruallawatershed to soil erosion
based on multi criteria technique. ArcGIS was
used for derivation, integration, and spatial
analysis of geographic layers of each erosion
indicator. Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP)
was used to calculate the weights of erosion
influencing factors such as rainfall, soil type,
topography, land use/land cover and
conservationpractice. Using AHP pair wise
comparison method, the weights derived for the
indicators are Rainfall (0.40), soil (0.27),
topography (0.19), land cover(0.08) and
conservation practice (0.06). The generated
vulnerability map shows that 1% of the study area
has high, 54% has moderately high while 45% has
low vulnerability levelof the study area. Thus, the
result based on multi-criteria evaluation in GIS
proves that identification of areas vulnerable to
soil erosion is pre-requisite to planning erosion
control technique. The resultof this study are
important in planning conservation, environmental
protection and control for soil erosion that will be
based on erosion severity.
Keywords: Soil erosion, GIS,Multi-Criteria
Evaluation (MCE), Vulnerability scale,Urualla

Abstract

22
1.0 Introduction locationbased, (Malczewski, 1999). GIS based
Multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) methods have
Erosion is the process of detachment or been applied in several studies (Solaimani et al.,
entrainment, transportation of surface soil 2009, Khoi and Murayama, 2010, Saini and
particles from original location and accumulation Kaushik, 2012, Ashraf, 2012 etc.).
of it to new depositional area The factors which
influence the rate of erosion are rainfall, runoff, Analytical Hierarchy Process is one of the most
soil, slope and plant cover, and the presence or popular methods for calculating criteria weights in
absence of conservation measures, (Kokh, 2002). MCEthrough an expert pair-wise comparison
Erosion control requires a quantitative and matrix, (Saaty, 1980). Rao et al. (1991), have
qualitative evaluation of potential soil erosion suggested that for the development of criteria
considering these factors (Nuket, 2010). weights, theprocedure of pairwise comparison in
AHP is a logical process. However, inspite of
According to Ume et al. (2014), there are many some uncertainties, several studies have compiled
thoughts about the Urualla Gully erosion like the the AHP success stories in various fields.
uncompleted and
abandoned Federal Intensit Definition Definition Explanation According to
Expressway project that y of Saatyand Vargas
created massive Import (1991),in performing
overflow of through ance pairwise comparison,
improper drainage 1 Equal Two activities contribute numericalvalues
channels while other Importance equally to the objective expressing a judgment
views include the nature 2 Weak or Experience and judgement of the relative
of the soil, drainage importance of one
slight slightly favour one activity
pattern and human factor against another
3 Moderate over another
activities like have to be assigned to
devegetation, soil importance eachfactor.Saatyand
excavation and farming 4 Moderate Experience and judgement Vargas (1991)
etc. Conventional plus strongly favour one activity suggested a scale for
methods for identifying 5 Strong over another comparison consisting
the erosionpotential importance of values ranging
area are based on 6 Strong plus An activity is favoured very from 1 to 9
physical survey but in 7 Very strong strongly over another; its whichdescribe the
practice severe erosion or dominance demonstrated in intensity of
problemscan be difficult importance
demonstrate practice
andtime consuming.
Therefore, GIS based d importance
spatial modeling 8 Very, very The evidence favouring one
produce useful strong activity over another is of the
information for solving 9 Extreme highest possible order of
complex problems importance affirmation
byidentifying (preference/dominance). A value of 1 expresses
relationship among various dependent geographic equal importance and a valueof 9 are given for
features clearly and logically. those factors having an extreme importance
over another factor (Table 1).
Multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) approach is one
of the most important applications for spatial Table 1: The fundamental scale of absolute
analysis of geographic data to support the process numbers
ofenvironmental decision-making because 80 per
cent of data used by decision makers is Source: Saaty (2008)

23
Soil erosion is very dynamic, hence, information
of the areas vulnerable to erosion and its severity
are pre-requisites for soil conservation planning,
planning erosion control techniques and watershed
management at local and regional scale. The
objective of study therefore is to assess the
vulnerability of Urualla watershed to soil erosion
using GIS based multicriteria technique.
2.0 Materials and Methods
2.1 Study Area
The study area is located inUrualla, the north-
western region of Ideato North L.G.A, Imo State,
Southeastern, Nigeria. The study area covers a
total of approximately 19.570 sq km and is
situated between latitude 5 50N and 5 55N and
longitudes 7 00E and 7 05E. Figure 1 shows
the location map of the area. It is bordered by
Obodoukwu, Akokwa and Isu. The region is semi-
urban consisting mainly of built-up areas. The area
has the characteristic features of the humid
tropical wet and dry climate governed primarily
by rainfall. The Annual rainfall varies from
1,990mm to 2,200mm. The average annual
temperature in Urualla is 25.8 C.
24
Figure 1: Location map of the study area
2.2 Materials
The data used for this study includes rainfall data
of 3 gauging stations(for a period of 25years,
1981-2005)obtained from Nigerian
Meteorological Agency (NIMET), soil data
obtained fromOnyekanneet al.(2012), topographic
data or control point data obtained from GeoSmart
Survey, Imo State and satellite imagery obtained
from google earth 2016.
The softwares used for the purpose of this study
are ArcGIS 10.2.1, Google Earth 2016,and MS-
excel.
2.3 Methods
Data analysis and processing were made by
digitizing, calculating and classifying the
necessary informationof each thematic layers
usingMS-excelandArcGIS 10.2.1 software. The
satellite imagery of the study area was classified
and digitized to produce the land use/land cover
map. All layers of raster mapsin grid format
having the same pixel size of 30 m was
reclassified;each sub-class was ranked 1-5in
increasing order of impact, where 5 indicates high
sensitivity and 1 indicates low sensitivity to soil
erosion.AHP through pairwise comparison method
was used to estimate the weight of each factor for
use in the weighted overlay process.The
vulnerability map was validated by comparing
with ground truth data geolocated on the
vulnerability map. Figure 2 shows the flow chart
adopted for this study.

Figure 3: Reclassified R Raster Map

The land cover was maximum class weightage
was assigned to poor vegetation orbarren land and
less weightage to subsequent classes in order of
increasing density of vegetation.

Figure 2: Flow chart of Methodology adopted

for this study
3.0 Results and discussion
3.1 Thematic raster map of all the factors
Figure 3 shows the reclassified rainfall raster map
derived from the rainfall data. The class weightage
of 5 was assigned to high rainfall zone in the study
area and 1 for relatively less rainfall zone as
shown in Figure 3.

Figure 4: Reclassified C Raster Map

Figure 5 shows the reclassified soil erodibility
map where the zone in the study area having soil
with low retaining property produced high runoff
causing high soil erosion. Thushigher rank was
tagged to the zone with low retaining capacity and
vice-versa.

25
 Figure 7: Reclassified P Raster Map

Figure 5: Reclassified K Raster Map 3.1 Development of Pairwise Comparison

Topography: Slope plays a major role in erosion
control. Generally, wherever steeper the slope,
chance of soilerosion will be high. Therefore,
class rank of 5 was assigned to very steep slope
areas and subsequently low ranking toareas
according to decreasing magnitude of slope.
Matrix
Table 2and 3 shows a pairwise comparisonmatrix
of order 5, where 5 criteria were compared against
each other.
Table 2: Pairwise Comparison Matrix

Table 3: Obtaining the Indicator/Criteria

weights

Figure 6: Reclassified LS Raster Map

Conservation practice: The P-factor refers to the
level of erosion control practices such as contour
planting, terracing and strip cropping, put in place
in a watershed, and depends on the average slope
steepness within the study area.

26
 Using equation 3;
(5.105) 0.10
CI = = =0.025
51 4

A perfectly consistent decision maker should

always obtain CI = 0, but small values of
inconsistency may be tolerated. Once the
consistency index is obtained, the consistency
ratio CR, which is used to tell how consistent the
pairwise comparisons are, is given as follows;
CI
CR= 4
RI

3.3 Checking for the Consistency ratio (CR)
The AHPalways allows for some level of
inconsistencies which should not exceed a certain
threshold (Saaty, 1980). The technique relies on
the computation of a suitable consistency index
(CI); this is given as follows;
Where RI = Randominconsistency indices
developed by Saatyand Vargas (1991).The values
of RI for small problems (n 10) are shown in
Table 5.
Table5: Values of the random index (RI)for
matrices of various sizes

( xn) N 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
CI = 3
n1 R 0.5 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5
0
I 8 0 2 4 2 1 5 1
Where n = number of criteria. Table 4 shows how
the value of x was obtained Source: Saatyand Vargas (1991)
For this particular study, RI is 1.12. Hence, the
consistency ratio is given as follows;
0.025
CR= =0.022
1.12
Table 4: Estimating x value
The consistency ratio (CR) obtained for this study
is 0.022which is smaller or equal to 0.1,therefore,
the pairwise comparisons carried out and criteria
weights obtained are consistent and accurate
respectively, for the decision making process of
producing an erosion vulnerability map.
Having obtained the weights and carried out
consistency check, the vulnerability map was thus
generated using weighted overlay process.The
area liable tosoil erosion was calculated
corresponding to each category as 0.90% (high),
54.03 % (moderately high) and 45.06 % (low)
vulnerability in the study area(Figure 9). The

27
result revealed that, the areas that come under high
to moderately high erosion categories are
primarily located at the downstream part of the
watershed. In contrast,the area under low erosion
is located at the upstream section of the watershed.
Three identified gullies in the watershed, when
superimposed on the vulnerability map falls under
the areas of high and moderately high erosion
vulnerable areas (Figure 9). Thus, this justifies the
result.
Figure 9: Chart showing Percentage Level of
Erosion Vulnerability
3.4 Validationof study
In order to validate the result, pictures of locations
within the study site were collected during site
visit at various points. GPS coordinates of these
locationswere also acquired and plotted on the
vulnerability map. Ground verification of resulted
sites (Figure 10) revealed that there are various
visual indicators of erosional and depositional
features like rill erosion, abandoned channel and
siltation in agriculture fields and streams etc.
Thus, the ground truth data against each erosion
severity class can be generalized to map the extent
and location.

Figure 8: Vulnerability Map

55.00

50.00

45.00

40.00

35.00 Figure 10: Relating site picture of eroded

30.00 54.03 location with its position on the map
25.00 45.06
Conclusions
20.00

15.00
This study demonstrates that GIS techniques are
indeed valuable tools in assessment and mapping
10.00
of areas vulnerable to soil erosion hazard.
5.00 Identification of areas vulnerable to soil loss in the
0.90
0.00 study area by performing MCE in GIS
Low Moderately High High frameworkis a very good cost and time effective
Percentage coverage method than measuring at the field level.
The resultsshows that about 0.90 and 54.03
percent of the total area are found under high and

28
moderately high risk of erosion. About 45.06% of
the area lies in low risk of erosion.
The predicted area vulnerable to soil erosion was
validated by comparing with the actual current
erosion and depositional features found in the
field.Thestudyalso shows that Ezemazu and
Ozuomee Communities in Urualla are at high risk
to erosion than other communities in the area.
The erosion vulnerability map which had been
developed can be used as one of the main inputs in
decision-
makingsupportsystemofsoilresourcemanagementa
nditmayinfluencepolicydecisionsoflanduseplannin
ginthestudyarea.
The result will also enable erosion control experts
to plan on how to effectively prioritize the erosion
menace without aggravation or transfer of erosion
problem from one point to another within the
watershed.
Finally this research work is recommended to Imo
State unit of Nigerian Erosion and Watershed
Management Project (NEWMAP).
References
Ashraf, M. D.(2012).Floods in a Megacity:
Geospatial Techniques in Assessing Hazards,
Risk and Vulnerability, Springer
Geography, page .no 139-167.
Khoi, D.D. and Murayama, Y.(2010).Delineation
of suitable cropland areas using a GIS based
multi-criteria evaluation Approach in the
Tam Dao National Park Region, Vietnam.
Sustainability, vol.no.2, page no. 2024-
2043.
Kokh-Shrestha M. (2002).Soil erosion modeling
using remote sensing and GIS: A case study of
JhikhuKhola Watershed, Nepal.
Lu, D., G. Li, Valladares, G. S., and Batistella, M.
(2004).Mapping Soil Erosion Risk in
Rondonia, Brazilian Amazonia: using
RUSLE, Remote Sensing and GIS. Land
Degradation & Development, Vol.no. 15
(5), page no. 499-512.
29
Malczewski, J., 1999, GIS and Multi-criteria
Decision Analysis, New York: John Wiley and
Sons, ISBN 0-471-32944-4.
Nuket, B. (2010). Using the Geographical
Information System and Remote Sensing
Techniques for Soil Introduction Erosion
Assessment. Polish J. of Environ. Stud. Vol. 19,
No. 5 (2010), 881-886.
Onyekanne, C.F., Akamigbo, F.O.R. and Nnaji,
G.U. (2012). Characterization and classification
of soils of Ideato north local government area.
Nigerian Journal of Soil Science VoL. 22(1).
ISSN-1597-4488, published by the Soil Science
Society of Nigeria.
Rao, M., Sastry, S. V. C., Yadar, P. D., Kharod, K.,
Pathan, S. K., Dhinwa, P. S., Majumdar, K. L.,
Sampat, Kumar D., Patkar, V.N., and Phatak, V. K.
(1991). A weighted index model for urban
suitability assessment A GIS Approach.
Bombay, Bombay Metropolitan Regional
Development Authority.
Saaty, T.(1980). The Analytic Hierarchy Process,
New York, McGraw-Hill.Pg. 287.
Saaty, T.L. (2008). Decision making with the
analytic hierarchy processes, Int. J. Services
Saaty, T.L. Vargas, L.G.(1991). Prediction,
Projection and Forecasting,Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Dordrecht, page no. 251.
Saini S.S. and Kaushik, S.P. (2012).Risk and
vulnerability assessment of flood hazard in part
of Ghaggar Basin: A case study of Guhla
block, Kaithal, Haryana, India, International
Journal of Geomatics and Geosciences ,
Vol. No. 3(1), page.no 42-52
Shin, G. J. (1999). The Analysis of Soil Erosion
Analysis in Watershed Using GIS, Ph.D.
Dissertation, Department of Civil
Engineering, Gang-Won National University,
Chuncheon,
Siddiqui, M.,Z., Everett, J., W., & Vieux, B., E.
(1996).Landfill Siting Using Geographic
Information Systems: A demonstration,
Journal of Environmental Engineering,
Vol.No.122(6), page no. 515523.
Solaimani, K., Modallaldoust, S., and Lotfi, S.
(2009).Investigation of land use changes on soil
erosion process using geographical information
system. International Journal of Environment
Science and Technology, vol. no. 6, page no. 415
424.
Ume N.C., Enwereuzor, A.I., Egbe, C.A., Ike,
M.C. and Umo, S.I. (2014). Application Of
Geographic Information System (GIS) and
Satellite Remote Sensing (SRS) Technologies
In Identifying Impacts of Gully Erosion in
Urualla, Ideato-North Local Government Area,
Imo State, Nigeria. Global Research Journal of
Science (GRJS online) ISSN: 2276-8300
Academic Publications. Pp. 1-8
Wischmeier, W. H. and Smith, D. D. (1978).
Predicting Rainfall Erosion Losses: A Guide to
Conservation Planning. USDA Agriculture
Handbook No 537. U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington D.C.

30
MATHEMATICAL MODELS FOR EROSION
CONTROL CHECK-DAMS
Osuagwu, J.C1, Okoro B.C.2., Nwakwasi
N.L.3,Nwachukwu A.N.4
1,2,3,4
Department of Civil Engineering, Federal
University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria
The study was aimed atdevelopment mathematical
modelsfor Erosion Control Check damsthrough
the application of principles hydrodynamics. Field
studies were carried out in an artificial channel
excavated within the catchment of Otamiri River
at Federal University of Technology, Owerri.
Artificial runoff was simulated into the channel by
pumping water from Otamiri River. Sandbags of
various patterns and heights were placed across
the channel to reduce the erosive effect of runoff
and encourage siltation. The flow characteristics
including sediment concentration and sediment
accumulation rates upstream were recorded.
Mathematical models relating the flow parameters
with sediment accumulation rate and
concentration upstream were developed. Model 1
was derived based on the principle of mass
balance On the other hand, the second model
relating Storage factor with height of sediments
in a gully was based on Regression approach.
Model verification indicated a high level of
correlation between measured and predicted
values of the variables. The coefficient of
correlation (R2) was computed as 0.964 and
0.9664 respectively for models 1 and 2. The
mathematical relationships obtained in the study
will be useful in the design and sustainable use of
Check-dams for erosion control.

Key Words: Erosion, gully, sandbags, sediments,

optimization and model.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Water erosion occurs when raindrops hit the
ground and dislodge soil particles from the soil,
and then these dislodged soil particles wash away
and in the process dislodge and remove further
soil particles. The amount of erosion is thus a
function of the following four factors: the rainfall
energy, the vegetative cover, the length and
steepness of the slope and the type of soil
(Stocking, 1987).
Soil erosion is a major environmental threat to
sustainability and productive capacity of
Agriculture. During the last 40years, nearly one-
third of the Worlds arable land has been lost to
ABSTRACT erosion and continues to be lost at a rate more than
31
10million ha/year. With the addition of a quarter
of a million people each day, the World is
increasing at a time when per capita food
production is beginning to decline. (Penitelet al,
1975).Estimates indicate that 5,000 to 10,000
acres of potential crop land are lost or removed
from production annually as a result of gully
growth (Bettis, 1983). Erosion Control approaches
include the use of hydraulic structures such as
drains, culverts, stilling basins and Check-dams.
A Check-dam is a small barrier constructed of
rock, gravel layer, sandbags, fiber rolls or reusable
products, placed across a constructed swale or
drainage ditch (CASQA, 2003). They reduce the
effective slope of channels thereby reducing the
velocity of flowing water, allowing sediment to
settle and reducing velocity,The flood water which
is trapped by the dam is allowed to infiltrate into
the soil. The dam also traps soil particles, silt and
other sediments and after a period they gully is
expected to fill up to the new level set by the dam
height. Common types of check dam include
concrete sills, wickerwork and embankments.
A Mathematical model is a simplified
representative of certain aspects of a real system.
It is created using mathematical concepts such as
functions, graphs, diagrams and equations to solve
problems in the real world (Edwards and Hamson,
1989).Despite the importance of erosion studies,
only a few models exist for the computation of
soil loss due to erosion (Agunwamba , 2010).Ume
and Ojiako (1989) developed an exponential
mathematical model for the rate of soil loss in
gullies.Ogbonna (1990) compared measured and
predicted values of erosion for gullies, using
equation developed by Koruma (1976). It
predicted the soil losses well based on pilot-scale
experiments.
The study was aimed at development
ofmathematical models that relate flow parameters
with sediment accumulation upstream of Check
Dam location in a gully.
32
2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sandbags were adapted as Check-dams for field
studies. Data for analysis were collected through
field and laboratory investigations.An
experimental channel (gully) wasconstructed on
the slope of Otamiri River at Federal University of
Technology,Owerri. The channel has a cross
section of 1.2m 0.6m with a length of 15m.
Artificial runoff simulated by pumping water from
OtamiriRiver was directed into the channel (Fig.
1).
Polypropylene bags of 0.9m length and 0.45m
width were filled with sand to an average
thickness of 0.25m and placed across the Hydro
gullies.
Pump
The heights and patterns of placement (transverse
and longitudinal) were varied for different flow
conditions. The rate of accumulation of sediments
in (m3/s) was determined by measurement of the
average heights of deposits left behind the
sandbags over given time intervals. The depths
were multiplied with the area of deposits to get the
volume of silts accumulated.
Fig1 Layout ofexperimental set-up
Regression analysis was done to study the nature
of relationship between the variables. The method
of least squares was used to estimate the
Regression constants. The method is such that the
sum of squares of the derivatives of points from
the estimated line is minimum (Agunwamba,
2006)
Two approaches; material balance principle and
regression analysis were employed in the
modeling. The following basic assumptions were Regression analysis was done to study the nature
made: of relationship between the variables. The method
of least squares was used to estimate the
(i) That One dimensional flow occurs in regression constants.
the channel.
(ii) That the Principle of Material balance
is applicable. Based on the Principle of Material balance, we
state the following equation:
(iii) That the rate of sediment accumulation
is constant. Rate of accumulation of sediments = inflow-
outflow. 3.1
Therefore, initial conditions are stated thus:
From which following differential equationsare
At t=0, C=C0, For all values of x>0 derived:
C1(0) =C.2.1 ( VC ) C
=QC 0QC k 0 u 3.2
Where C0 =Initial Sediment Concentration t x

C1 = Concentration at time, t (sec) V C C

=Q ( C 0C )k 0 u 3.3
t x

Vd C1
=Q ( C0 C1 ) S C 1 3.4
3.0RESULTS dt

3.1 Mass Balance Equation

where :
Mathematical relationship among the following
parameters:The principle of material balance (Fig Q= flow rate, Q (m3/s)
3)was adopted in the formulations. u
= velocity of flow,(m/s)

C = Sediment Concentration of runoff.

C0 =Initial Sediment Concentration
C1 = Concentration at time, t (sec)
S = Rate of Accumulation of sediments (storage),
Fig 3.1Flow diagram for Principle of Material (m3/s)
Balance.
V= Volume of sediments deposited upstream of
Differential equations that relate the following sandbags,(m3)
parameters; flow rate (Q), sediment concentration
(C), rate of accumulation of sediments or storage k0
is a dimensional coefficient in L3, while,
(S) and volume of sediments deposited upstream
of sandbags (V) were derived. C
C
x refer to change in concentration per
C0,indicates concentration of the runoff before t
being discharged into the gully. Thereafter, C
increases with time due to erosion of the bed by length and change in concentration with time
the runoff. respectively.
33
 optimum.Results from the graphs indicate that
values of k vary from 0.048 -014.The relationship
From Equation 3.4, Using Integrating factor between k and CO are related by Equation 3.12
Method;
1.608
d C 1 Q+ S QC 0 . k =7.38C 0 3.12
dt
+
V (C 1=
V
3.5 ) Substituting for k in equation 3.12, we obtain
equation 3.13,
Integrating factor ( I . F .)=e
( (QV+S ) )dt 3.6

( Q+S )
[
ln C 1
Q C0
Q+ S ] (
=l n ( 7.38C 01.608 )
Q+S
V )t 3.13

I . F=e
( V ) 3.7
t

(
Q+S `
Q C0 )t
C1 =k e V 3.8
Q+ S

[
ln C 1
Q C0
Q+ S
=lnk ]
Q+ S
V (
t 3.9 )
Let,

QC 0
( C 1 )
C = A 3.10
Q+ S 1

Therefore, equation 3.9 becomes

ln A=ln k ( Q+S
V )
t 3.11
Plots for Cases 2 and 3 were also made and the
intercepts and slopes recorded.
It can be seen that equation 3.11 is linear. Thus, a
plot of ln A against twould give a straight
3.1.1Model Calibration:
linewith ln k as the intercept and ( Q+S ) /V as
The modelwaschecked and adjusted using another
the slope. set of experimental data (See Table 1).

Values of ln(A) for different time intervals were Table 1 Experimental Data for Model Calibration
computed fromthree sets of Q, CO,and S,
C1valuesmeasured atdifferent time intervals.The Q (m3/s) C0 S (m3/s) t (secs
plots of ln(A) against time (t)are presented in Figs
4- 6with the resultant fitting line for each set of 0.12 0.08 0.00012 12
data labeled 1 2 and 3 accordingly.In each
case, the k value for the line that has highest
correlation coefficient (R2)was chosen as
34
From equation 3.13, presented in Fig.3.3. The coefficient of correlation
R2 is 0.964 and standard error =3.841x 10-3.These
( 0.12+ 0.00012)
( ) 1200 values indicate closeness of the predicted values
0.12 0.08
+(7.38 0.081.608)e 0.144
C1 = with the observed values; thus confirming the
0.12+0.00012
validity of the model developed.

0.21=0.127 +0.1036 e145

In other to have a feasible solution, a calibration

factor , was introduced;

( 145 )
0.21=0.127 +0.1 036 e

3
=1.53 10

Equation 3.13 is thus adjusted as

[
ln C 1
Q C0
Q+ S ]
=l n ( 7.38C 01.608 )
Q+ S
V (
t 3.14 )
3.2Regression Model
( Q+S )

C1 =
Q C0
+ ( 7.38 C 01.608 ) e
1.53 103 ( V ) 3.15
t
An empirical model that relates the major
Q+ S hydraulic variables that affect sediment
accumulation with height of sandbags (hS), with a
dimensionless parameter termed storage factor
S
3.1.2 Model Verification:
)indicating closeness of the predicted values
The set of data presented in Table 2 was used for
model verification. Column 6 of the Table with the observed values was derived.
shows measured values of C1 at given time
intervals for tests A D.
S
sf = 4.20
Q C0
Table 2 Experimental Data for Model Verification
Where C0 = Initial relative sediment concentration
Tests Q (m3/s) C0 S (m3/s) (mg/mg)

A 0.12 0.024 0.00022 S= Storage rate (Rate of sediment

accumulation) m3/s
B 0.12 0.042 0.00028
C 0.12 0.033 0.00026 Q= flow rate (m3/s)
D 0.12 0.02 0.00019

Alternatively, Equation 3.11 was used to predict The relationship between the variables was
values of C1 using data from Table 2.A plot of represented by an exponential function;
measured values against predicted values is

35
 bx 47.28 X 0.0298
y=a e 4.28 h s=0.058 e

hs h s=0.2373
A plot of against Sf from experimental data
is presented in Fig 3.4.The fitting curve equation
is: Equation 4.21 is adjusted by introducing a
calibration parameter ;
y=0.058 e 47.28 x 4.29
47.28 Sf
h s=0.058 e 4.31
Thus the relationship becomes;

h s=0.058 e 47.28 S 4.30

f
0.25=0.058 e 47.28 0.0298

The coefficient of correlation, R 2 is =1.037

0.935
Substituting for in equation 4.24,

h s=0.058 e 1.037 X 47.28 S f

h s=0.058 e 49.029 S 4.32 f

Also,

hs
S f =ln ( ) 1
0.058 49.029
4.33

Equation 4.33 could be used to predict the storage

factor for a given height of sandbags.
Fig 3.4 Variation of height of sandbags with Subsequently, the accumulation rate is computed
storage factor for given flow rate, Q and initial relative
concentration, Co using equation 4.20.

3.2.1 Model Calibration

3.2.3 Model Verification
The data for calibration are as follows;
The set of data for verifying the regression model
Q = 0.12m3/s, C0 = 0.038, hs = 0.25, S =
is presented in Table 3. Values of Sf are tabulated
0.00015m3/s
alongside measured values of
0.00015
Sf = Q, C0, and hs
0.12 0.042

0.0298

From equation 4.23;

36
 correlation (R2) was computed as 0.9664 while the
standard error of estimates (Se) was 0.00384.
Since a different set of experimental data was used
for the verification, the model can reliably be
Table 3 Data for Verification of Model 2
applied in the design and sustainable use of
Q hs C0 S Sf sandbags for erosion control.The variation of
sediment concentration upstream of sandbags with
0.12 0.2 0.054 0.00015 0.023 time could be predicted based on the following
3 parameters; flow rate, sediment accumulation rate,
0.12 0.25 0.0375 0.00014 0.0311 and initial sediment concentration. The results
obtained can be applicable to other types of
0.12 0.3 0.040 0.00016 0.035 erosion control Check-dams.
7
0.12 0.35 0.0425 0.00022 0.049
6 4.0CONCLUSION
The use of sandbags could be optimized by
Similarly, values of Sf (y) computed from equation application of principles of mathematics and
4.26 are presented alongside the estimated values hydraulic engineering. Therate of accumulation of
(yest) for corresponding values of Q, C0, and hs. sediments depends on the flow rate, sediment
A plot of measured values against predicted values concentration,height of sandbags and pattern of
is presented in Fig. 3.5. The coefficient of placement. The mathematical models formulated
correlation R2 is 0.966 and the standard erroris from the principle of material balance and
0.00196. The standard error is not significant, regression analysis could be used to predict the
indicating closeness of the predicted values with concentration of sediments in the runoff upstream
the observed values. of sandbags in a gully at any time interval.
Finally, we recommend furtherstudies extending
application of sandbagsto deeper gullies.
REFERENCES
Agunwamba, J.C. (2007). Engineering
Mathematical Analysis. De-Adroit, Enugu, 503-
511.
Bettis, E.A. (1983). Gully Erosion, Iowa Geology
No 8. Iowa Department of Natural Resources.
CASQA ( 2003 ). Sandbag Barrier. California
storm water BMP Handbook
Edwards, D. and Hamson, M. (1989).Guide to
Mathematical Modeling: CRC Mathematical
Guide, CRC Press.
Fig 3.5A plot of measured valuesS fagainst
predicted values. Fitton, L. and Blair, R. (1975).Environmental and
Economic Costs of Soil Erosion and Conservation
Model verification indicated a high level of Benefits.www.com /shows/results/16
correlation between measured and predicted
values of the variables. The coefficient of

37
Koruma, S. (1976).Hydraulics of Slope Erosion by SUSTAINABLE WATERSHED
Overland flow.J. Hyd.div. ASCE 102 (10), 1574-
1586. MANAGEMENT: CONCEPT,
Ogbonna, S.U. (1990). Experimental Verification PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION
of Erosion Rate Equation.Trans. of The Nigerian
society of Engineer 25 (3).28-34.
Penitel, D., Howey, C., Resosidarmo, P., Sinclair,
K., Kurz, D., Crist, S., Shipiritz L., H.O. Israel, T.C. Dikeogu, and O.C.
Stocking, M. (1987). A Methodology for Erosion
hazard Mapping of SADCC Region. Paper Okeke
presented at the workshop on Erosion Hazard
Mapping of the SADCC Soil and water
Construction and land utilization sector, Nsukka,
April 1987.

Ume, M.I. and Ojiako, G.U. (1989).Determination Department of Geology, Federal University of
of Dynamic Model for Rates of soil loss in Gully
Erosion.Proc. Eng.And Tech. Dev. 321-333. Technology, Owerri

38
ABSTRACT
Watershed Management is an integrated multi-
resource process that seeks to ensure good
and sustainable ecological, economic and
social conditions within a watershed. It
serves to integrate planning for land use,
water resources, and biomass, taking into
account, both groundwater and surface water
flow with a view to ensure ecological,
economic and human health as benefits.
Planning for effective watershed
management is a continuous process that
requires collection of data ( climatic data,
hydrochemical data etc) and analyzing them
to identify issues and problems; designing a
watershed plan on the basis of the data
collected; implementing the plan as well as
monitoring and evaluating it to adapt to new
technology. Planning should not only
include partnership between conservation
authorities and stakeholders but a clear-cut
master plan that would put into
consideration the following issues:
watershed characteristics, analysis of
problems and potentials, schedule of
operation, cost benefit analysis,
supplementary information and survey
maps. Implementation- a multi-partner
responsibility- that requires enduring
commitment and political will is a crucial
aspect of watershed management
considering the fact that the desired changes
can only be achieved if the watershed
management guidelines or plans are
properly implemented. Successful
implementation requires the following to be
put in place; a single co-ordinating and
facilitating body, strong linkages to existing
programmes, clear designation of
responsibilities, effective laws and
regulations, continuous monitoring and
progress report, awareness creation and
adequate funding. For example, erosion and
flood control measures in rural and urban
areas as well as pollution control measures
in agricultural systems are all integral parts
of watershed management.
39
INTRODUCTION/CONCEPT OF
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
A watershed is simply the geographic area through
which water flows across the land and drains
into a common body of water, whether a
stream, river, lake, or ocean. For watershed
planning and management purposes, a
watershed is an area with specified
boundaries set by a group of stakeholders
who have interests in the water resources
within the watershed (Nevada Division of
Water Resources, 1999).
According to The Red Deer River Watershed
Alliance (2016), watershed management is
an integrated multi-resource management
process that seeks to ensure good and
sustainable ecological, economic and social
conditions within a watershed. Watershed
management serves to inte- grate planning
for land use and water resources, and
biomass, taking into account, both
groundwater and surface water flow, as well
as recognizing and planning for the
interaction of water, plants, and animals
found within the geographic boundaries of a
watershed. According to Tonn, Franti,
Wortmann and Shelton (2017), it provides a
framework for integrated decision making
with a view to:
Target priority problems in the watershed,
Promote a high level of involvement by
interested parties,
Develop solutions to problems through the use
of expertise and authority of multiple agencies
and organizations as well as
Measuring success through monitoring and
other data gathering.
OBJECTIVES OF WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT
The specific objectives of a good watershed
management programme include but are not
limited to:
Protection, conservation and improvement of
the land of watershed for more efficient and
sustained production.
Protection and enhancement of the water
resources within the watershed.
Erosion control and reduction of incidence of
floods and the resultant damages to landforms
and environment by adopting strategies for
erosion and flood management.
Provision of standard quality water by
encouraging vegetation and waste disposal
facilities.
BENEFITS OF WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT
A healthy watershed provides three (3) major
benefits and these are ecological, human,
and economic health.
Ecological Health: A healthy watershed functions
as a complete ecological system that
promotes the health of all living organisms
in the watershed. A healthy and intact
watershed minimizes the impacts of
flooding and erosion and serves to filter
sediments and contaminants by ensuring that
these contaminants do not reach our surface
water and groundwater systems.
Human Health: Clean surface water and
groundwater are essential to support our
high quality of life and the social aspects of
our communities. Clean rivers, lakes and
streams not only minimize the incidence of
waterborne diseases but provide many
healthy recreational opportunities including
swimming, boating and fishing.
Economic Health: A vibrant economy requires an
abundant supply of clean water. Homes,
farms, municipalities and industries all need
an ample supply of clean water to operate
effectively. Clean water allows industries
and agricultural producers to operate more
cost effectively. Healthy surface water
40
bodies, wetland and natural spaces are
foundations for recreation and tourism.
PLANNING
Planning in watershed management is a
continuous process that requires:
Collection of water resource data and
analyzing it to identify issues and problems;
Designing a watershed plan on the basis of the
data collected so as to protect and promote
resource sustainability;
Implementing the plans, as well as
Monitoring and evaluating the plans to adapt
to new information or technology.
IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING
Water resources can be protected more
effectively if watersheds are managed as
whole ecosystems.
By using a watershed plan to manage our
resources, harmful impacts on the system can
be identified quickly so that prevention,
remediation, or improvement can be carried
out right away.
Managing our water resources on a watershed
basis and making necessary plans to protect or
rehabilitate it can prevent future community
water shortages and poor quality water.
OUTLINE OF MASTER PLAN FOR
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
The following issues as prescribed by Central
Research Institute for Dry Land Agriculture,
Hyderabad, and as shown in the diagram
below should be considered while preparing
the master plan for watershed management.
 a) Present land use and management
practices.
b) Crop management
c) Soil and water management
d) Pasture management.

5) Schedule of Operation: Defining the sequence

of operation in line with prevailing weather
condition and available resources.

6) Cost Benefit Analysis and Budget:

a) Cost benefit ratio for each component.
b) Description of subsidy pattern under each
item of work.
c) Likely overall benefits from the plan.
1) Introduction: General description regarding
aim and objectives.
7) Supplementary Information
2) Characteristics of watershed:
a) Soil survey reports.
a) General description of characteristics
b) Design, drawing and details of major
and name.
structures.
b) Climate.
c) Partner agencies and their responsibilities.
c) Soil and geologic features including
8) Maps: contour maps and soil survey reports.
soil/rock types, physical and chemical
properties.
d) General description of vegetation and PARTNERSHIP IN WATERSHED
level of management. PLANNING
e) Present land use and capability Conservation authorities work with partners such
classification. as landowners, farmers, non-governmental
organizations, as well as all levels of
f) Socio-Economic condition such as
government to plan and deliver watershed
existing land holding pattern, irrigation
management programmes and services.
facilities, labour, credit and other
facilities like marketing, transport.

3) Analysis of problems and potentials:

a) Existing level of crop management and
reason for adopting new technology.
b) Existing level of erosion control measures
4) Improved Technology:

41

These agencies have the expertise and experience
to assist in designing and delivering
effective watershed management. Their local
networks are essential for ensuring that the
partners and stakeholders work together for
the good of the local environment.
IMPLEMEMTATION
According to Keng, Chamkamorn, and Pehn
(2013), implementation is a crucial aspect of
the watershed management considering the
fact that the desired changes and the
maintenance of the ecological, economic
and social function of the watershed can
only be achieved if the watershed
management guidelines or plans are
adequately implemented. Implementation
usually follows directly after planning
within a management circle.
The implementation is a multi-partner
responsibility that is co-ordinated and
facilitated by the watershed management
committee. It requires enduring commitment
and political will by the implementing
agencies and concerned stakeholders to
ensure that the set goals can be achieved.
Clear responsibilities must have to be
defined before the implementation process
begins and the duplication of efforts should
be avoided in order to achieve effective co-
ordination and management of
responsibilities.
Keng et al (2013) has noted that the successful
implementation of watershed management
42
guidelines or plans require the following
elements to be put in place:
A single co-coordinating and facilitating body
(e.g., a watershed management committee).
Strong linkages to existing programmes
including land use planning processes, water
quality and flow monitoring programmes, to
optimize use of available information and
minimize duplication of efforts.
Clear designation of responsibilities,
timetables, and anticipated costs, and location
for actions.
Effective laws, regulations, and policies to
provide a frame work for the tasks identified
in the previous item.
Continuous monitoring and reporting of the
implementation success as well as their impact
so as to assess the effectiveness of individual
actions and to sustain public and political
interest.
Awareness creation, communication and
capacity building to consolidate and enhance
the social consensus achieved in the planning
process.
Adequate funding for the above activities.
MEASURES IN EROSION AND FLOOD
CONTROL
The various control measures include:
Vegetative measures (Agronomical measures)
Pasture cropping
Grass land farming
Engineering measures (structural practices)
Contour trenching
Terracing
Construction of earthen embankment
Construction of check dams
Construction of farm ponds
 Construction of diversion
Establishment of permanent grass and
vegetation
Provision of vegetative and stone barriers
MEASURES IN POLLUTION CONTROL
In agricultural systems, common practices include
the use of buffer strips, grassed waterways,
the re-establishment of wetlands and
sustainable agricultural practices such as
conservation tillage, crop rotation and
intercropping.
In urban areas, floods and stormwater can be
checked by the use of:
Retention ponds
Filtering system and wetlands,
whereas soil erosion can be checked by the use of:
Silt fences,
Landscape fabric with grass seed and
hydroseedings.
The main objective in all cases is to slow water
movement to prevent soil transport.
CONCLUSION
Watershed management with effective planning
and implementation ensures that watersheds
and the constituent land and water resources
as well as plant and animal lives are well
protected. It also ensures good and
sustainable ecological, economic and social
conditions within the watershed.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Priority problems in the watersheds should be
identified and handled with expertise.
Planning in watershed management should
include active partnerships so as to achieve the
sets goals.
Political will and enduring commitment must
be considered very important while carrying
out watershed management programmes.
43
Adequate implementation should always be
considered a very important aspect of
watershed management.
There should be clear designation of
responsibilities so as to avoid duplication of
efforts.
REFERENCES
Eludoyin, A.O. (2014). Water and Waste Water
Management, National Open University of
Nigeria Course Guide for ESM 322.
Emma, T. and Lisa-Anna, H. (2010). Public-
Private Partnership for Storm Risk
Management in the Cayman Islands;
Sustainability Research Institute, The
University of Leeds.
Erickson, J.D, Messner, F. and I. Rings eds.
(2007). Ecological Economics of
Sustainable Watershed Management.
Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Fetter, C.W. (2007). Applied Hydrogeology, 2nd
Edition: New Delhi: CBS Publishers, Pp
367-8.
Keng, S.B., Chamkamorn, K., Penh, P. (2013).
Implementation of Watershed Management
Activities, Technical Bullentin #72,
Harvest@fintrac.com, www.fintrac.com.
Mark, L., Mark, S., John, T., and Mihriye, M.
(2002). Watershed Partnerships and the
Emergence of Collective Action Institutions.
American Journal of Political Science,
Vol.46, No.1, Pp 148-163.
Nevada Division of Water Planning (1991).
Watershed Planning and Management.
water.nv.gov/../pt3-5a.pdf
Prabhakar, K., Lavanya, K., and Papa Rao A.
(2010). NGOs and Farmers Participation in
Watershed Development Programme in
Prakasam District, Asia Pacific Journal of
Social Science, Vol. 11 (1), Pp 173 182
Rainfed Agriculture (2015). Planning and
Implementation of Watershed Management
Programme. Agrilnfo.in
Sabatier, P.A. (2005). Swimming Upstream:
Collaborative Approaches to Watershed
Management. The MIT Press.
The Red Deer River Watershed Alliance (2016).
What Is Watershed Management?
http/www.rdrwa.ca/node/27.
Tonn, S., Franti, T., Wortmann, C., and Shelton, D.
(2017). Watershed Planning
Management. Water Website of the
University of Nebraska Lincoln Watershed
Management Team.
Wikipedia (2017). Watershed Management.
Watershed Degradation: Causes, Effects and
Mitigation
Obioha, Y. E. and Okeke, O. C.
Department of Geology, School of Physical
Sciences, Federal University of Technology
Owerri
Corresponding Author: Phone: +2348938774782;
E-Mail: obiohe@yahoo.com
and
Abstract
Water and land pollutions are two major global
problems degrading our watershed areas and
threatening our environment today. The pollution
may originate from natural/geologic processes and
hazards or anthropogenic (man-made) activities.
The natural processes may be catastrophic
resulting from earthquake, igneous
activity/magmatism, tectonism, mass movement,
storm, erosion and flooding, capable of changing
the watercourse direction and negatively
impacting and degrading the resources- water,
land/soil and air, including man and the biotic and
abiotic ecosystem, and socio-cultural system. The
anthropogenic causes relate to pollutants and
pollutions caused by man in his search and mining
of natural resources, such as solid minerals (Au,
Ag, Fe, Cu, Ba etc.; industrial minerals - clay,
feldspar, silica sand, micas, limestone etc.), and
energy resources (like oil, natural gas, bitumen
and asphalts) and coal (e.g. peat, lignite,
bituminous, anthracite). Methods of exploration,
exploitation, and processing of these resources
upset the natural environmental equilibrium;
generating heavy metals e.g. lead (Pb), chromium
(Cr), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), barium (Ba);
wastes, tailings etc which may be hazardous,
44
toxic, or carcinogenic. These by leaching,
solution, percolation etc. enter the surface/ground
water, soil/land and air. When the concentration is
in excess amounts > WHO standard, they
contaminate and pollute these essential resources,
including people, animals, plants (faunal floral
community), thus endangering the entire
watershed ecosystem. Poor agricultural practices
(e.g. uncontrolled use of herbicides, pesticides
etc), and deforestation may threaten watershed
area, causing desertification, erosion, gulling,
flooding, and climate change. For sustainable
conservation of watershed areas resources, best
environmental friendly mining ethics and
agricultural practices are necessary. Abidance to
guiding laws and rules, and effective watershed
management / development programs should be
put in-place to monitor, guide, and protect our
watershed areas. Where pollution has already
occurred remediation measures such as in-situ, ex-
situ treatment, bioremediation, boiling, filtration,
and chlorination should be carried out before
consumption of water.
Keywords: Anthropogenic, Environmental-
Equilibrium, Watershed Degradation, Effects and
Mitigation.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Watershed degradation is the deteriorating effects
caused to and suffered by the watershed
area/environment. They may be as a result of
natural geologic processes/forces and/or
anthropogenic activities of mankind, such as
mineral and energy resources exploration,
exploitation/mining, processing, and development.
These generate heavy metals, tailings, noise, dust,
etc which upset the environmental equilibrium,
thus contaminating and polluting the resources
water, land (soil and rock), air/atmosphere etc.
Such man made activities are capable of initiating
erosion, flooding, gulling, mass movement etc.
Poor agricultural practices, e.g. large scale
uncontrolled use of pesticides to kill pests,
herbicides to kill weeds, use of gamelan in fishing,
use of phosphate, apatite and ammonia fertilizers
etc. are vulnerable sources of dangerous chemicals
and heavy metals, which are capable of generating
pollutants /contaminants. These by leaching,
45
solution and/or percolation may enter the water or
soil as point or non-point pollution sources,
thereby degrading the watershed and causing
various environmental problems to man, animals
and plants. Gas flaring is a petroleum exploitation
operation carried out in oil and natural gas
associated field. The flaring generates poisonous,
toxic, carcinogenic and hazardous substances,
which when consumed in excess amount >
WHO/FME recommended levels may cause ill
health, sickness and/or death. This study
investigates the causes of watershed degradation,
their effects on mankind and environment, and
proffers sustainable mitigation measures, based on
extensive literature search.
1.1 DEFINITION
A watershed describes an area of land that
contains a common set of springs, streams and
rivers that all drain a single large body of water,
such as a large river, a lake, a sea or an ocean
(HDWDD), for example, the Niger River
Watershed (FIG. 1). All watershed
management/development programs and practices
aim at protecting and improving the quality of the
water, land and other natural resources within the
watershed, by managing the use of those land and
water resources in a comprehensive manner to
ensure safety and sustainable development
(HDWDD).
2.0 CAUSES OF WATERSHED
DEGRADATION
The causes of watershed degradation can broadly
be classified into two; Natural Geologic
Processes/Forces and anthropogenic (man-made)
activities. The man-made activities result mainly
from mineral and energy resources exploration,
exploitation and processing and development.
Poor Agricultural Practices, and water resources
exploration, exploitation and processing may also
result in watershed degradation. The discussion of
these causes are given below.
2.1 Natural Geologic Processes 2.2.1 Solid Minerals Resources Exploration
and Mining
The natural geologic processes (Fig. 2) and forces
include processes of magmatism, and igneous rock Solid minerals can be sub-classified into metallic/
formations, like granites, granodiorite, gabbros, ore minerals such as (Au, Ag, Fe, Cu, Ba, Zn, Sn,
rhyolites, obsidians, pyroclastics like ash, tuff, Nb etc.) used as ornament, alloys, other metal
ignimbrite, scorias, pumice etc. The processes of works, and electrical wires etc; industrial minerals
deformation, metamorphism and formation of like clay, feldspar, silica sand, micas, limestone
metamorphic rocks such as marbles, meta- etc. used in manufacturing of various commodities
quartzites, gneisses, granulites, migmatites, and goods; aggregates and constructional
amphibolites, eclogiteetc (Obioha, 2013). The materials such as gravel, sand, laterite etc. used as
processes of sedimentation and formation of a whole for engineering constructional materials.
sediments and sedimentary rocks, such as sand, They may occur as residual deposits, placer
sandstones, limestones, carbonates, and mineral deposits, hydrothermal deposits vein and
like brine, phosphate, apatite etc. The recycling of replacement deposits in various rock types.
these rocks constitutes the rock cycle. This
together with the tectonic cycle and the hydrologic
cycle drive the denudation/weathering processes
(Fig. 2), which plays very vital roles in erosion,
gulling, flooding, glaciations and other mass
movement processes.
2.2 ANTHROPOGENIC CAUSES
Anthropogenic causes of watershed degradation
relate to pollutants and pollution caused by man,
mainly in his search and mining of natural
resources, such as solid minerals, petroleum (EIA,
2004), coal, radioactive materials, and agricultural
resources. Poor wastes disposal methods and
management techniques also contribute to
watershed degradation.

Fig. 2: The Natural Geologic Processes, showing

the relation between the Hydrologic Cycle,
the Rock cycle and the Tectonic Cycle
(Modified after Reijers, 1978).
The Hydrologic Cycle
The Hydrologic Cycle is the most important cycle
in watershed management and development
program, because it provides the water budget of
the area. The processes involved in it could be
summarized using the circular chart below (Fig.
3).

Fig. 1: The River Niger Watershed, showing

major tributaries.

46
 Str eam s, Lakes, vegetation and soil to ground water

exploration e.g. seismic line production involves

vegetation clearance, dynamite charging, and
shooting etc. to generate seismic waves. These
Fog & Cloud Water vapor + ice cr ystals

generate enormous noise, dust and extensive

destruction of vegetation (trees and grasses). The
exploitation involves drilling (such as test drills,
development drills and production drills), oil
spillage may occur, heavy metals e.g. lead (Pb),
chromium (Cr), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg),
barium (Ba), wastes, tailings etc. may be
generated, which may be hazardous, toxic, or
Evapora ti on from oce ans, Evaporation from snow & glacier s
carcinogenic. These by leaching, solution and
percolation etc. enter the surface/ground water,
soil/land and air either as point or non-point
pollutants, thereby polluting the watershed.
2.2.2.1 Gas Flaring
Rain , Snow & Stor m Transpiratio n from lakes and so ils Gas flaring is an operation of the petroleum
exploitation process usually carried out in flow
Fig. 3: The hydrologic cycle, showing various stations. It is carried out in a natural gas/oil
processes that contribute to the water budget in a associated petroleum field (Fig. 4), e.g. Escravous
watershed Southwestern Nigeria. It involves the discharge of
the gaseous cap of the petroleum into the
atmosphere/air. The gas discharged is usually
armed with obnoxious chemicals like CH4, S, N, F,
The mining, processing, beneficiation and Cl etc. and heavy metals, which are capable of
development of these resources, generate heavy degrading the watershed, polluting the water, sea,
metals, wastes, tailings etc which may be land/soil, air and negatively impacting the entire
hazardous, toxic, or carcinogenic. These by ecosystem.
leaching, solution, percolation etc. enter the
surface/ground water, soil/land and air. When the 2.2.3 Coal Resources Exploration and Mining
concentration of these substances are in excess
amounts > WHO standard, they contaminate and Coal is a solid mineral produced by the
pollute these essential resources, including people, preservation of ancient organic plant materials
animals, plant (faunal floral community), thus under anaerobic condition. Coal could be
endangering the entire watershed ecosystem. classified into five (5), called grades or ranks,
which depend on the percent composition of C, H,
O and N, (or Ratio of moisture, volatiles and
carbon content of the coal (Homes, 1978). The
2.2.2 Petroleum Resources Exploration and classes of coal are summarized below:
Exploitation
Peat earliest stage in the accumulation of
Petroleum Resources refer to these hydrocarbon carbonaceous materials.
resources occurring naturally in the earth. They
include the paraffinic, the aromatics and other Lignite Brown coal,
bituminous and asphaltic materials, which when
exploited and refined yield gasoline/petrol, Bituminous (sub-bituminous),
kerosene, diesel, engine oil and waxetc. (Veil, et
al, 2004). They occur abundantly in the Niger Sub-anthracite, and
Delta Watershed area (Fig. 4). The methods of

47
 Anthracite- is the Coal of highest
grade/rank. It is usually hard, brittle, stony
looking, does not soil the finger, burns
with smokeless flame, and has the highest
heat producing capacity on combustion.
Other types of coal are the Bog Head Coal
derived from Organic matter mainly
oozes, spores and algal remains, and the
Cannel Coal (Holmes, 1978).
Fig. 4: Niger Delta Watershed, showing the
relief and sea floor topography down to
depth of 2ooo m (Watershed online).
Coal mining involves surface and underground
mining methods (Cassidy, 1973; Thomas, 1978;
and Gregory, 1983;) or both. The surface mining
methods include- strip mining, open pit (or open
cut) mining, quarrying, alluvial mining, and
dredging etc. the underground mining methods
include room and pillar mining, cut and fill and
long wall mining methods etc. All these may
involve massive vegetation clearance, overburden
removal, extensive land excavation, etc. which
generate wastes, tailings, obnoxious materials, etc.
which can contaminate and pollute the watershed,
causing deleterious effects man, animals and
plants and the entire biodiversity.
48
2.2.4 Radioactive Minerals Exploitation
Radioactive minerals are naturally occurring earth
materials, which can spontaneously decay in a
process called radioactivity (breaking up of parent
element e.g. U238, 235-uraninite, Th232,-thorite etc.
and generating daughter isotopes e.g. Pb206, 207,208-
lead), in a given period called half-life. The decay
is usually accompanied by huge amount of heat
energy (Holmes, 1981). The exploration and
exploitation of these radioactive minerals generate
enormous heat energy, from the ores, gangues,
waste, and tailings. The abnormal temperature
change can pollute water, land/soil, and even
result in climate change.
2.2.5 Agricultural Resources Effects.
Poor Agricultural practices such as uncontrolled
vegetation destruction, uncontrolled application
herbicides to kill grasses, pesticides to kill pests
and other insects, use of dangerous chemicals such
as gamelan in fishing, can generate dangerous
chemicals, which are capable of negatively
impacting on our watershed, thus polluting the
water, soil and endangering the ecosystem.
2.2.6 Poor Wastes Disposal Method
Poor waste and refuse disposal systems are other
human activities that can pollute and degrade the
watershed. These can produce foul odor, generate
green house gases like CH4, CO2, CO, S, N2,
These gasses can combine with moist, water of the
atmosphere to form acid rain. They can also
produce bad odor, fumes, which can cause
pollution of the water, land and air, thus causing
pollution of the watershed environment.
3.0 EFFECTS OF WATERSHED
DEGRADATION
3.1 Pollution/Contamination Effects
The most important effects of watershed
degradation are pollution/contamination of
Environment: water (surface and ground), land /
soil, air (atmosphere) (Kharaka, et al, 1995).
Destruction of aquatic life / ecosystem. Massive
run-off, storm, gravity etc. may result in erosion,
flooding, gulling, mass movement resulting in loss
of land and water resources, destruction of
agricultural farmlands, roads, river terraces etc.
3.2 Oil spillage and gas flaring Effects
Oil spillage and gas flaring, accidents,
transportation, etc. are petroleum exploration
operations that may generate heavy metals,
hazardous wastes, toxic and carcinogenous
substances and brine waters (Richter, et al, 1993),
capable of contaminating and polluting the
watershed environment, thus impairing our water,
land and air and endangering the aquatic
ecosystem, including plants, fish, animals and
man. In extreme cases ill health, sickness, and
death may result.
3.3 Deforestation, Desertification, Climate
Change
Deforestation involving mass destruction of
vegetation cover such as trees, grasses, palms, and
other plants, may result from seismic operations
during line/profile production. This when colossal
scale may initiate and aggravate desertification,
climate change, due to increased solar energy
penetration on the bare soil, increased
temperature.
3.4 Erosion, flooding and gulling Effects
Erosion, flooding and gulling are other negative
effects and consequences of watershed
degradation. Erosion is the denudative processes
of wearing away land surface by agents of erosion
such as gravity, water, ice and wind. Erosion may
be classified into three: Physical/mechanical-
involving freezing, thawing, bouncing, and
rolling. Chemical- involving acidic rain water,
humic acid, reaction between minerals, and
cooling sequence of mineralization (Reijers,
1996). Biological Erosion- involving organic
borings, scavengers and bio-erosional agents. The
transportation environment are in water, on land,
in air and in ice/glaciers. The transportation
mechanisms are by rock-fall, land-slide, slumps,
49
debris flow; density flow, turbidity current, bed
load, suspension load and solution load. When
armed with storm these easily results in flooding,
gulling and massive degradation of watershed
area, destruction of water banks and other
watershed resources.
3.5 Socio-Cultural and Economic Effects
An important effect of watershed degradation is
the socio-cultural and economic problems. In
some cases people lose their lively-hood, due
destruction farm land, water boarders, fishing
ponds and canals. This often results in many social
and economic problems such as hunger,
starvation.
3.6 Health Effects: Diseases, Sicknesses and
Death
Numerous healths related problems may be
associated watershed degradation. For example in
coal mining areas diseases like silicosis may result
from excessive breathing coal dust, several
allergies may result in lung diseases, excessive
noise may result in hearing problems, deafness
may occur.
4.0 MITIGATION OF THE EFFECTS
Adopt sound Environmental friendly approach in
all cases of Mineral & Energy Resources
Exploration, Mining, beneficiation, Processing
and Development. Avoid the use of dangerous
Chemicals in all cases of hydro/water related
resources exploration and exploitation, e.g. avoid
the use of gamelan in fishing, and avoid the use of
mercury in artisanal placer gold mining.
Reclamation of all mined land, pit, tunnels etc.
should be carried out without delay. Carry out
immediate containment in the case of oil spillage,
bioremediation, in-situ & ex-situ water/soil
treatment,
Minimize operations that are capable of
generating dust, particulate matter, and excessive
noise; capable of causing lung, respiratory and
related diseases, such as silicosis,
pneumoconiosis. Adopt standard Watershed
management / development program (Henri
Institute of Environmental Management).
Abidance to Mineral, Energy & Water Resources
exploration, exploitation / mining rules,
regulations, laws, acts and other code of practice
conducts, ment to enhance sound watershed
management and development.
Government/Ministry of Mines Steel
Development should enact and enforce the fire
arm, explosives etc. acts to guide operators. EIA
should be carried out before sitting any new
project/s to appraisal the expected future impact,
and the possible containment/remediation
measures. Where contamination / pollution
already occurred, immediate treatment response
should be carried out. For polluted water boiling,
filtration, sedimentation, chlorination etc. should
be applied before use.
For oil spillage effects immediate cleansing,
bioremediation/treatability, should be carried out,
to avoid threat on aquatic organisms, life of man,
animals and fish etc.
5.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Nigeria is endowed with abundant natural
resources mostly stored in the watershed
environment, such as industrial minerals like -
clay, feldspar, silica sand, micas, limestone etc.
radioactive minerals-Th, U; and energy resources
like oil, natural gas, bitumen and asphalts; and
coal (peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite).
Methods of exploration, exploitation, and
processing of these natural resources upset the
watershed environmental equilibrium. They
generate heavy metals e.g. lead, chromium,
arsenic, mercury, barium, wastes, tailings etc.
which may be hazardous, toxic, or carcinogenic.
These by leaching, solution, and percolation, etc.
enter the surface/ground water, soil/land and air as
point and/or non-point pollution sources. When
the concentration is in excess amounts > WHO
standard, they contaminate and pollute these
essential resources, including people, animals,
plant (faunal floral community), thus
endangering the entire ecosystem of the watershed
area, causing sicknesses, disease and death
(UKMY, 2004. BGS-survey).
50
Poor agricultural practices, uncontrolled use of
herbicides, pesticides, and deforestation may
threaten watershed area, causing erosion, gulling,
flooding, desertification and climate change. For
sustainable conservation of watershed areas, best
exploration mining ethics and agricultural
practices are necessary. Abidance to guiding laws
and rules, and effective watershed management
development programs should be put in-place to
monitor, guide, and protect our watershed areas.
Where pollution has already occurred remediation
measures such as in-situ, ex-situ treatment,
bioremediation, boiling, filtration, and
chlorination should be consumption should be
adopted.
ACKNOWLRDGEMENT
We sincerely acknowledge the organizers of the
2017 IES Conference/Workshop. Worthy of
special mention are Prof. F. C. Eze - The Vice
Chancellor Federal University of Technology,
Owerri (FUTO), Prof C. A. Ahiarakwem- The
director Institute Of Erosion Studies (IES), the
representatives of The NEWMAP Project Imo
State. The first named author wishes to
acknowledge the HOD Geology FUTO, for giving
him the opportunity to participate in the IES
Conference/Workshop.
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ground-water salinization: Boca Raton,
Florida, C. K. Smoley, CRC Press, Inc., 258 p.
United Kingdom Minerals Yearbook 2004.
(Keyworth, Nottingham: British geological
survey)
Veil, J. A., M. G. Pruder, D. Elcock, and R. J.
Redweik Jr., 2004, A white paper describing
produced water from production of crude
oil, natural gas and coal bed methane:
Argonne National Laboratory Report, W-
31-109-Eng-38.

51
 EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON
COASTAL EROSION AND FLOODING
BY
Engr. V. A. John B. Eng, M. Eng, (Civil)
MNSE, C. Eng.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Climate change has become a source of concern in
recent times especially because of its implications
for ozone layer depletion and sustainable
development.
Climate is usually defined as the average weather
in a place. It includes patterns of temperature,
precipitation (rain or snow), humidity, wind and
seasons. Climate patterns play a fundamental role
in shaping natural ecosystems, and the human
economies and cultures that depend on them.
1.1 What is climate change?
Climate change occurs when the average long-
term weather patterns of a region are altered for a
prolonged period of time, typically decades or
longer. Examples include shifts in wind patterns,
the average temperature or the amount of
precipitation. These changes can affect one region,
many regions or the whole planet.
Climate changes are caused by changes in the total
amount of energy that is kept within the earths
atmosphere. The change in energy is then spread
out around the globe mainly by ocean currents as
52
well as wind and weather patterns to affect the
climates of different regions.
1.2 What are causes of climate change?
It is caused by natural processes such as volcanic
eruptions, variations in Earths orbit and changes
in the suns intensity. However, human activities
can also cause changes in climate. For instance, by
creating greenhouse gases emissions or cutting
down of forests (deforestation).
1.3 Global warming and climate change.
Global warming and climate changes seen today
are being caused by the increase of carbon dioxide
(CO2) and other greenhouse gas emissions by
humans such as methane (CH4), Ozone (O3),
Nitrous Oxide (N2O), etc.
Human activities like the burning of fossils,
industrial production, etc. increase greenhouse gas
levels. This traps more heat in our atmosphere,
which drives global warming and climate change.
So while CO2 concentrations and other greenhouse
gases are naturally present in the atmosphere,
emissions from human activities have greatly
amplified the natural greenhouse effect. CO 2
concentration in the Earths atmosphere has
increased significantly since the beginning of
industrial revolution, and most especially in the
past 50 years.
Human activities have caused the Earths average
temperature to increase by more than 0.75oC over
the past 100 years. Scientists have tracked not
only the changes in temperature of the air but
other indicators such as the melting of the polar
ice caps and the increase of world-wide sea levels.
2.0 EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
ON COASTAL EROSION AND
FLOODING.

As global temperatures rise, the oceans warm
slightly and expand, ice caps and glaciers melt,
and more precipitation falls as rain instead of
snow. This causes sea levels to rise. Most climate
change models forecast a global sea-level rise of
half a meter by 2100.
Coastal communities are particularly vulnerable to
the effects of climate change, which puts the
affected communities at risk-homes,
infrastructure, livelihoods, and even lives.
Effects of climate change on coastal erosion and
flooding include:
i. Storm flooding
ii. Coastal erosion
iii. Landslides
iv. Salt water intrusion, and
v. Loss of wetlands.
2.1 STORM FLOODING
Melting glaciers, ice fields and polar ice caps, plus
warming ocean waters all contribute to rising sea
levels. The Nigerian bar beach presents a typical
case of storm flooding. Climate change is
predicted to bring stronger storms with heavier
precipitation and higher wave conditions. This
will increase the frequency and extent of flooding
in many Nigerian coastlines.
Flooding is a common occurrence in many parts
of Nigeria. It occurs in in lowlying areas of
Southern Nigeria where annual rainfall is quite
heavy such as Lagos, Calabar, Warri and Port-
Harcourt.
53
Flooding is observed in floodplains of the major
rivers such as the Niger, Benue, Gongola, Sokoto,
etc.
2.2 COASTAL EROSION
Coastlines are continually changing as sand is
shifted by waves, tides, and currents. Sea-level
rise and land subsidence contribute to coastal
erosion and narrowing or movement of barrier
islands. With climate change, rates of coastal
erosion would increase.
Climate models project an increase in storms,
which would further contribute to coastal erosion
Climate change is predicted to increase storm
intensities and wave height in seas and oceans.
More frequent, intense storms combined with
higher overall sea levels will result in higher
coastal erosion rates and more storm damage.
As waves approach the shore, they slow down and
hence become shorter in length and steeper in
height. This increase in steepness reaches a limit
of stability after which the waves break. Waves
arriving at the coast are refracted as they enter the
shallow waters. The long- shore component of the
surge (which is formed as the waves break)
induces littoral currents. These littoral currents
move large quantities of sediments offshore.
Sediment movement offshore and onshore has
caused a recession of the 8ookm Nigerian
Coastline.
2.2.1 Problems of coastal erosion
Problems of coastal erosion vary from place to
place and may either be short term or long term.
These problems have adverse consequences on the
the living conditions of the people in the affected
eras.
Some of these coastal erosion problems are:
 i. Loss of arable land which could be
used for agriculture and settlement.
ii. Loss of lives and valued property such
as roads and water treatment systems.
iii. Huge monetary loss due to frequent
storm surge.
iv. Huge capital outlay is involved in the
protection of coastal coastlines against
flood and erosion.
v. Navigation activities are often
hindered.
vi. Some of the measures used in solving
coastal erosion may lead to legal
problems due to their hazardous nature.
For instance, rip currents associated
with groynes may be dangerous to
beach users.
2.3 LANDSLIDES
Landslides have always existed on our planets.
Generally, they are classified as mass movement
of rock, debris, and soil down a slope of land.
While landslides are naturally occurring
environmental hazards, they have recently
increased in frequency in certain areas as a result
of climate change and human activity. Although
there are many different causes of landslides, they
all have two things in common- they are all the
results of the failure of the soil and rock materials
that make up the hill-slope and they are driven by
gravity.
Natural causes of landslide include:
i. Earthquakes Seismic activities have
always been a main cause of landslides
throughout the world. Any time plate
tectonics move, the soil that covers
them moves with them. When
54
earthquake occurs on areas with steep
slopes, the soil slips causing landslides.
ii. Heavy rainfall- When sloped areas
become completely saturated by heavy
rainfall, landslides can occur. Without
the aid of mechanical root support, the
soil simply runs off when it contains
too much water.
Human causes of landslide include:
i. Clear cutting- This is amethod of
timber harvesting which completely
removes all old growth timber from an
area. This method is hazardous because
it destroys the existing mechanical root
structure in the area.
iii. Mining activities- mining operations
that use blasting techniques often cause
areas that are at risk of sliding to slide
due to vibrations under the soil.
2.4 SALT WATER INTRUSION
A higher sea level means saltwater may penetrate
wells in low-lying communities. This will reduce
the availability of freshwater for coastal
communities. Islands pose unique challenges for
ground water management. Island countries
ground water aquifers are recharged only by
rainfall. Seawater intrusion, the movement of
marine saltwater into freshwater aquifers, could
become a serious problem.
2.5 LOSS OF WETLANDS
Wetlands often occur in low-lying areas and rising
sea levels may convert these valuable habitats to
deep water.
Loss of wetlands could be minimized by
implementing the following control measures:
i. Protecting the wetlandsagainst
flooding.
ii. Filtering out pollutants; and
iii. Stabilizing shorelines.
3.0 MEASURES TO CHECK COASTAL
EROSION AND FLOODING
PROBLEMS.
Flood and erosion control problems have assumed
an alarming dimension of late as result of climate
change and its associated effects. This requires
immediate and permanent engineering solutions.
Erosion whether in the hinterland or coastline is a
dynamic phenomenon. Federal Ministry of
Environment has embarked on a continuous fight
against this menace. Various mitigation measures
are being employed depending on the nature of the
problem.
Measures to check flooding and coastal erosion
include:
3.1 REVETMENTS
A revetment is a structure constructed along
the shoreline to withstand the full force of
waves and strong currents on the shore thereby
protecting the land immediately behind it.
Revetment is a direct coastal control measure
and could be classified into flexible and rigid.
A flexible revetment can maintain intimate
contact with settling under- layers without
rendering the revetment unstable or allowing
erosion to occur. Flexible revetments include
rip-rap, precast interlocking blocks systems,
Reno mattress and asphaltic concrete layers.
55
A rigid revetment is a revetment which is
unstable to tolerate settlement hence structural
failure results when settlement occurs. Rigid
revetments include- cement-concrete slabs,
cement concrete bags, slab-cement bags
system when bound with cement mortar,
respectively.
The type of revetment popular in Nigerian
coastline consists of rock filled PVC-coated
wire basket laid on a filter fabric over a 1:3
embankment slope.
Flexible revetments have wide applications
and various advantages including:
i. Flexibility to foundation problems.
ii. Adaptability to any environmental
condition.
iii. Ease of construction.
iv. Low construction and maintenance
cost; and
v. They retain the land immediately
behind them.
The following are some disadvantages of
flexible revetments:
i. They protect only the land immediately
behind them
ii. Erosion in front of revetments may be
intensified if the toe is not well
protected; and
iii. Recession on adjacent shores may
continue when built on receding
shoreline.
3.2 SHOREWALL
A shorewall is a coastal protective structure with
essentially a vertical face e.g. seawalls and bulk
heads. The main function of a shorewall is to
retain the land by preventing landslide. It also
resists erosion effectively due to the hardness of
its face. Shore-walls may be classified as thin or
gravity structure.
A thin structure such as sheetpile depends on
passive resistance of the soil for its stability due to
its deep penetration into the soil. The sheets are
bonded to the embankment through prestressed
anchor walls.
A gravity structure depends on its own weight for
stability. Shorewalls are perhaps the most elegant
form of shoreline protection both in terms of
durability and performance. The only snag in this
option is the huge capital outlay required for its
construction. It is therefore used in highly
commercial areas where the level of economic
returns justifies the huge installation cost.
Advantages of shorewalls include:
i. They have good wave dissipating
characteristics.
ii. They may be very stable against wave
action; and
iii. They can stabilize slopes against deep
failures.
Disadvantages of shorewalls include:
i. They may cause erosion at adjacent
areas due to total reflection of wave
energy.
ii. Scouring at toe of the shorewall may
occur.
iii. Heavy equipment are required during
construction; and
iv. Huge capital outlay is required for its
construction.
56
3.3GROYNES
Groynes are shore protective structures usually
built perpendicular to the shoreline to trap
longshore littoral drift and could be classified as
direct or indirect measure. They extend from the
backshore into the littoral zone and are effectively
used in groups i.e. groyne field. These cause wave
to break before reaching the shore resulting in the
realignment of the shoreline as the groynes
accumulate sand on the shore. Groynes may be
used to reduce sand losses too.
Groynes could be constructed with wooden piles,
concrete or rubble mounds either as permeable
(permitting the flow of water) or impermeable
structure. The layout of a groyne system is
governed by their length, spacing, height and
orientation to the coastline. Currently, the inter-
relationship of these parameters is largely based
on empirical rules and observations.
Advantages of groynes:
i. They are good energy dissipating
structure; and
ii. They can cause rapid accumulation of
sediments on beaches.
Disadvantages of groynes
i. They cause considerable erosion on
downdrifts area.
ii. Longshore littoral drift can bypass a
groyne.
iii. Rip currents generated by groyne
systems are hazardous to beach users;
and
iv. Heavy equipment is required during
construction.
3.4 BREAKWATERS 3.5 BEACH NOURISHMENT

Breakwaters refer to structures built some distance Beach nourishment is the movement of sand to a
into the sea. beach to maintain it. It protects the adjacent
upland by dissipating energy without adverse
They dampen waves by reducing their access to effects.
the shore and thus protect the shore immediately
behind them. Breakwater in dampening waves
create quiet water behind them and deposition of
sand occurs in this region, building the the Advantages of beach nourishment
shoreline seaward. The rate of sediment i. It provides dredging inlets for
accumulation depends on the height, length, navigation.
distance offshore and the permeability of the
breakwater as well as longshore transport rate. ii. The borrow material can be placed
exactly at the desired locations; and
Materials like piles (wooden, steel and reinforced
concrete sheets), armourstones or stone rubbles iii. Cost of beach nourishment may be
and concrete-filled fabrics bags could be used for relatively low compared to other
breakwater construction. protective measures.

Advantages of breakwater Disadvantages of beach nourishment

i. They dissipate wave energy i. This measure cannot be executed

considerably. during high currents and severe wave
conditions.
ii. They prevent sediment loss into the sea
during storms; and ii. For short segments of shore, the option
is considered expensive; and
iii. Beaches may be reclaimed for
recreational purposes. iii. The borrow material composition can
sometimes cause environmental
problems.
Disadvantages of breakwaters

i. They cause down- drift erosion. 3.6 EARTH DYKES.

ii. Strong rip currents which are Dykes are protective measures particularly useful
dangerous to swimmers and beach in the protection of river floodplains and flooded
users may develop. coasts. A dyke is built up to a crest level exceeding
iii. Heavy equipment is required. the annual flood level, while the land behind may
be filled up. The seaward slope of the dyke could
iv. They pose hazards to navigators; and be protected either with gabions or stone rip-rap.

v. They are expensive when compared to The technical requirements for effective
other measures. performance of a dyke are:

i. It should not overstress its foundation.

57
 ii. It must remain stable for all water
levels below the design crest level.
iii. It should not be overtopped; and
iv. It must be safe against internal erosion,
water forces and pressures.
The Federal Government of Nigeria has joined the
rest of the world in continuous fight against the
climate climate and its associated impacts. To this
end, the Federal Ministry of Environment has
created a climate change department saddled with
the responsibility for climate change control and
other related matters.

For effective climate change control and

Advantages of dykes over other forms of monitoring, the following recommendations are
protection devices include: imperative:

i. The dykes crest could be used as an i. Establishment of climate change

access road by pedestrians. control and monitoring department in
each State Ministry of Environment in
ii. The use of naturally occurring
the Country.
materials implies low cost of
compacted fill over the years despite ii. Enactment of legislation on burning of
the global economic recession. fossils and other forms of carbon
generation activities such as firewood,
iii. Simplicity of construction and
use of bad generators and use of old
adaptability to a wide range of
vehicles with high carbon emissions.
circumstances; and
iii. The use of clean and renewable energy
iv. Reliable analytical methods have
should be encouraged by all tiers on
evolved from an improved
government in the Country.
understanding of the structural
behavior of large fills. iv. Adequate budgetary allocation for
controlling and combating climate
change and its resultant ecological
Disadvantages of dykes problems in the Country is strongly
solicited.
i. Heavy equipment are required during
construction,

ii. The borrow material composition can REFERENCES

sometimes pose environmental
GORNITZ. V. (2001), Sea-level rise and coasts,
problems; and
an assessment of the Metropolitan East Coast
iii. The toe of the seaward slope of the Region, (pp.21-46) Columbia Earth Institute, New
dyke may be undermined if not well York.
protected.
ROSENZWEIG .C. AND W.D SOLECKI
(2001), Climate change and a global City, the
potential consequences of climate variability and
4. CONCLUSION

58

change, Metro East Coast, report for the U. S
Global change research program.
IBE A. C AND QUELENNEC R. E (1989),
Methodology for Assessment and control of
Coastal Erosion in West and Central Africa,
UNEP Regional Seas Reports and studies No.107
PER BRUUN (1989), Port Engineering Vol.I and
II,Fourth Edition,Gulf Publishing Company.
NEDECO (1985), Coastal Erosion in West and
Central Africa, UNEP Regional Seas Report and
Studies No.67
U. S ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS (1984),
Shoreline Protection Manual, Vol.I and II, Fourth
Edition, U. S Coastal Engineering Research
Centre.
PIANC (1980), Final Report of the 3rd
International Commission for the study of waves,
supplement of bulletin No. 36 Vol. 1.
INTEGRATED WATERSHED
DEVELOPMENT PLANNING: A REMOTE
SENSING APPROACH USING UNMANNED
AIRCRAFT VEHICLE (UAV)
BY
1 produced is strengthened by the provision of
UZOIGWE, L.O, 2SAMUEL, C, 3NDUKWE,
C. C,4OKAFOR, P. OAND 5ISAAC, G.
luzoigwe@yahoo.com,
samuelchinwendu01@gmail.com,
cjsmartsurvey@gmail.com
1
Faculty of Engineering, Department of
Agricultural Engineering, Imo State University,
59
2, 3, 4,5
Loraj Consortium, 2A Orlu Road, Amakohia
Owerri, Imo State
Abstract
Watershed management plays a major role in the
planning and development of land and water
resources. It also involve the processes of guiding
and organizing land and other resources usage in a
watershed ensuring the sustenance of the
environment mainly the soil and water resources.
Decision planning requires scientific knowledge
of resources information, expected runoff,
sediment yield, watershed conservation,
environmental impact assessment and storm water
management. Remote sensing systems are capable
of contributing greatly to watershed management,
primarily in the areas of Gully erosion control,
flood mitigation, hydrologic land use monitoring
and watershed modeling. The Trimble UX5 is an
Unmanned Aerial Photogrammetry System,
designed to acquire aerial photographs of land
area and developmental activities for the purpose
of construction, mapping and environmental
design. It works on the principle of
photogrammetry which depends on measuring the
geometrical attributes of features from aerial
photographs. The UX5 captures overlapping series
of photographs of the area of interest, where the
side and forward overlaps ensuringthere is no
missing gap during flight. The accuracy and
precision of the x,y,z of positions on the
orthophoto (series of overlapping images)
visible ground control points well distributed in
the project area before flying, it has a flying height
of 75m to 750m which results in images with
spatial resolution of 0.024m to 0.24m respectively.
Airborne (e.g. unmanned aerial vehicles, UAV)
and terrestrial image acquisition platforms are
possible data source for comprehensive digital
watershed delineation. The study presents, a
remote sensing application using UAV that is
specifically used for watershed development
planning.
Keywords:Watershed management, Remote
sensing, Unmanned Aerial Photogrammetry
System, Orthophoto
1.0. Introduction
Watersheds are described as an important source
of water, energy and biological diversity.
Furthermore, they are a source of such key
resources as forests, agricultural products and of
recreation. As a key ecosystem representing the
complex and interrelated ecology of our planet,
watershed environments are essential to the
survival of global ecosystem (Heal 2000).
Watersheds sustain human life by providing the
ecological systems, food systems and water
supplies on which we depend. Watershed
management is an aspect of water resources and
environmental system management that deals with
the coordinated control of different water run-off
characteristics for efficient and sustainable
environment. For optimal use of environmental
resources in a region, integrated watershed
development approach is still viewed by many to
be the most ideal as it helps in maintaining the
ecological basis of resources utilization.
Accordingly, watershed management deals with
optimizing the use of land, water, vegetation,
animal, and environment to prevent soil erosion,
improve water availability, increase, food, fuel and
timber production on a sustainable basis.
According to Heal (2000), the role of watersheds
requires a further digression towards the attributes
and the importance of watersheds from a global
perspective. Additionally, conservation of
watersheds enhances the protection of many
habitats that are essential to other life support
systems of the planet.
60
However, integrated watershed management
approach entails the integration of technologies
within the natural boundaries of a drainage area
for optimum development of land, water, and plant
resources to meet the basic needs of people and
animals in a sustainable manner. In order to
achieve its objective, integrated watershed
management suggests to adopt land and water
conservation practices, water harvesting in ponds
and recharging of groundwater for increasing
water resources potential and stress on crop
diversi1cation, use of improved variety of seeds,
integrated nutrient management and integrated
pest management practices, etc.
In Nigeria however, the lack of efficient,
inventorying and mapping of precise data to
sustainably manage the watershed has been
attributed for its resultant degradation of the
natural ecosystem as evidenced with increasing
flooding and gully erosion.To address the
aforementioned problem of environmental
degradation, efficient watershed management
planning is a key factor to be considered. To
achieve an efficient implementation of this,
detailed Geographic Information System (GIS)
and topographical survey using remote sensing
applications like the UAVswas undertaken.
Researchers in engineering, surveying and other
related fieldshaveput in frantic efforts to providing
baseline data based on integrated GIS and remote
sensing approach to an integrated watershed
planning to form the basis of future management.
This approach is quite effective in monitoring the
impacts of human activities on watershed
environments in international development (Shultz
and Saena, 1998). In light of this, many authors
viewed the widespread applications of GIS and
remote sensing techniques in watershed
management as a major step towards sustainability
and resource conservation (Malczewski, 2003;
Tyson, 2004). GIS and remote sensing techniques
are widely used for studying earths resources at
various levels. Accordingly, Shaban
(2005)observed how the use of integrated
watershed assessment, especially relying on
remote sensing procedure in river basin
environmental management has assisted the
developing countries on accurate engineering
designs and developments.Remote sensing refers
to the use of aerial sensor technologies to detect
and classify objects on earth (both on the surface,
in the atmosphere and oceans) by means of
propagated signals (e.g. electromagnetic
radiation). It makes it possible to collect data of
dangerous or inaccessible areas and more
especially monitoring deforestation in affected
areas.
Advancements in geospatial technology,
especially developments in both hardware and
software components ofGIS, remote sensing and
field survey equipment have revolutionized the
data acquisition, processing,interpretation and
presentation methods (Ndukwe et al.,
2013).During the past 50 years, surveying and
engineering measurement technology has made
five quantum leaps: the electronic distance meter,
total station, GPS, robotic total station and laser
scanner. Unmanned aircraft systems (UASs) or
drones (also known as unmanned aerial vehicles
or UAVs) remained the sixth quantum leap in
technology. It is a set of complementary
technologies brought together to fulfil a specific
task. Conditioned by the lack of regulations and to
a certain degree, by the inherent complexity of
large systems, a UAV mission has usually
consisted of operating an aerial platform, most
probably a fixed-wing or rotary-wing craft of less
than 30 kg MTOW, within a range not greater than
10 km and flying below 300 m, carrying a small or
medium-format optical camera (probably on the
visible spectrum), and either remotely piloted by a
human or automatically piloted by an autopilot
61
based on two main navigation technologies,
Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)
(such as for example GPS) and Inertial Navigation
Systems (INS), in a GNSS-only mode or
INS/GNSS coupling.
We believe that, in general, the geomatic
community has finally taken positions on
thenano-micro-mini UAV ecosystem. Yet, the
history of UAV is marked by a heterogeneous
array of developments that sometimes departing
from the previous ecosystem. Everaerts et al.
(2004) presented a stratospheric UAV to offer high
resolution aerial imagery in near real time for
large-scale mapping and crisis monitoring, and
presented recent updates in with respect to the
integration with local civil aviation authorities
(Everaerts and Lewyckyj, 2011). More
recently, Miraliakbari et al. (2012)reported on the
use of gyrocopters as potential mapping platforms,
focusing on the analysis of its vibrations,
and Thamm (2011) presented a parachute-based
remote-sensing system. In Kemper (2012), several
non-conventional unmanned and manned
platforms (balloons, blimps, trikes and paratrikes)
are presented carrying remote-sensing payloads.
Everaerts (2009) featured a comparative analysis
of airborne platforms, satellite platforms, low-
altitude and high-altitude UA, in relation to their
main qualities for remote sensing missions, such
as coverage, update rate, flexibility, quality, spatial
resolution, positional accuracy, spectral resolution
and accuracy, target applications and system
economic cost. An update on the use of UAS for
geomatics, covering market and legislation
analysis, is provided (Haarbrink, 2011).
Although drones have been around for awhile, the
technology has not yet been widely used in the
surveying and remote sensing professions. But
with the advent of practical, lightweight lithium
polymer batteries, low-cost drone technology,
lightweight digital cameras and advances in close-
range oblique aerial photography, made the future
of drones in land surveying greatly exciting.There
are two basic types of dronesfixed-wing units
with a brushless electric motor and a rotor type
that has between three and eight or more brushless
electric motors (commonly referred to as
multirotors). The rotor units enable drones to
hover at a precise altitude and position and operate
in confined airspace. The technology for both
systems relies on the featherweight lithium
polymer battery that stores an incredible amount
of power and the brushless motors that have a
large variable speed range with good power at all
speeds, lightweight airframes and a simple,
hobby-type airplane radio controller. GPS and
altimeters enhance their capabilities. Small, on-
board video cameras with micro-video
transmitters enable pilots on the ground wearing
digital video headsets to fly as though they were
sitting in the pilots seat.The control accuracy of a
multirotor drone is extremely precise. Drones will
be a perfect platform for aerial photography and
remote sensing. The built-in accelerometer and
gyroscope that control flight can also be used to
simultaneously control motorized camera mounts
to keep the cameras level and correct for
undesired tip and tilt caused by wind or a shaky
pilot. Mikrokopter, DJI and Hoverfly drone
controllers allow the uploading of GPS or Google
Earth data to compute flight path coordinates and
automatic route flights. The planning software
also enables the planner to enter specific routes,
speeds, altitudes and hover times over each point.
Recent technology even enables the drone to land
automatically. Failsafe technology constantly
checks for the quality of signals from the ground
radio control, and if the signal is lost, the drone
goes into hover mode; after a few seconds, the
drone returns like a homing pigeon to wherever it
took off and lands automatically. The controller
can also press a come home button, and the
drone will return to the takeoff coordinates at a
preset altitude and land automatically.
62
Numerous survey instruments for data acquisition
and mapping have been identified, however, the
efficiency and degree of accuracy of one
equipment to the other varies and as such, the
selection of the most suitable types is important
for precise and accurate data procurement, with
minimal errors. This paper therefore examines the
use of different survey equipment for the mapping
of watershed areas with main focus on the UAV.
2.0 Early developments
The traverse method of survey in line with its
photogrammetric component (aerial image
acquisition) was adopted, though some
conventional methods of survey was used to
compliment the shortcomings of satellite
dependent equipment.With technological
evolution, equipment for topographical survey has
evolved from ancient to a more modern and
sophisticated type of high degree of accuracy. The
choice of possible remote sensing application for
an integrated watershed management and planning
is huge and continues to grow. For past decades,
surveying equipment such as the levelling
instrument and the theodolite and advanced with
the evolution of the reflectorless total station for
point acquisition in inaccessible, rugged terrain
and Differential Global Positioning System
(DGPS) has increased speed and accuracy in
remote sensing.It is difficult to generalize
advantages or disadvantages for particular
platforms, because possible applications and
working conditions vary greatly around the world.
Manually navigated tethered systems such as kites
and blimps are ideal for the precise coverage of
small sites that require only a few images. These
systems however, are hardly useful for systematic
surveys of larger areas, where regular overlaps
along evenly-spaced flight lines are preferable for
an efficient processing workflow. Global
positioning system (GPS) and Inertial Navigation
System (INS) technologies are two examples of
recent developments in UAV technology. These
developments have led to the availability of a
range of auto piloted systems such as planes,
drones, multicomputer, etc. that can automatically
and autonomously follow prescribed flight lines.

2.1. UAV Specifications

In Figure 1, a fixed-wing aircraft type Trimble

UX5 aerial imaging solution is employed. It is
equipped with a digital system camera. The
battery-use is lithium polynomial with a max and
nominal voltage of 14.8V to 16.8V, 6000mAh.
The UX5 has a flying height of 75m to 750m
which results in images with spatial resolution of
0.024m to 0.24m respectively.

Figure 1: The Trimble UX5 Aerial Imaging

63
The UX5 works on the principle of the differential GPS/Global Navigation Satellite
photogrammetry which depends on measuring the System (GNSS) receivers while the coordinates of
geometrical attributes of features from aerial the GCPs are used during the processing of the
photographs. The UX5 captures overlapping series aerial images for exterior orientation. In the case
of photographs of the area of interest. The side and of the Isiekenesi watershed, an area of around 8
forward overlaps ensures no missing gap during sq. kilometers was covered utilizing
flight. The accuracy and precision of the x, y,z of photogrammetry and the processing of image data
positions on the orthophoto (series of overlapping (over 10,000 images) was done on a workstation
images) produced is strengthened by the provision using Trimble Business Centre, Agisoft Photoscan
of visible ground control points well distributed in photogrammetric software. High and low band
the project area before flying. The UX5 has a pass filters were used in order to get rid of small
flying height of 75m to 750m which results in variations and point cloud classification for
images with spatial resolution of 0.024m to 0.24m generating point cloud from images. The 3D
respectively. modelling was done utilizing GoCad geological
software where the surface was interpolated with
nearest neighbor and kriging methods. Figure 2
2.2. Ground Control Stations (GCSs) shows the Ground Control Point (GCP)
installation with an absolute minimum of five
Ground Control Stations (GCSs) are stationary or GCP makers per flight.
transportable hardware/software devices to
monitor and command the unmanned aircraft.
GCS are probably as important as the unmanned
aircraft themselves, as they enable the interface
with the human intelligence any change in the
route of the UAS, any eventual error on the aerial
platform and/or any outcome of the payload
sensors shall be sent to and seen within the GCS.
As fundamental pieces in UAS, GCS have
evolved over the past decades pushed by the
parallel improvements in computer science and
telecommunications. The Trimble YUMA
1/YUMA 2 as used in this study works on
Windows Operating System (OS) and with
Trimble Access Aerial Imaging Software,
communicates with UX5 using the ground
modem. 2.4. The UAVs deliverables
2.3. Ground Control Points (GCPs) From single flight, operators can produce a range
of deliverables including:
Images taken are usually supported with GCP are
fundamentally important in the project area as it
ensures the stability of the geometric properties of
the photo(mosaic) produced; hence the aerial i. Digital Orthophoto or Mosaic of the
photogrammetry. The GCPs are established using project area

64
The DigitalOrthophotographs or mosaic are series
of overlapping images with corrected geometrical
properties, adequate side and forward overlap at
80% to avoid spaces between images. Applicable
for mapping of features in the project site.Its
creation mayalso be achieved using the UAV, as it
is important for the generation of land use cover
maps, which is an integral part of any watershed. Figure 2: Ground Control Point
Figure 3 shows the detail of the digital Ortho-
photo (DOP).

Figure3:Detail of high quality DOP

ii. Point Cloud

65
These are set of data points in some coordinate
system. In a 3d coordinate system, these points are
usually defined by x, y, z coordinates and often are
intended to represent the external surface of an
object and are applicable for terrain modelling and
engineering design with respect to the land mass.
Figure4: Image showing Point Cloud
iii. Digital Terrain Model (DTM)/Digital
Surface Model (DSM)
This provides a raster data with 3-dimensional
property of the project area. Adequate for
topographical analysis of the project site.
66
Figure 4: Image of DSM
3.0 Application of Remote Sensing
Application (UAVs) to Watershed Development
Remote sensing data would be utilized for
finalizing contour maps forassessment of run-off
and for identifying structures best suited for
location ofprojects, resulting to cost and time
optimization in projectimplementation. This
technology acquisition contributed immensely in
assessing theactual impact of various programs in
a given area. Due to availability of latestremote
sensing techniques, it is now possible to assess
periodic changes in geohydrologicalpotential, soil
and crop cover, run-off and accessing rugged
terrain in project
areas.UsinggeneratedDTMandroaddataweperform
edsurfaceanalysisusingSAGA GIS andGlobal
MapperGIS
softwaretodeterminerunoffdirectionsinselectedpart
softhewatershedand determine sub-
basinsofeachgullyor new channel.Basic
topographyanalysisincluded:
Derivationofcontours
 Determinationof terrainslopes

Derivationofsub-basinareas

Determinationofsurface runoffformation
(directionsofsurface rainfall runoff)

Determinationofchannelnetwork.

The topography analysis presents basis for

defining mainhydrologicalpropertiesforcalculating
surface runoffin hydrological modelHEC-HMS.

For a holistic watershed planning and

management, airborne photogrammetric survey
data, is used to prepare the DTM in Figure 5 of the
watershed area using Trimble airborne UAV Ux5
with Sony Nex5T (16M camera). In the case of
Isiekenesi gully erosion control, topographical
survey of the watershed area was carried out on
100m AGL in 13 flights. The airborne
photogrammetry survey, parallel to airborne
survey and terrestrial survey of all major roads
were applied in order to get the sufficient accuracy
needed for design.
Figure 5:DTM and majorflowpathsinthe
watershed area
The steps involved in watershed development and
planning are as discussed below:
i. Generation of drainage map
The most important part of the survey is
topographical analysis to determine runoff
directions of the flow in the parts of watershed and
to analyze the influence of the existing road
infrastructure in the process of water runoff.
Acquired topographical data using the UAV is
important for the establishment of channel and
drainage network of the watershed.This part of the
analysis is also very important for planning
watershed master plan in terms of runoff
conditions and road infrastructure design. Figure 6
is a drainage map showing the runoff directions of
the flow in selected areas for Isiekenesi, Ideato
South Local Government Area of Imo State gully
site watershed.

67

Figure 6: Drainage MapofIsiekenesi watershed
showing flow directions
ii. Delineation of watershed
To carry out the delineation of the watershed in
order to determine the discharge generated within
the entire area, the natural water flow path of the
area was considered. By considering the
intervention areas i.e. the areas were newly
proposed channels to be constructed will be
provided to safely harness the runoff generated,
delineation was done. This was achieved by
considering the points were the natural water flow
empties into these newly proposed drainage
channels to be constructed. Based on the
catchment area delineated, the discharges
generated within these areas were then estimated.
Watershed delineation is carried out using the
Global Mapper 15.0 GIS software by importing
the topographical-cadastral map survey points
which will be used to generate the Digital
Elevation Model (DEM) and the contour of the
area. Figure 7 below shows the Obazu Watershed
68
delineation using the Global Mapper 15.0 GIS
software.
Figure 7: Delineation of Obazu Mbieri, Imo
State watershed using the Global Mapper 15.0
iii. Characterization of watersheds on a
smaller scale
With analysis of topographical data we established
channel and drainage network of the watershed.
Existing roads were used as drainage lines (with
proper reconstruction) and with culvert design we
created channel network that intercepts all the
water and leads the flow into existing gullies,
which are restored and now present a stabile river
channels. If necessary (result of topography
analysis), new channels were designed to prevent
formation of new gullies. All new roads,
settlements and other activities that can affect
runoff process in the watershed should be planned
with caution and should take into consideration
the new drainage system and runoff regime in the
watershed.
 iv. Road infrastructure drainage system

All the roads, paths and other areas should be

properly managed with drainage systems that
would ensure controlled runoff conditions. Water
runoff should be controlled and distributed in
various channels. Existing road infrastructure
already presents an obstacle in surface flow and
causes runoff flow concentration and erosion
problems. Since slopes of the terrain are relatively
small, we decided to use road lines for drainage
systems of the area. All the roads will be
reconstructed with proper cross section slope and
sufficient dimensions of side drainage channels.
The drainage system is designed to concentrate
runoff flow into channels and reduce flow velocity Figure 8: Reconstruction of roads with side
with dimensioned hydraulic structures. With road drainage channel
drainage network we will prevent flow
concentration outside the channels and reduce new
gully formation hazard. Road drainage system has
all the necessary structures to optimize operational
stage and lower the maintenance costs. Drainage
channels are designed as reinforced concrete U
cross section shaped channels. Drainage channels
are designed according to hydraulic analysis
(slope, steps etc.), including all corresponding
structures such as culverts. In case of unsealed
roads also demanders must be designed to prevent
sediment deposition in culverts and channel
reaches with smaller slope. Figures 8 and 9 show
the inclusion of drainage systems in watershed
management and proposed drainage system in
Isiekenesi Watershed, Imo State respectively.

Figure 9: Proposed drainage system in

Isiekenesi Watershed, Imo State

4.0 Conclusion

This project has analyzed watershed withemphasis

on the application of GIS and remote sensing

69
technique such as the UAV for adequate planning
and development of land and water resources. The
paper identified lack of efficient inventories and
mapping of precise data to sustainably manage the
watershed to have contributed to the
environmental degradation in Nigeria. It further
introduced the application of GIS and UAV remote
sensor as the approach to ensure efficient and an
integrated watershed management and planning.
The UAVs deliverables that can be produced from
single flight include the Digital Orthophoto (DOP)
which is used in the generation of land use cover
maps for showing the integral part of the
watershed; the Point Cloud, data points defined by
x, y, z coordinates which represents the external
surface for terrain modelling; the Digital Terrain
Model (DTM)/Digital Surface Model (DSM) for
topographical analysis of study areas. These
deliverables when processedon a workstation
using Trimble Business Centre, Agisoft Photoscan
photogrammetric software will be used for the
generation of drainage maps to determine runoff
paths, watershed delineations using Global
Mapper GIS application. For an efficient and
integrated watershed development planning, a
remote sensing approach should be employed so
as come up with a more precise and accurate data
with minimal errors.
ISPRS Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens.
Spatial Inform. Sci., XXXVIII-1/C22 (2011), pp.
15
Everaerts, J., Lewyckyj N., Fransaer, D (2004):
PEGASUS: Design of a stratospheric long
endurance UAV system for reomte sensing ISPRS
Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens., XXXV-
B2 (2004), pp. 2933
Haarbrink, R., (2011): UAS for geo-information:
current status and perspectives
ISPRS Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens.
Spatial Inform. Sci., XXXVIII-1/C22 (2011), pp.
207212
Heal, G., (2000): Nature and the
marketplace.Washington, DC: Island Press.
Kemper, G., (2012): New airborne sensors and
platforms for solving specific tasks in remote
sensing. ISPRS Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote
Sens. Spatial Inform. Sci., XXXIX-B5 (2012), pp.
351356

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management strategies. Environmental and
56. European Spatial Data Research (EuroSDR).
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Everaerts, J., Lewyckyj N., (2011): Obtaining a

Miraliakbari, A., Hahn, M., Engels, J., (2012):
permit-to-fly for a HALE-UAV in Belgium
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IMUs. ISPRS Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote

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497502
Ndukwe, C., Francis, O., Kelechi, N., Chiamaka,
I., Raphael, N., Amos, U.,(2013): The Role of
Surveying and Mapping in Erosion Management
and Control: Case of Omagba Erosion Site,
Onitsha Anambra State, Nigeria. Journal of
Environment and Earth Science, ISSN 2224-3216
(Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online) Vol. 3, No.11,
2013, www.iiste.org
Shaban, A.,(2005): Watershed characteristics, land
use and fabric: the application of remote sensing
and geographicinformation systems. Lakes and
Reservoirs:Research and Management, 10:2: 85-
92.
Shultz, S., and F Saenz. (1998): Linking people to
watershed protection planning with a GIS: a case
study of Central American watershed.
Thamm, H., (2011): Susi 62: A robust and safe
parachute UAV with long flight time and good
payload. ISPRS Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote
Sens. Spatial Inform. Sci., XXXVIII-1/C22
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Tyson, B., (2004): Layering natural resource and
human resource data for planning watershed
conservation strategies, Society and Natural
Resources, 17: 2:163-170.
THE CONCEPTS OF PRECISE EMPIRICAL
MODELS FOR HYDROLOGICAL
ANALYSIS
BY
71
1
UZOIGWE, L.O, 2 SAMUEL, C,
AND3MADUAKOLAM, S. C
luzoigwe@yahoo.com,
samuelchinwendu01@gmail.com,
1
Faculty of Engineering, Department of
Agricultural Engineering, Imo State University,
2, 3,
Loraj Consortium, No. 2A Orlu Road
Amakohia, Owerri, Imo State.
Abstract
Methods for predicting runoff from watersheds
remained an integral part of engineering practice
particularly in planning, design of hydraulic
structures and hydrographic flow regime. The
researches on the development of intelligent
systems and Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)
remote sensing with the advent of geospatial
technology have revolutionized data acquisition
for efficient and precise information such as
orthophotos, Digital Terrain Model (DTM), Cloud
points etc. for hydrological studies. The
application of Soil Conservation Service- Curve
Number (SCS-CN) and rational methods for
estimating runoff computation limited to
drainages greater than and less than 80 hectares
respectively with generally uniform surface cover
and topography. Air-filled pore spaces throughout
the year was calculated with the aid of
precipitation minus the initial abstraction against
the observed runoff. The SCS-CN and rational
Kerby and Kirpich equations fitted the data well
in its elementary forms. The computation using
rational model gave a total discharge of 157.65,
177.15 and 197.30 m3/s for 25, 50 and 100-year
return periods respectively. In the same vein, the
SCS-CN model recorded 74.5, 82.5and 88.9 m3/s
for 25, 50 and 100-year return periods
respectively. Based on the findings, the rational
formula gave the highest discharge for Ihioma
watershed and hence recommended for
watersheds areas less than 80 hectares.
Keywords:Geospatial technology, UAV remote
sensing, Air-filled pore spacing, Rational andSCS-
CN models.
1. Introduction
Hydrology deals with the occurrence, circulation
and distribution of water upon, over and beneath
the earth surface. Engineering hydrology includes
those segments of the field related to planning,
design, and operation of engineering projects for
the control and use of water. Its task is to provide
water management with information needed for
designing and operating hydraulic structures and
systems (Linsleyet al., 1982). These systems
modify the natural water regime according to the
requirements of society, to avoid damages and to
best utilize the water. Traditionally, the main aims
of hydrological research have been to provide an
understanding of the water balance operating in
forested catchments or watersheds, the physical
processes that control water movement and the
impacts on water quantity and quality (Mungaiet
al., 2004). Hydrological data can help us prepare
and plan for extreme events by identifying where
the risks are highest. Day to day hydrological data
is used to better manage our water resources in
ways which suit our economic and environmental
needs by providing information on the availability
and quality of water for all uses.Access to accurate
and reliable hydrological data allows us to better
appreciate our own water needs and that of the
environment, so that options, and strategies can be
developed which are better placed to benefit all,
(Hewlett and Hibbert, 1967; Dunne and Black,
1970).
With the current sway in the world of technology
and scientific evolution, there has been great need
to intensify researches on the development of
intelligent systems. This development in recent
time has resulted to the evolution of more
sensitive sensors application to watershed
planning and management (Uzoigwe and
Maduakolam, 2013). With the advent of geospatial
technology, especially in hardware and software
components of GIS, remote sensing and
sophisticated high degree accuracyofsurvey
equipment, have revolutionized data acquisition,
72
processing, interpretation and presentation
methods (Ndukweet al., 2013).This advancements
have birthed efficient and precise information for
hydrological studieswhich have helped a great
deal for researchers. The UAV which is an auto-
pilot aircraft system has found useful application
for systematic surveys of larger areas where
regular overlaps along evenly-spaced flight lines
are preferable for an efficient processing workflow
especially in a holistic watershed management
applications. The UAV, a lightweight drone with
digital camera of high magnification and focal
length for aerial photogrammetry is designed to
check for the quality of signals from the ground
radio control and if such signal is lost, the drone
automatically activates the hover mode and
returns back to the take-off point using the
coordinate of the ground control point during take-
off.The remote sensed UAV which uses aerial
sensor technologies to detect and classify objects
on earth (both on the surface, in the atmosphere
and oceans) by means of propagated signals (e.g.
electromagnetic radiation) have found significant
application in mapping and are used to produce
accurate and precise deliverables such as
orthophotos, DTM, cloud points etc. that are
useful in hydrological studies and other
engineering purposes.
Hydrologic processes and event are better
understood by simplifying the actual hydrologic
regimes using numerical modelling to predict
hydrologic responses and allow one to study the
function and interaction of various inputs.Simple
methods for predicting runoff from watersheds are
particularly important in hydrologic engineering
and hydrological modelling and they are used in
many hydrologic applications, such as flood
design and water balance calculation models
(Steenhuiset al., 1995; van Dijk, 2010; Abonet al.,
2011).Empirically derived parameters are
developed by the regression analysis of either
fitted or physically determined parameters.
 Empirically derived parameters may vary in the
amount of physical interpretation that can be
associated with their values. A number of methods
for estimating a design discharge,that is, the
maximum value of the flood runoff hydrograph,
have been developed for the design of hydraulic
structures on very small watershed where a
complete hydrograph of runoff is notalways
required, (Dickinson and Whiteley, 1970; Gburek,
1977; Steenhuiset al., 1982).
2. Application of empirical methods
As described in the Stormwater Management
Rules, the New Jersey Department of
Environmental Protection(NJDEP) has
specified that one of two general
runoff computation methods be used to compute
runoff rates and volumes. These are the
SCSmethodology, which consists of several
components, and the rational method (associated
modified rational method), which are generally
limited to drainage areas less than 80 hectares.
I. The Rational Methoddeveloped more than 100
years ago remains yet the most-employed formula
of engineering hydrology. The rational method
uses an empirical linear equation to compute the
peak runoff rate from a selected period of uniform
rainfall intensity. It continues to be useful in
estimating runoff from simple, relatively small
drainage areas such as parking lots. Use of the
rational method should be limited to drainage
areas less than 80 hectares with generally uniform
surface cover and topography. It is important to
note that the rational method can be used only to
compute peak runoff rates. Since it is not based on
a total storm duration, but rather a period of rain
that produces the peak runoff rate the method
cannot compute runoff volumes unless the user
assumes a total storm duration.The rational
method peak flow rate is calculated using
Equation (1).
73
Q=CIA (1)
Q = peak discharge or runoff ( m3 /s )
where,
estimated from the sub-generated catchments,
C = dimensionless runoff coefficient obtained
from the land use map of the area (Table 1), A
I =
= area of each sub-catchment (hectares),
rainfall intensity (mm/hr ) for duration equals
time of concentration obtained using the Intensity
Duration Frequency (IDF) curve and Z =360
(conversion factor for S.I unit).
The point cloud generated from the UAV flight
measurement were processed and stored in
Microsoft excel file format and serves as a basis
for hydrological design. The delineations of the
watershed areas were carried out with the aid of
the generated point cloud (i.e. x, y z coordinates).
These x, y, z coordinates undertaken were also
used for preparation of contours at 2 m interval
and to determine the characteristics features of the
sub-catchments used for hydrological calculation
so as to determine the runoff generated. In
estimating the required runoff within a specific
sub-catchment area, Equations (2 to 5) were used.
Tc
The time of concentration is the sum of
overland and channel flow.The overland flow time
was determined using Kirby formula, Equation (2)
and channel flow time Kirpich formula, Equation
(3) respectively. Thus,
T c =T ov +T ch ( 2 )
T ov=K 1 ( Lov N )0.467 S ov0.235 (3)
T ch=K 2 Lch0.77 S ch0.385 (4)
 CIA Industrial 0.5 - 0.9
Q= ( 5)
Z
areas
Asphalt 0.7 - 0.95
T ov T ch
where, = time for overland flow, = streets
K 1=1.44 Brick streets 0.7 - 0.85
time for channel flow, (the unit
Roofs 0.75 - 0.95
conversion coefficient for Kirby formula),
K 2=0.0195
Concrete 0.7 - 0.95
(the unit conversion coefficient for
streets
Lov (Source: David, 2006)
Kirpich formula), = overland flow length
II. The Soil Conservation Service Curve
(m) , N = dimensionless retardance Number (SCS-CN) approach is widely
S ov used as a simple method for predicting
coefficient, = dimensionless slope of the
direct runoff volume for a given rainfall
L event. The CN parameter values
terrain conveying the overland flow () , ch =
corresponding to various soil, land cover,
(m) , S ch and land management conditions can be
channel flow length =
selected from tables, but it is preferable to
dimensionless channel slope () . estimate the CN value from measured
rainfall-runoff data if available. However,
previous researchers indicated that the CN
Table 1: Simplified table of rational method runoff values calculated from measured rainfall-
coefficients runoff data vary systematically with the
rainfall depth. It soon became one of the
Ground Runof
most popular techniques among the
Cover Coefficient, c engineers and the practitioners, because it
Lawns 0.05 - 0.35 is a simple but well-established method, it
Forest 0.05 - 0.25 features easy to obtain and well-
documented environmental inputs, and it
Cultivated 0.08-0.41
accounts for many of the factors affecting
land runoff generation, incorporating them in a
Meadow 0.1 - 0.5 single CN parameter. In contrast, the main
Parks, 0.1 - 0.25 weaknesses reported in the literature are
cemeteries that the SCS-CN method does not consider
the impact of rainfall intensity, it does not
Unimproved 0.1 - 0.3
address the effects of spatial scale, it is
areas highly sensitive to changes in values of its
Pasture 0.12 - 0.62 single parameter, CN, and it is ambiguous
Residential 0.3 - 0.75 considering the effect of antecedent
areas moisture conditions (Hawkins, 1993;
Business 0.5 - 0.95 McCuen, 2002). In evaluating partial areas
of watershed runoff, an engineering
areas
74
 method have been established to calculate
the saturated or contributing areas in
watersheds but have been found to be
cumbersome (Boughton, 1987; 1990).

The basis for the curve number method is the

empirical relationship between the retention
(rainfall not converted into runoff) and runoff
properties of the watershed and the rainfall.
Equation (6) was appropriate in describing the
curves of the field measured rainfall-runoff values
and the conditions in which no initial abstraction
occurs (Rallison, 1980; Hawkins, 1993).
F Q Figure 1: Components of SCS runoff equation
= (6)
S P The potential maximum retention S, includes
Ia
,hence, for a given storm, maximum loss of
Where, F=PQ = actual retention after Ia
rainfall included addition of S and .
runoff begins, Q = actual runoff, S = potential Rearranging terms in Equation (7)gave Equation
maximum retention after runoff begins, P = (8) for computation of Q. Therefore,
potential maximum runoff (i.e., total rainfall if no ( PI a )
2

initial abstraction). Q= (8)

( PI a ) + S
For most applications, a certain amount of rainfall
is abstracted. The three important abstractions for Equation (9) was based on the assumption that
any single storm event are rainfall interception Ia
(meteorological rainfall minus through fall, stem was a function of the potential maximum
flow and water drip), depression storage retention S.
(topographic undulations), and infiltration into the
Ia = 0.2S (9)
soil. The curve number method lumps all three
abstractions into one term, the Initial abstraction ( The potential maximum retention S was related to
Ia the dimensionless parameter CN in the range
), subtracted from the total rainfall volume.
0 CN 100 Equation (10).
The total rainfall must exceed this initial
abstraction before any runoff is generated. This S = (1000/CN)-10) (10)
gives the potential maximum runoff (rainfall Substituting Equation 9 into Equation 8 gives
PI a
available for runoff) as . Substituting this ( P0.2 S )2
Q= (11)
value in Equation (6) yields Equation (7). ( P+0.8 S )
PI aQ Q Equation (11) has only one parameter that needs to
= (7)
S PI a be evaluated (i.e., S) which can be determined by
using Equation (10) and curve number tables (TR-
55, 1986). The graphical solution is shown in
Figure 2.

75
 and a flying height of 75 m to 750 m, which
results in images with spatial resolution of 0.024
m to 0.24 m, respectively.

Figure 3: Top and bottom views of aerial imaging

Figure 2: SCS Runoff graph rover Trimble UX5
(Source: TR-55, 1986) The materials used for the execution of this
In addressing issues relating to hydrologic project included the UAV and its components and
estimation and watershed management, it is their model numbers are shown in Tables 2 and 3
necessary to ensure that every contributory sub- respectively.
catchments within a specific area of interest be Table 2: Components of the UAV
S/ E M
captured. Although methods of determining
N q o
generated discharge within watersheds have been u d
known, however, this paper compared the i e
suitability of the use of the rational method and p l
the Soil Conservation (SCS) method of discharge m
estimation. e n
n u
To compare between the above stated methods and t m
ascertain their suitability under specific given b
condition, the Ihioma-Iyiuzo-Ogberuru watershed e
was adopted, having obtained the required data for r
1 Aeri Tri
the hydrological analysis and discharge
al mb
estimations. The discharge obtained from the Ima le
analysis were used in the design of structures for ging U
the control of gully erosion in the area. Rov X5
er
3. Materials and Methods 2 The So
Sen ny
The Trimble UX5 unmanned aerial vehicle for sor NE
mapping (remote sensing) was used for X-
theacquisition of precise data for hydrological 5T
studies. It is equipped with digital Sony Nex5T dig
system camera 16M cameraFigure 4. The battery ital
used is lithium polynomial with a maximum and SL
R
nominal voltage of 14.8 V to 16.8 V, 6000 mAh
ca
76
 me The rainfall records used in the analysis of the
ra design were obtained from 31 different rainfall
3 Gro Tri gauge stations in Nigeria. The rainfall records for
und mb these different rainfall stations were statistically
cont le
analyzed and values obtained from ArcView GIS
rol Yu
Stat ma model were input into the empirical template
ion 2 developed for the NEWMAP to plot the Intensity
(GC Duration Frequency (IDF) curve Figure 5, for
S) Ihioma watershed.
4 Lau -
nch 450
er 400
5 Tra -
cker 350
300
Table 3: Equipment and their model 100-Year 50-Year 25-Year
250
number
Rainfall Intensity (mm/hour) 200
S/ Equipmen Model
150
N t numbe
r 100
1 Base and Trimble R8, 50
10-Year 5-Year 2-Year
Rover GNSS Model 3 0
Receivers
2 External TDL 450
Radio Duration (minute)
3 Antenna Mast -
4 Carbon Fibre -
Pole Figure 4: Rainfall IDF curve for Ihioma
6 Basic tools - Watershed
(cutlass, Extracted from Nigeria Erosion and Watershed
cardboard for Management Project (NEWMAP)
Place marks
etc.) 4. Results and discussion

The Hydrologic Modeling System (HEC-HMS)
model was used in this study to simulate the
precipitation-runoff processes of dendritic
drainage basins. Hydrographs produced by the
program were used directly or in conjunction with
other software for studies of water availability,
urban drainage, flow forecasting, future
urbanization impact, reservoir spillway design,
flood damage reduction, floodplain regulation, and
systems operation.
The HEC-HMS was used to analyse the Ihioma
watershed Figure 6 and the modelling results for
the Simulation run (Run 2) as shown in the time
series results for the Ihioma sub-basin
Figure7indicated the highest precipitation and
outflow peakin June and September and lowest
precipitation loss in January. These updated
parameters like the precipitation, precipitation
loss, baseflow and outflow Figure 8 provided new
technical information for improving hydrological
studies in watersheds.

77
The results obtained using the twogeneral
runoff methods for computing runoff rates and
volumes for Ihioma watershed are shown in
Tables 4 and5.The computation using
rational formula gave a total discharge
of 157.65 m3/s, 177.15 m3/s and 197.30 m3/sfor
25-year, 50-year and 100-year return
period respectively. In the same vein, the
computation of peak discharge using the SCS
method gave a discharge of 74.5m3/s, 82.5
m3/s and 88.9 m3/s for 25-year, 50-year
and 100-year return period respectively

From the results, it was observed that the rational

formula gave the highest discharge for Ihioma
watershed and hence its adopted for use for
watershed with area less than 80 hectares (200
acres).

Figure 5: Analysis of watershed using HEC-HMS

Figure 7: Basin result of Ihioma watershed using

HEC-HMS model

Table 4: Results of Ihiomawatershed

hydrological analysis using rational formula
78

Table 5: Results of Ihioma watershed
hydrological analysis using SCSmethod
79
5. Conclusion
The use of UAV as one of the precise remote
sensors has in no doubt helped in the acquisition
of reliable data for hydrological purposes. The
various deliverables; point cloud, digital
orthophotos, digital elevation model, (DEM)
etc.recorded in a single flight were then processed
and applied with the aid of suitable empirical
model through systematic surveys of large
watersheds for hydrologic model application.
Empirical models have been widely used for
hydrological analysis for estimating runoff rates
and volume. Despite their wide use, rational
formular hasbeen preferred for use because of its
simplicity to the SCS equation that has been
heavily discounted by many hydrologists due to its
lack of sound theoretical background yet used for
quick estimation of watershed characteristics and
hydrologic parameters. Because of the interest in
contributing areas in water quality studies, a graph
relating contributing areas remained function of
effective precipitation for several simulation
studies and calculating the probabilities of runoff
from saturated areas.
The rational formula for several low intensity
storms and the predicted contributing watershed
areas had led to some adaptations of conceptual
model. However, Steenhuiset al.(1995) opined
that despite these reservations, it becomes
interesting that the SCS equation in its most
elementary form can be derived from partial-area
hydrology for larger watersheds.
References
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B. (2011). Reconstructing the Tropical Storm
Ketsana flood event in Marikina River,
Philippines, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 15,
12831289, doi:10.5194/hess-15-1283-2011.
Boughton, W. C. (1987). Evaluating partial areas
of watershed runoff. J. Irrig. And Drain.
Engrg., ASCE, 113(3), 356-366
Boughton, W. C. (1990). Systematic procedure for
evaluating partial areas of watershed runoff.
J. Irrig. And Drain. Engrg., ASCE, 116(1),
83-98
David, B. T. (2006). The rational method.
Engineering Hydrology, Civil
Engineering Department Texas Tech
University.
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Dickinson, W. T., and Whiteley, H. (1970).
Watershed areas contributing to runoff.
Proc., Wellington Symp. On the Results
of Res. On Representative and
Experimental Basins, IASH Pub. No. 96.
IASH-Unesco. Paris, France, 12-26.
Dunne, T., and Black, R. D. (1970). An
experimental investigation of runoff
production in permeable soils. Water
Resour. Res. 6(2), 478-499.
Gburek, W. J. (1977). The Mahantango Creek
watershed- general hydrology and
research results. Water research in Eastern
North America, D. L. Correll, ed.,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D.C., 227-250.
Hawkins, R. H., (1993). Runoff curve numbers
from partial area watersheds.J. Irrig. And
Drain. Div., ASCE, 105(4), 375-389.
Hewlett, J. D., and Hibbert, A. R. (1967). Factors
affecting the response of small watersheds to
precipitation in humid area. Proc., Int. Symp.
On Forest Hydrol., W. E. Sopper and H. W.
Lull, eds., PergamonPress, Oxford, England,
275-290.
Linsley, R. K., Kohler, M. A., and Paulhus, J. L.
H. (1982). Hydrology for engineers.
McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 204-215
McCuen, R. H. (2002). Hydrologic Analysis and
Design (3rd Edition). Old Tappan, NJ:
Pearson, 144-168.
Mungai, D. N., Ong, C. K., Kiteme, B., Elkaduwa,
W., and Sakthivadivel, R. (2004). Lesssons
from two long-term hydrological studies in
Kenya and Sri Lanka. Agriculture,
Ecosystems and Environment 104, 135-
143.
Ndukwe, C., Francis, O., Kelechi, N., Chiamaka, I.,
Raphael, N., and Amos, U. (2013): The Role
of Surveying and Mapping in Erosion
 Management and Control: Case of Omagba
Erosion Site, Onitsha Anambra State,
Nigeria. Journal of Environment and Earth
Science, ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN
2225-0948 (Online) Vol. 3, No.11, 2013,
www.iiste.org
Rallison, R. E. (1980). Origin and evolution of
the SCS runoff equation. Symp. On
Waatershed Mgmt., ASCE. New York, N. Y.,
912-924.
Steenhuis, T. S., Muck, R. E, and Walter, M. F.
(1984).Prediction of water budgets for soils
with or without a hardpan. Proc., Am. Soc.
Agric. Engrs. Adv. In infiltration Conf.,
American Society of Agricultural Engineers,
St. Joseph, Mich., 350-363.
Steenhuis, T. S., Winchell, M., Rossing, J.,
Zollweg, J. A., and Walter, M. F. (1995).
SCS runoff equation revisited for variable-
source runoff areas, J. Irrig. Drain. Eng.
ASCE, 121, 234238.
Technical Release (TR)-55, (1986). 210-VI-
TR-55, Second Ed., June
Uzoigwe, L. O and Maduakolam, S. C.
(2013): Operational Principles of a
Pressure Mat Auto Light (PMAL)
Security Control System for
Agricultural Farmstead. Elixir online
Journal of Power and Electronics
Engineering, vol. 54. pp. 12648
12652. (www. elixirpublishers.com).
vanDijk, A. I. J. M. (2010). Selection of an
appropriately simple storm runoff model,
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 14, 447458,
doi:10.5194/hess-14-447-2010.
MODIFIED INTENSITY DURATION
FREQUENCY (IDF) CURVE DEVELOPED
FOR PARTS OF EASTERN CATCHMENT
USING ARCVIEW GIS 10.2.1 MODEL
81
BY
1 UZOIGWE, L.O, 2NNAWUIHE, C.O,
3MADUAKOLAM, S. C. AND4SAMUEL, C
Lead Author: luzoigwe@yahoo.com,
1Faculty of Engineering, Department of
Agricultural Engineering, Imo State University,
2Department of Agric. Science, AlvanIkoku
Federal College of Education,
3, 4, Loraj Consortium, 2A Orlu Road
Amakohia, Owerri, Imo State.
ABSTRACT
Although several measures have been adopted for
extreme rainfall events aimed at providing insights
into future changes in rainfall intensities,
associated with models and uncertainties
scenarios. It was observed that the graphical and
statistical methods showed little difference at 5%
significant level, but closer for lower periods of 2
to 10 years and differed for higher return periods
of 50 to 100 years. ArcGIS 3.1.0 model showed
some improvements related to predicting
ungauged catchments from Nigeria Erosion and
Watershed Management Project (NEWMAP)
generated template, from 4 different but
homogeneous gauged rainfall stations. This was
applied to generate regional rainfall intensity
(RRI) map using the inverse distance weighting
method, for the interpolation of the stations
values, through assumed temporal rainfall
distribution. Proposed regional IDF curve
parameters using modified ArcGIS 10.2.1 for
isopluvial maps as an improvement to ArcView
GIS 3.1.0 applies mathematical relationships
between the rainfall intensity/duration and return
period. The hydrologic flood storage design was
modified using recorded 31 gauged stations of
regional peculiarities. The discharge rates for 2, 5,
10, 25, 50 and 100 year return period were
computed. The computed 24-hr IDF values
spatially interpolated ArcGIS 10.2.1 model,
modified the RRI maps for all durations and return
periods. Based on the recorded data improvement,
ArcGIS 10.2.1 is recommended for hydrologic
works within Nigerian catchments.
Keywords: ArcGIS 10.2.1 model, inverse
distance weighting method, isopluvial maps and
NEWMAP template.
INTRODUCTION
Many previous studies have been done on rainfall
analysis in various regions of the world.For many
hydrologic analyses, planning or design problems,
reliable rainfall intensity estimates are necessary.
Rainfall intensity duration frequency relationship
comprises the estimates of rainfall intensities of
different durations and recurrence
intervals.Projections from climate models suggest
that the probability of occurrence of intense
rainfall in future will increase due to the increase
in green-house gas emission (Chow, 1988).
The number of days with precipitation is also
expected to increase, with no consistent pattern for
extreme wet events (David, 1961). Such changes
in extreme events according to (Kothyari, 1992),
can have enormous ecological, societal and
economic impacts in the form of floods, droughts,
heat waves, summer and ice storms, which may
have great implications for municipalities. The
design standards at present are based on the
historic climate information and required level of
protection from natural phenomena as well as
climatic change scenario.
Present study aims to provide an insight into the
future changes in the intensity of extreme rainfall
events associated with model and scenario
uncertainties. It also suggested methods for
quantifying these uncertainties (Solaiman and
Simonovic, 2011). Their results were presented in
the form of probability based intensity duration-
frequency (IDF) curves appropriate for the future
climatic conditions.
Okonkwo and Mbajiorgu (2010) developed IDF
curves for South Eastern Nigeria using graphical
and statistical methods with comparable results.
Their findings showed that IDF data developed
from the graphical and statistical methods were
very close for the lower return periods of 2 to 10
years, but differ for higher return periods of 50 to
82
100 years. However, the difference was not
significant at 5% level.
The work of Eman (2011), applying ArcGIS to
construct IDF curves using Isopluvial maps and
regional IDF formula parameters for Sinai
Peninsula in the North Eastern part of Egypt,
brought to bare a very great insight with regard to
regional peculiarities.
Uzoigweet al. (2012), worked on rainfall intensity
for various return period and rainfall duration of
some gauged sites, using ArcView GIS 3.1.0
model, in order to generate a regional rainfall
intensity map and made related prediction for
ungauged catchments located in the Eastern part
of Nigerian watersheds. The modified 24-hr IDF
values, spatially interpolated withArcGIS 10.2.1
model captured more RRI for 31 gauged stations,
thus an improvement on the available records, for
more precise hydrologic works within the
Nigerian Catchments.
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
The ArcView GIS 3.1.0 model generated by
Uzoigwe et al. (2012), applied available rainfall
records (1976-2001) from Anambra-Imo River
Basin Development Authority (AIRBDA) and
other catchments of Cross River, Anambra and
Edo states.
Historical data set (base period) of 31 gauged
rainfall stations accounted for the extreme climatic
variability of less than 20% of daily maximum
annual rainfall of extreme values for excedence
probalility leading to Equations (1-9) for intensity
generated sheet.
Rainfall Intensity , I =( Daily Rainfall( mm))/(24 (hrs ))(
( I ) (2)
Mean , X=
n
where I =Rainfallintensity
n=number of occurrence
 return period, using ArcGIS 10.2.1 model to

2
( X 1 )
Standard deviation, S . D= (3) generate a map applying the inverse distance
n1
weighting method for the interpolation of the
stations value.
3
( X 1 X ) v. Determination of IDF curves for the case
Skewness= (4)
( n1 )( S . D )3 of only 24-hr duration records available, applying
empirical template developed by NEWMAP, Table
9.
4
Alpha , = (5)
( Skewness)
2
vi. Determination of the design discharge
using the Rational formula given as Q = CIA/360
(m3/s) where Q = design discharge, C =
S. D coefficient of runoff, I = rainfall intensity and A =
Beta , = (6)
catchment area of the gully. The time of
concentration is given as tc = tov + tch where tc is
time of concentration, tov is overland flow and tch
Gamma , = X (7) is channel flow. Kirpich and Kerby equations
wereapplied to estimate channel and overland
flows
Excedence probability , P=1Gammadist [ ( 1 ) , , ,True respectively.
] (8)
vii. Topographical survey including digital
Return period is generated by the formula , elevation model (DEM) of the different sites was
carried out, and subsequently, delineated from the
catchment areas.
1
Return period , T= (9)
P viii. The time of concentration so calculated
was used to estimate the intensity, I (mm/hr) from
the IDF curve and inputted in the design discharge
formula, Q = CIA/360.
The steps adopted for the generation of IDF curve
included: ix. Statistical analysis of the available rainfall
records from the different rainfall stations to check
i. Statistical analyses of the available rainfall the flow pattern, Table7.
records from the different rainfall stations which
include statistical analyses to check the pattern of x. Rainfall intensities I (mm/hr), was
flow data. computed for 12-hr and 24-hr durations for the 31
gaugedrainfall data following the nature of the
ii. Determination of rainfall intensities I rainfall data available for extreme values, Table 8.
(mm/hr),to compute for 12-hr and 24-hr durations
for that of Calabar rainfall data and 24-hr duration xi. Extraction of annual extremes from the
for the modified (1976 to 2015) rainfall data records and fitting of a probability distribution,
following the nature of the rainfall data available, Table 8, to generate the 12-hr and 24-hr duration
Table 6. rainfall intensity curve Figures 9-14.
iii. Extraction of annual extremes from the xii. Creation of Regional Rainfall Intensity
records and fitting of a probability distribution to (RRI) map, Figure 8, from the rainfall intensity
generate the 12-hr and 24-hr duration rainfall frequency curve for each return period. An
intensity curve. ArcGIS 10.2.1 model was used to generate a map
applying the inverse distance weighting method
iv. Creation of regional intensity map from for the interpolation of the stations value.
the rainfall intensity frequency curve, for each

83
xiii. Figures 15 and 16 showed the modified
IDF curve from 24-hr duration records in
conjunction with the modified NEWMAP
generated template.

Fig 3: Seasonal rainfall pattern (1970-2010)

Figure 1: Annual rainfall amounts over long term

mean (2,735)

Table 1: Intensity generation sheet

Figure 2: Monthly rainfall pattern (1970 - 2010)

84
Table 2: Intensity generation sheet

Figure 4: Rainfall intensity frequency curve

(Uzoigwe et al., 2012)

Table 3: Intensity generation sheet

Figure 5: Rainfall intensity-return period curve

(Uzoigwe et al., 2012)

85
 Table 5: Gauged rainfall stations climate change
scenario

Figure 6: Rainfall intensity-frequency curve (1970

- 2005) (Uzoigwe et al., 2012)
Table 6: Data collection for the modified
IDF
24 hour
RAINFALL
AMOUNT
s N
/ JA FE MA AP MA AU O D
n N B R R Y JUN JUL G SEP OCT V EC
1
9 10
7 0. 15 20 21 13 409 220 237 400 53 2.
1 6 2 8.6 9 0.8 3.9 .5 .3 265 .4 .7 .7 6
1
9
7 19. 85. 86. 16 286 399 284 383 228 0. 25
2 7 24 3 5 4 5.3 .9 .8 .2 .4 .4 2 .4
1
9
7 0. 47. 11 26 30 200 227 355 432 326 53 0.
3 8 2 9 7 5.8 9.4 .5 .5 .9 .5 .4 .5 1
1
9 10
7 89. 14 16 21 420 297 366 534 319 7.
4 9 26 7 3.1 7.2 3.3 .7 .7 .3 .6 .7 6 0
1
9 16
8 0. 83. 22 16 497 309 415 241 7. 70
5 0 3 9.9 8 1.7 1.3 .1 .9 .3 .6 251 8 .3
1
9
8 84 10 15 34 345 341 543 122 31
6 1 .9 17 4.4 0.5 2.1 .1 .2 0 .9 .2 .1 0
1

Figure 7: Rainfall intensity-return period curve 9

8 11 13 10 32 303 429 258 268 313 97
7 2 0 0.6 4.4 2.5 6.5 .6 .9 .7 .5 .3 .1 0
(1970 2005) (Uzoigwe et al., 2012) 1
9
8 50. 54. 19 291 274 162 573 23. 32 38
8 3 0 1 8 3 3.2 .3 .8 .4 .5 3 .1 .3
Table 4: Gauged rainfall stations historic data set 1
9
8 10 19 21 372 285 338 310 291 29 5.
9 4 0 3.5 9.5 9 8.5 .9 .6 .1 .1 .5 .8 1
1
9
1 8 25 14 35 281 416 410 250 126 64 3.
0 5 51 8.8 9.8 9.5 4.3 .5 .2 .1 .7 .4 .4 6
1
9 10
1 8 5. 15. 14 14 19 211 426 244 185 398 47
1 6 3 5 7.2 8 0.3 .5 .8 .8 .8 .3 .6 0
1
9 17
1 8 35. 97. 62. 93. 54. 206 437 456 6.
2 7 0 9 6 4 4 7 .3 .8 449 .2 7 0
1
9
1 8 10 12. 17 19 22 392 327 446 446 392 34 52
3 8 .9 2 2.2 1.2 0.6 .5 .1 .1 .1 .7 .4 .4
1
9
1 8 86. 22 30 469 321 431 316 360 39
4 9 0 0 4 5.9 4.3 .5 .3 .6 .6 .8 26 .1
1
9 11
1 9 9. 21 18 256 650 371 243 9. 23
5 0 8 10 7.1 3.2 5.8 .9 .1 641 .1 .3 7 .9
1
9
1 9 42. 10 18 24 498 400 521 193 349 0.
6 1 0 5 7.1 2.6 5.2 .3 .2 .1 .9 .8 24 4

86
 1
9
a Du
1 9 0. 15 21 24 489 289 333 214 79 17 xi rat
7 2 9 2.8 7.5 6.8 8.1 373 .9 .4 .7 .9 .5 .6
1 m ion
9 u en Ra
1 9 58. 90. 17 29 293 464 315 218 176 73 22
8 3 0 7 2 7.8 1 .9 .3 .5 .8 .6 .7 .3 m sit ce inf
1 R y Pr all
9 11
1 9 37 34. 45. 99. 29 438 622 284 1. ai (m ob Int
9 4 .1 3 9 6 8.8 186 468 .2 .2 .3 7 0
1
nf m/ abi en
9 al in ho lit rio sit
2 9 59 12. 72. 11 36 339 381 460 292 26 15
0 5 .6 5 2 5.9 1.5 .2 484 .6 .9 .4 .7 .8 l g ur) y d y
1 0. 21
9
2 9 21 74. 68. 23 25 395 573 1. 8. 00 7. 8.
1 6 .1 6 7 8.4 2.7 .3 350 502 .2 228 5 0 1 16 45 55 16
1
9 13 2 19 93 96 05 93
2 9 21 30 21 267 311 304 239 245 7. 28
2 7 0 5.1 9.8 3.3 .2 .9 .3 .6 .2 4 .7
0. 6. 52 63 84 52
1 1 4 1 43 2 8 43
9
2 9 14 48. 13 25 289 290 168 254 179 12 6. 0. 6.
3 8 .6 0 7 0.5 3.7 .4 .3 .5 .2 .2 .4 0 87 06 14 87
1
9 10 19 80 .7 19
2
4
9
9
49
.1
73.
9
11
8.7
16
1.5
25
6.7
218
.3
270
.5
302
.7 609
335
.6
0.
5 0
9 16 42 04 04 42
2 9. 4. 01 92 81 01
0 11 2 7 9 3 6 71 3
2 0 53. 35 47. 391 380 356 246 6. 5.
5 0 2 4.2 3 .8 .9 .5 344 .5 5 5 0. 10
2
0 6. 09 .1 6.
2
6
0
1
5.
5 62
20
6.4
17
2.2
14
0.8
385
.4
301
.7
348
.6
430
.8
213
.4
22
.6
14
.8
1 64 89 04 64
2 1 15 12 63 69 12
2
0
0 27. 90. 24 26 391 318 293 372 40
7. 9. 62 87 71 62
7 2 0 9 4 1.7 5.6 .5 .7 .1 .4 .9 0 3 4 4 95 6 7 95
2
0 6. 0. 8. 6.
2 0 42 92. 13 73. 27 277 439 379 123 50 51 11 36 51
8 3 .3 6 6.9 3 8.1 .4 .5 .2 .8 .6
2 1 68 95 23 68
2
0
0 5. 73. 32. 17 13 225 240 185 309 322
2 15 02 82 93 02
9 4 3 5 4 3.3 1.1 .2 .4 .4 .1 .9 37 0 7. 6. 94 98 60 94
2 4 3 4 1 6 2 1
0
3 0 38 84. 10 18 46 500 190 490 194 21 10 6. 0. 8. 6.
0 5 .3 3 3.1 2.2 9.8 .7 260 .5 .6 .3 .5 .2
2 50 12 15 50
0 1 00 25 78 00
3 0 89 16 81. 35 454 625 286 479 360 9.
1 6 .8 1.8 7 9 8.2 .7 .5 .7 .4 .6 2 0 2 15 58 80 93 58
2
0
7. 6. 04 65 93 04
3 0 46. 13 39 397 311 246 472 165 42 19
5 0 0 4 7 1 4
2 7 0 8 78 5.2 3.3 .3 .2 .3 .7 .5 .7 .7
2
6. 0. 7. 6.
0 45 13 66 45
3 0 13 11 21 20 473 328 289 449 382 9. 26
3 8 .6 0 7.4 5.4 9.7 .9 .8 .7 .8 .9 2 .2 1 77 03 87 77
2 2 15 39 98 82 39
0 11
3 0 38 71. 71. 24 44 497 539 485 236 5. 9. 5. 27 79 53 27
4 9 .6 4 2 2.8 1.5 239 .9 .2 .3 .8 4 0 6 5 0 6 5 3 6
2
0 6. 7. 6.
3 1 47 19 32 134 488 322 438 36
5 0 .3 51 35 8.8 6.4 292 .7 .9 .8 .3 .6 0 39 0. 03 39
2 1 78 14 89 78
0
3 1 190 305 506 241 49 24 0 15 39 20 79 39
6 1 .3 .2 .7 366 .2 .7 .8 7. 3. 18 66 91 18
2
0
7 2 5 8 04 1 8
3 1 74. 22.
7 2 0 1 1 6. 0. 5. 6.
2 23 17 60 23
0 13
3 1 13 19 25 188 254 409 101 48 2. 1 08 83 60 08
8 3 40 0.9 0.5 3.2 .7 .1 .1 279 .1 .6 4 3 14 83 78 50 83
2
0 6. 9. 62 70 32 62
3 1 21. 11 15 28 236 139 336 355 220 91 8 6 5 4 6 1 4
9 4 0 4 0.2 7 9.4 .2 .3 .3 .6 .7 .3 30
2 6. 0. 5. 6.
0
4 1 12 72. 31. 23 364 325 359 352 324 78 17 19 20 17
0 5 .4 2 61 4 6.6 .7 .8 .2 .9 .3 .1 0 1 42 19 91 42
7 2 7
s 8 15 41 65 96 122 136 135 144 105 3 0 0 14 83 68 83 83
u 8. 58 47 31 74 72. 00. 21. 81. 04. 7 9. 3. 8. 55 64 97 55
m 1
1
.2 .1 .2 .2 1 1 6 4 9 9
1
2
1
9 4 2 7 7 3 7
M 0 15 25 35 46 7 3
a 5. 8. 9. 4. 9. 500 650 622 456 6. 2.
6. 0. 6.
x 3 6 8 2 8 .7 .1 641 .2 .2 7 4 04 22 4. 04
Table 7: 1 32 58 42 32
2 14 95 84 70 95
5. 5. 86 41 42 86
S D D Ra Ex Re 24 1 4 0 4 2 98 4
/ ai es inf ce tur - 0
1 1 13 5. 0. 3. 5.
ly ce all ed n Ho
1 1 7. 71 32 06 71
M nd Int an Pe ur
9. 1 14 61 56 14

87
 37 98 21 37 83 86 83
10 10 77 10 9 71 5 9
7 2 1 1 2 4. 0. 1. 4.
5. 0. 3. 5. 98 58 70 98
69 33 03 69 1 65 81 03 65
1 99 00 01 99 4 11 52 18 36 52
3 13 02 15 60 02 5. 9. 82 93 34 82
7. 6. 74 47 90 74 2 0 7 2 6 2 2
1 1 8 1 8 9 1 4 4. 0. 1. 4.
2 5. 0. 3. 5. 89 62 60 89
69 33 00 69 1 03 30 50 03
1 10 29 32 10 5 11 62 38 37 62
3 13 18 69 81 18 6. 7. 00 54 13 00
6. 6. 35 10 60 35 2 4 4 3 5 4 3
1 4 6 4 9 9 4 5 4. 0. 1. 4.
3 5. 0. 2. 5. 86 63 58 86
68 33 98 68 1 83 09 50 83
1 54 48 65 54 0 11 75 10 11 75
3 13 10 39 06 10 6. 6. 94 12 81 94
2. 6. 48 33 97 48 2 6 8 5 5 1 5
1 0 4 2 2 1 2 6 0. 1.
4 5. 0. 2. 5. 4. 64 55 4.
50 39 50 50 1 83 35 38 83
1 06 87 78 06 1 11 27 48 84 27
9 13 12 47 52 12 1. 6. 90 32 85 90
6. 2. 33 50 67 33 2 9 0 08 6 9 08
1 1 0 8 6 5 8 7 4. 0. 1. 4.
5 5. 2. 5. 82 64 54 82
39 0. 29 39 1 49 63 71 49
1 72 43 33 72 1 11 03 31 94 03
5 12 88 60 68 88 6. 5. 19 08 65 19
9. 9. 37 39 36 37 2 0 8 7 4 7 7
1 4 5 5 85 8 5 8 4. 0. 1. 4.
6 5. 0. 2. 5. 79 65 52 79
30 46 12 30 37 72 14 37
1 50 99 77 50 9 11 51 53 82 51
2 12 01 75 71 01 7. 5. 13 54 86 13
2. 7. 59 27 52 59 2 0 1 2 1 5 2
1 2 3 1 1 7 1 9 4. 0. 1. 4.
7 5. 0. 2. 5. 69 69 44 69
29 47 10 29 1 07 24 40 07
1 28 44 76 28 1 11 48 93 56 48
1 12 73 65 34 73 6. 2. 69 65 56 69
5. 7. 73 61 28 73 3 8 6 4 1 1 4
1 8 0 5 5 9 5 0 4. 1. 4.
8 5. 2. 5. 66 0. 42 66
22 0. 00 22 1 22 70 45 22
1 66 49 36 66 5 11 95 19 72 95
4 12 01 90 75 01 6. 1. 43 65 22 43
8. 5. 29 82 74 29 3 0 9 3 11 7 3
1 2 4 7 75 2 7 1 4. 0. 1. 4.
9 5. 0. 1. 5. 57 72 37 57
21 50 98 21 1 78 93 11 78
1 38 38 48 38 1 10 96 06 65 96
2 12 56 27 06 56 2. 9. 08 70 23 08
0. 5. 59 38 76 59 3 6 9 9 5 5 9
2 7 1 8 4 3 8 2 4. 0. 1. 4.
0 5. 0. 1. 5. 46 76 31 46
09 54 81 09 1 74 32 02 74
1 09 95 95 09 1 10 25 22 33 25
5 12 32 83 60 32 5. 7. 98 54 83 98
3. 2. 75 37 14 75 3 1 2 4 3 5 4
2 5 2 1 2 3 1 3 4. 0. 1. 4.
1 5. 1. 5. 44 77 29 44
02 0. 74 02 1 28 04 79 28
1 96 57 73 96 6 10 02 70 08 02
3 12 21 22 95 21 4. 6. 27 44 31 27
6. 0. 25 80 34 25 3 9 6 3 9 2 3
2 8 7 2 34 2 2 4
3 1 10 4. 0. 1. 4.
2 7
2 12 5. 0. 1. 5. 5 4 3. 30 80 23 30
3 2. 0. 01 57 73 01 9. 4 89 77 80 89
4 4 65 70 28 65 5 82 29 37 82
99 79 62 99 92 93 56 92
88
 83
7 5 3 7
5
4. 0. 1. 4.
28 81 22 28
1 60 37 88 60
5 10 42 43 88 42
5. 2. 46 33 71 46
3 0 9 8 4 5 8
6 4. 0. 1. 4.
10
15 84 18 15
46 60 20 46
5 33 00 32 33
8
1. 99 42 69 12 42
3 5 .7 3 5 6 3
7 4. 0. 1. 4.
6
04 87 14 04
1 25 05 87 25
Rinfall Intensity
2 75 17 42 75
4
5. 97 71 48 00 71
3 1
8
.0 3 3 6 3 2
3. 0. 3.
01 98 1. 01
1 67 44 01 67 0
0 33 30 58 33 1 10 100 1000
2. 72 57 02 16 57
3 9 .4 3 8 23 3
9 2. 1. 2. Return Period
14 0. 00 14
1 70 99 10 70
0 48 89 95 48
9. 51 65 05 47 65
4 9 .5 2 72 9 2 Figure 8: 24-hr duration rainfall intensity
0
(modified)
5.
24 Table 8: Summary sheet for data analyses
64
M 63 (modified)
Table 8: Summary sheet for data analyses (modified)
ea 41
n 9 Locati Longit Latit Eleva Yea Mean_ 2_Ye 5_Ye 10_Y
St on ude ude tion Period rs A_R ar ar ear
an 1982-2006;
Abuja 7 9.25 343 2008 & 2009 27 1,388 4.6 6.4 7.4
da 1986-2005;
rd Akure 5.3 7.28 375 2008 & 2009 22 1,413 4 5.3 6.2
D 1. 10.2 1971-2006;
Bauchi 9.82 8 609 2008 & 2009 38 980 3.5 4.3 4.8
ev 07 1986-2004;
ia 25 Benin 5.1 6.32 77 2008 & 2009 21 2,195 5.2 6.2 6.8
ti 73 Benin
Airport 5.68 6.34 1991-2010 20 2,300 5.3 6.2 6.7
on 74
- Bida 6.02 9.1 144 1971-2009 39 1,061 3.6 5.1 6.3
0. Calaba
8.35 4.97 61 1970-2010 46 2,730 6 7.5 8.5
Sk 12
1971-1999;
e 49 2001-2006;
w 23 Enugu 7.55 6.47 141 2008 & 2009 37 1,761 4.6 6 6.8
ne 47 12.1 1971-2006 &
Gusau 6.7 7 463 2008 37 897 3 4.1 5.1
ss 9 1971-1980;
1986-2003;
2005; 2008 &
25 Ibadan 3.9 7.6 227 2009 27 1,344 3.6 5.4 7.2
6. Ikeja
Lagos 3.33 6.58 39 1981-2010 30 1,438 5 6.8 8.2
Al 31 1972-2005;
ph 37 Ikom 8.7 5.97 119 2008 & 2009 36 2,247 5 6.4 7.2
a 17 1971-2006;
Ilorin 4.58 8.48 307 2008 & 2009 38 1,185 4.1 5.2 5.9
0. 1971-2005;
06 Jos 8.85 9.63 1,285 2008 & 2009 37 1,253 3.1 3.7 4.1
69 Kadun 1971-2006;
7.45 10.6 645 2008 & 2009 38 1,136 3.2 4.2 4.8
B 94 12.0 1971-2006;
et 82 Kano 8.2 5 472 2008 & 2009 38 897 3.6 4.8 5.6
a 2 Katsin 13.0
7.63 2 517 1971-2009 39 529 2 3.4 5
G -
1971-2005;
a 11 Lokoja 6.73 7.78 62 2008 & 2009 37 1,181 3.8 4.8 5.4
m .9 Maidu 11.8 1986-2005;
m 25 guri 13.08 5 353 2008 & 2009 22 593 3.2 4.2 4.8
Makur 8.53 7.73 112 1971-1977; 36 1,145 4.1 5.1 5.7
a 22 1979-2005;

89
 2008 & 2009
2 1971-2006;
1 Minna 6.53 9.62 256 2008 & 2009 38 1,199 3.8 4.7 5.1
2 1976-2006;
2 Ogoja 8.8 6.67 117 2008 & 2009 33 1,805 4.3 5.7 6.6
2 Onitsh
3 a 6.78 6.15 1986-2005 20 1,930 5.2 6.3
2
4 Owerri 7 5.48 19 1974-2015 40 2,355 5.3 6.2 6.7
Port
2 Harco
5 urt 7.02 4.85 19 1971-2009 39 2,243 5.4 6.8 7.6
2 13.0 1971-2006;
6 Sokoto 5.25 2 350 2008 & 2009 38 622 3.1 4.2 4.9
2 1981-2006;
7 Uyo 7.92 5.5 38 2008 & 2009 28 2,191 4.9 5.9 6.4
2 1986-2005;
8 Warri 5.73 5.52 6 2008; 2009 22 2,746 6.1 7.6 8.4
2 10.8 1971-2006;
9 Yelwa 4.75 8 244 2008 & 2009 38 936 3.6 4.4 4.9
3 1971-2006;
0 Zaria 7.68 11.1 110 2008 & 2009 38 1,009 3.3 4 4.4
Anam
bra-
3 Imo
1 RBDA 7.19 5.66 81 1976-2001 26 2,270 6.2 7.4

Figure 10: 5-year return period (modified)

INTENSITY MAPS GENERATED USING

ARCGIS 10.2.1

Figure 11: 10 year return-period modified

Figure 9: 2-year return period (modified)

Figure 12: 25-year return period (modified)

90
 450
400
350
100-Year 50-Year
300
250
200
Rainfall Intensity (mm/hour)
150
25-Year 10-Year
100
50
0
5-Year 2-Year

Figure 13: 50-year return period (modified) Duration (minute)

Figure 15: Developed rainfall intensity-duration-

frequency curve (modified)

Rainfall Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curve

500

400
100-Year 50-Year 25-Year
300

Figure 14: 50-year return period (modified) Rainfall Intensity (mm/hour) 200

Table 9: NEWMAP template 100

10-Year 5-Year 2-Year
0

Duration (minute)

Figure 16: Generated IDF curve from modified

value.
CONCLUSION
Historical rainfall records were needed to obtain
design estimates forboth small and large projects.
Thus, this study provided much useful design data
and guidance for water resources development
91
neededin Eastern catchment of Nigeria, modified
from the already existing NEWMAP template.
The maximum annual precipitation series were
obtained at each station for different durations
which remained an acceptable tool for generating
a-24 hr intensity-duration-frequency values at 2, 5,
10, 25, 50 and 100 years for hydrologic analyses.
The regionalization of the parameters of rainfall
Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF)equations
generated for ungauged stations, estimated rainfall
intensity for various return period and rainfall
duration. These 24-hr IDF values spatially
interpolated using ArcView GIS 3.1.0 model, were
modified using the ArcGIS 10.2.1 model to obtain
RRI maps for all durations and return periods as
applied to Nigerian catchments.
REFERENCE
Bell, F. C. (1969).Generalized Rainfall-Duration-
Frequency Relationship, ASCE J. Hydraulic Eng.,
95, 311327.
Chen, C. L. (1983). Rainfall Intensity-Duration-
Frequency Formulas, ASCE J. Hydraulic Eng.,
109, 16031621.
Chow, V.T., Maidment, D.R. and Mays, L.W.
(1988).Applied Hydrology, McGraw-Hill.
David, M. H. (1961). Estimating the Probable
Maximum Precipitation.Journal of the Hydraulic
Division, Proceeding of the ASCE,HY5, 99-116.
Eman, A. H. and El-Sayed (2011), Nile Basin
Water Science & Engineering Journal, Vol.4, Issue
1, 2011, pp 112.
Kothyari, U.C. and Grade, R.J. (1992). Rainfall
Intensity Duration Frequency Formula for India.
Koutsoyiannis, D., Kozonis, D. and Manetas, A.
(1998).A Mathematical Framework for Studying
Rainfall Intensity-Duration-Frequency
Relationships, Journal of Hydrology,206(1-2),
118-135.
92
Nhat, L., Tachikawa,Y. andTakara, K.
(2006).Establishment of Intensity-Duration-
Frequency Curves for Precipitation in the
Monsoon Area of Vietnam, Annuals of
Disas.Prev.Res.Inst., Kyoto Univ., No. 49 B.
Okonkwo, G.I. andMbajiorgu, C.C.
(2010).Rainfall Intensity-Duration-Frequency
Analyses for South Eastern Nigeria, Agricultural
Engineering International: The CIGREjournal.
Manuscript 1304. Vol. XII.
Raiford, J.P., Aziz, N.M., Khan, A.A. andPowell,
D.N. (2007).Rainfall Depth-Duration- Frequency
Relationships for South Carolina, North Carolina,
and Georgia. American Journal of Environmental
Science 3(2): 78-84.
Solaiman, T. A. and Slobodan P. S.
(2011).Quantifying Uncertainties in the Modelled
Estimates of Extreme Precipitation Events at the
Upper Thames River Basin. Water Resources
Research Report No. 070, Facility for Intelligent
Decision Support, Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, London, Ontario,
Canada, 167 pages. ISBN: (print) 978-0-7714-
2878-4; (online) 978-0-7714-2880-7.
Solaiman, T.A. and Slobodan P. S. (2011).
Assessment of Global and Regional Reanalyses
Data for Hydro-Climatic Impact Studies in the
Upper Thames River Basin. Water Resources
Research Report no. 071, Facility for Intelligent
Decision Support, Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, London, Ontario,
Canada, 74 pages. ISBN: (print) 978- 0-7714-
2892-0; (online) 978-0-7714-2899-9.
Uzoigwe, L. O., Mbajiorgu, C. C. and Alakwem,
O. P. (2012). Development of Intensity-Duration-
Frequency (IDF) Curve for Parts of Eastern
Catchments Using Mordern ArcView GIS 3.1.0
Model. Nigerian Association of Hydrological
sciences. Annual Conference of NAHS, Federal
University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State,
Nigeria. NAHS/ABKLOC/Vol. 2/2012.

THE EFFECT OF FLOODING ON
SOIL CHARACTERISTICS AND
QUALITY IN NIGER DELTA REGION
OF NIGERIA
1
Umeojiakor, A. O., Duruigbo, C. I.,
Nwaihu, E. C. and 2Umeojiakor, C. T.
1
Department of Forestry and Wildlife
Technology,
2
Federal University of Technology,
Owerri, Nigeria
Department of Chemical Engineering,
Federal Polytechnic Nekede, Owerri,
Nigeria.
Emailaddress:heavenlytony@yahoo.com
(Umeojiakor, A.O.)
93
Phone Number: +2348036136172
ABSTRACT
This study evaluated the impact of flooding on
soil characteristics and quality in four
communities of Asamabiri, Elemebiri, Adagbabiri
and Agbere Community of Sagbama Local
Government Area of Bayelsa State. Random soil
sampling was used to collect soil samples at two
varying depth of 0 15cm and 15 30cm from
five different spots in each of the community. The
soil samples collected were carefully prepared and
subjected to laboratory analysis. Soil quality was
assessed using the physical, chemical and
biological soil properties as the indicators of
Minimum Data Set (MDS). The effects flooding
on soil quality were observed in different soil
characteristics. The soils were predominantly clay
in texture except in the subsoil (15 - 30) of
Asamabiri community that has the highest sand
value of 856g/kg with the textural class of loamy
sand. This accumulation of sandy material was as
a result of the erosive action of the flood that
washed away and deposited the sandy material at
the subsoil. It observed that the soil were generally
low in organic carbon, total nitrogen and available
phosphorous with the value ranging from 12.7
2.70g/kg, 1.09 0.11g/kg and 4.63 0.60mg/kg
respectively. This low content of soil nutrients
were attributed to high incidence of leaching
brought about by the presence of flood in the area.
The soil quality index for Asamabiri range from
16.67 15, at Elemebiri, it gave 18.33 16.67,
Adagbabiri was 16.67 while at Agbere it was
16.67 15. The soils of these communities were
generally low in quality, but Elemebiri community
has the better soil quality than the rest of the
community. From the study, it was ascertained that
the incidence of flooding has great impact on soil
quality by washing away the top soil which
increases the erosive action as well as promoting
the leaching of the soil nutrients.
Keywords: Flooding, Soil Quality, Minimum
Data Set, Soil Characteristics, Soil Nutrients,
leaching, Clay, Organic Carbon, Available
Phosphorus, Total Nitrogen.
INTRODUCTION
Soil is a complex mixture of mineral nutrients,
organic matter, water, air and living organisms
determined by various environmental factors such
as climate, parent materials, relief, organisms and
time factors (Bhandari et al., 2013). A good
knowledge of soil characteristics is very essential
94
for its use and management. The soil is usually
characterized by its physical, chemical and
biological properties,; most of which are dynamic
and can change as a result of some natural process
and in response to use by man. Soil fertility
depletion is an important process in land
degradation and a major constraint to improve
food security (Drechsel et al., 2009). According to
FAO (2003) Land degradation refers to the natural
or human induced reduction in the capacity of
land to provide ecosystem functions and services
that supports society and development. The major
hazards of land degradation being experienced in
Nigeria include Flooding, erosion, deforestation,
desertification, soil degradation, climatic drought
etc.
Flooding is an environmental hazard of
meteorological phenomena, but very often
induced by mans improper utilization or abuse of
the physical environment (Ebuzoeme, 2015).
Flooding is defined as very large amount water
that has over flowed from a source such as a river,
a pound or a broken pipe to cover a previously
dried area (Njoku and Okoro, 2015). It is an
extreme weather heavy downpour, thermal
expansion of the ocean and glacier melt, which in
turn result rise in sea level, thereby causing salt
water to inundate coastal lands.
Odunuga et al., (2012) also established that flood
occurs when there is overflow of urban drainage
over the streets to extent that it cannot be absorbed
by earth surface and consequently results to
property damage, traffic obstruction and nuisance
as well as health hazards. Ebisemiju (1993),
states that the most significant impact of flooding
arises from urbanization, because it involves
deforestation, land-use changes, temperature
modification of soil physical properties and
structures and the exposure of bare soil surfaces
especially of construction sites all of which bring
about changes in the morphological
hydrological sate of water.
The effects of flood on man cannot be over
emphasized because it cut across all spheres of
mans life. This includes mans physical
environment, mans health and agricultural
products. Flood waters can destroy homes and
businesses; disrupt road, rail and communication
lines, and rain crops and agricultural land. Floods
can also disrupt drainage and sewage systems,
presenting a serious health hazards resulting from
population and water borne-disease, such as;
cholera, Dysentery, Typhoid etc. Crops and food
supplies are often affected and consequently
resulting to shortage of food crops resulting from
loss of entire harvest. Its effect is also obvious on
trees thereby causing non-tolerant species to die
from suffocation.
The devastating consequences of flood are
enormous. For instance between June and
September, 2012, unprecedented rainfall was
experienced in Cameroon and led to excessive
flooding around the Ledja Dam such that the Dam
could not contain the quantity of
Consequently there was a release of the dam walls
between July 2nd and September 17th, 2012. The
resultant outcome was a flow of water to Nigeria
through the Benue River and into the seas through
the Niger River. Many states especially Niger
Delta region were flooded, people were displaced,
some animals were killed and economic activities
were disrupted. The flood water remained in the
and Niger Delta communities up till November, 2012.
Therefore, this study aimed at determining the
effect of flooding on soil characteristics and
quality in four flooded communities in Sagbama
Local Government Area of Bayelsa State, Nigeria.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was carried out at the Sagbama Local
Government Area of Bayelsa State. It is located
within the latitude 60201N and longitude 150101E
and it shares boundary with Ekeremor Local
Government Area in Bayelsa State, Patani L.G.A.
in Delta state and Ogba-Egbema Ndoni L.G.A. of
River State. Sagbama is a tropical rain forest zone,
with an area of about 945 square kilometers and
population of about 187,146 188,869 at the 2006
census. Various species of tropical trees grow in
both the mangrove and fresh water swamps and
arable lands. Rubber is an important cash crop in
the drier northern part of the state, exploitation of
this timber species provide material for canoe
building which is an important industry since
canoes and speed boats are one of the major
means of transportation. The exploitation of the
water.
95
forest products for paper and pulp, timber, canoe
is problematic in the area because it reduces the
available forest and exposing it to water erosion
and flooding. The area is rich in natural resources
such as crude oil, oil palm, rubber, and some
micronutrients.
The study area lies within the heaviest rainfall
area in Nigeria. The rainy season begins in April
and last until October with mean annual rainfall of
about 2500mm. During the rainy, there is high rise
in the water level which overflows the Niger
River. An average annual temperature ranging
from 250C to 310C with an annual relative
humidity of about 75%. The dry season
experiences two months of harmattan from late
December to late February.
There are four major languages in Bayelsa state
namely; Izon, Nembe, Ogbia and Epie-Atissa.
Their predominant religions are Christianity and
Traditional worship. The major socio-economic
activities are Fishing, subsistence farming, palm
oil milling, palm wine tapping, local gin
production, trading, caring and weaving.
Soil samples were collected from four (4) flooded
communities in Sagbama Local Government Area
of Bayelsa State namely; Asamabiri, Elemebiri,
Adagbabiri and Agbere community. The soil
samples were randomly collected at four (4)
different spots in each community at varying
depth of 0 15cm and 15 30cm. A total of
thirty-two (32) soil samples were collected with
96
help of soil auger of approximately 1.5m in
height. The soil samples collected were properly
bagged in polythene bags and carefully labeled
according to the community, replicate number and
depth. Core samples of 5 x 5cm were also used to
collect soils at four (4) different spots at depth of 0
15cm and 15 30cm in each community
choosing the spots with little or no disturbance. A
total of thirty-two (32) undisturbed core samples
were carefully packaged and labeled accordingly
for bulk density determination.
The soil samples were air-dried at room
temperature fro a period of seven (7) days and
sieved with a 2mm sieve mesh. The composite soil
samples were subjected to laboratory analysis for
determination of physical, chemical and biological
properties. Particles size analysis was determined
by Bouyoucos hydrometer method (Gee and
Bouder, 1986). Bulk density was measured using
core sampler method (Blake and Hartge, 1986).
Soil moisture content was determined from the
core samples by calculating the different between
the wet core soil and the oven dried soil (Carter,
1993). Total porosity (TP) was determined from
bulk density using the equation Tp = 1 Bd/Pd) X
100 (Vomocil, 1965). Soil textural class was
determined using the textural triangle (Soil Survey
Staff, 2006). Water-filled pore space (WFPS) was
calculated as (g x Bd) (1 Bd/2.65).
Soil pH was determined electrically using the pH
meter at the soil liquid ratio of 1:2.5 (Thomas,
1996). Total Nitrogen was determined by Micro-
Kjedahl digestion method (Bremner and as a set of Minimum Data Set (MDS) are required
Mulvaney, 1982). Soil organic carbon was to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the
analyzed the Walkley and Black method (Nelson soil attributes.
and Sommers, 1982). Soil organic matter was In this study, standard scoring functions as
derived by multiplying the value of soil organic adopted by (Andrews et al., 2004; Qi et al., 2009)
carbon by Bemmelens factor of 1.724. Available were used and scoring ranging modification
phosphorus was determined using Bray II method between 1 and 3 were assigned. Based on
(Olsen and Sommers, 1982). Exchangeable bases indicator sensitivity of soil quality, three types of
were extracted by reacting with ammonium functions were applied (Leibig et al., 2001) where
acetate while potassium and sodium were the best soil functionality was related with high,
determined using a flame photometer. Calcium low and intermediate or medium values.
and magnesium were read using an atomic
Table 1: Physical, Chemical and Biological Soil
Quality Indicator included in this study and
absorption spectrometer (Jackson, 1959).
Indicator Unit Scoring Indicator
1 2 3
(Low (Mediu (High)
Exchangeable acidity was evaluated ) m)
Bulk Density (BD) g/cm3 > 1.5 1.2 1.5 < 1.2
titrimetrically Soil pH (Balittan, 2005 modified) - < 5.0 5.1 6.0 6.1
7.3
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) g/kg < 10 10 50 > 50
(Mclean, 1982). Soil Respiration was (Balittan, 2005 modified)

Available Phosphorus (Balittan, Mg/g < 5.0 5.0 > 15.0

determined by Wander, et al., 2002. Effective 2005 modified) 15.0
Cation Exchange Soil Respiration (qCO2) (Wa nder, mgCO2.g-1 < 0.019 >
et al., 2002 modified) day-1 0.019 0.132 0.132

Effective Soil depth (ED) cm < 81 81 100 > 100

Capacity and Percentage Base Saturation were
determined by calculation.
For the assessment of soil quality, the general
criteria used for selecting indicator in assessing
soil quality in this study were based on: important
and relevant to functional soil processes as well as
sensitivity to management system. Table 1 shows
the physical indicators which are Bulk density and
Effective soil depth. Chemical indicators which
are soil pH, total organic carbon, and available
phosphorous. Biological indicator is
respiration. The indicators that have been selected
scoring of Soil Quality
Source: Range of score is result modified from
range of score at curve of score in Andrews et al.,
(2004). This range of score was used to integrate
the numbers from result gotten from laboratory
analysis which was then modified with interval of
score 1 3 to easily interpret the selected
indicator.
The Soil Quality Index (SQI) is determined by
soil collecting data on indicators that have been
selected for each soil function. Soil quality

97
assessment was done using scoring data method Table 2 showed the results of the mean physical
on every indicator. The calculation is done by properties of the soil studied at the four
communities affected by flood. It was observed
adding the soil quality scored obtained on each
that the soils were predominantly clay, with
community of the studied area. The individual Agbere having the highest value of clay content at
index value for all the soil properties measured are the subsoil as 744g/kg and Asamabiri with the
lowest value of clay content as 104g/kg. It was
summed to give the total Soil Quality Index (SQI)
also observed the Asamabiri soil has high deposit
(Andrews, et al., 2004), which can be described as of sand at the subsoil with the textural class of
follows: loamy sand. This accumulation of sandy materials
n can be attributed to the erosive action of the flood
Si that washed away these sandy materials and
SQI = i=1 x 10 deposited them at the subsoil.
n
The bulk density value ranges from 1.20
1.80g/cm3 with Agbere subsoil having the highest
Where; SQI = Soil Quality Index
value of 1.80g/cm3. The high bulk density may be
Si = Scores on selected as a result of the presence of high clay content in
indicators of soil quality in the Minimum Data Set the Agbere subsoil. This agrees with Le
Bissonnais (1990) who observed that clay content
(MDS)
has a greater influence in the bulk density of the
n = Number of soil soil.
quality indicators in the MDS.
Table 3: The Result of the Mean Chemical and
Biological Properties of the Soil in the Study
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Area

Table 2: The Result of the Mean Physical

properties of the soil in the Study Area
Com Soil Sa Si Cl Bulk Poros Textu Moist Wate
munit depth nd lt ay dens ity % ral ure r
y cm g/k g/ g/ ity class conte filled
g kg kg g/cm (TC) nt % pore
3
space
(WF
PS)
Asam 0 15 25 12 62 1.30 50.94 Clay 28.6 18.94
abiri 6 0 4
Eleme 0 15 21 16 62 1.43 46.04 Clay 25.2 16.60
biri 6 0 4
Adagb 0 15 37 16 46 1.20 54.72 Clay 29.4 19.31
abiri 6 0 4
Agber 0 15 25 20 54 1.50 43.40 Clay 13.3 8.66
e 6 0 4

Asam 15 - 85 40 10 1.40 47.17 Loam 24.6 16.25

abiri 30 6 4 y sand
Eleme 15 17 40 42 1.40 47.17 Clay 23.9 15.78
biri 30 6 0 4
Adagb 15 57 80 36 1.50 43.40 Clay 20.2 13.15
abiri 30 6 4
Agber 15 - 17 80 74 1.80 32.08 Clay 13.7 7.91
e 30 6 4
The results of the chemical and biological
properties of the soil studied at the flooded

98
communities were shown in table 4. It indicates (<1.500g/kg), medium (1.50 2.50g/kg) and high
that the soil pH of the communities was generally (> 2.5g/kg). The highest mean total nitrogen value
acidic ranging from moderately acidic (4.5 5.5) at top soil was recorded at Asamabiri with
to weakly acidic (5.5 6.5) Brejda and Moorman 1.09g/kg, followed by Elemebiri with 0.89g/kg,
(2000). It was observed that Asamabiri community Agbere with 0.30g/kg and Adagbabiri with
is more acidic than other communities both in the 0.11g/kg. At subsoil, Adagbabiri had the highest
topsoil (4.94) and subsoil (4.77). The highest soil mean total nitrogen value of 0.68g/kg, followed by
pH value was recorded in Agbere community Asamabiri with 0.33g/kg, Agbere with 0.21g/kg
ranging from (5.54 5.77). The acidic condition and Elemebiri with 0.18g/kg. Correspondently, the
of the soils may be attributed to the effect of available phosphorus is rated low in all the
flooding which increases the intensity of leaching communities. The mean available phosphorus was
of the exchangeable cations down the soil profile. highest in Adagbabiri community with value
Fagbami and Akamigbo (1986), stated that 4.63mg/kg and lowest in Agbere with 0.69mg/kg.
decrease in soil pH is associated with the lateral The low level of available phosphorus could be
leaching of bases from the upland to the lowland. attributed to low organic content created by the
In addition, Barnes [1998] note that pH value flood disaster. This result agrees with Ideriah et
affected the solubility of several elements. al., (2006) who reported that high levels of
phosphorus could be attributed to the presence of
The organic carbon of the soil was found to be
high amount of organic matter and plant
generally lower than 20g/kg recommended as low
decomposition.
by Chude et al., (2011). Organic carbon content
decreases with depth from all the communities Table 4: Score of Quality Indicator in the four
different Communities of Sagbama Local
except in Adagbabiri community that has 2.70g/kg
Government Area of Bayelsa State at Soil
at the top and 8.40g/kg at the subsoil. This may be Depth of 0 15cm
Soil Asamabiri Elemebiri
as a result of deposition of organic material carried
Properties community community
from another source by the flood disaster. Organic Soil Physical 1.30 1.43
carbon, high amount of nitrogen in the soil helps Indicators Bulk
Density
to improve soil quality and encourage both Score 2 2
agricultural and forest productivity and Effective Soil 0 15 0 15
Depth
sustainability (Aweto and Dikinya, 2003). Score 1 1
Similarly, total nitrogen content of the soil were Soil Chemical 4.94 5.01
Indicator Soil pH
generally low according to Harlin et al., (1990), Score 1 2
which indicated total nitrogen (TN) as low as Total Organic 12.7 11
Carbon

99
Score 2 2 the average of the variable values category,
Available 3.37 1.96 observed in each land use; the soil quality
Phosphorus
Score 1 1 describes the combination of physical properties,
Soil Biological 0.52 0.55 chemical and biological causes of land capable of
Properties Soil
Respiration performing a variety of functions (Evanylo &
Score 3 3 Guinn, 2000). The soils appear similar to their
Scoring 10 11
SQI 16.67 18.33 parent material, topography and native vegetation,
but varied in management practice (Forest and
Agricultural Practice).
Table 5: Score of Quality Indicator in the four
different Communities of Sagbama Local
Government Area of Bayelsa State at Soil Depth The Soil Quality Index (SOI) for the four studied
of 15 30cm communities at the top soil (0 15) was (16.67)
Soil Asamabiri Elemebiri
Propertirs community community for Asamabiri and Agbere communities. At
Soil Physical 1.40 1.40 Elemebiri it was 18.33. At the subsoil, Asamabiri
Indicators Bulk
Density and Agbere communities have soil quality index
Score 2 2 of 15, while Elemebiri and Adagbabiri
Effective Soil 15 30 15 30
communities have 16.67. Although the soil quality
Depth
Score 1 1 index is relatively low in all the communities,
Chemical 4.77 5.40
Elemebiri community soil quality value is higher
Indicators Soil
pH than that Asamabiri, Adagbabiri and Agbere
Score 1 2
community. The low soil quality recorded in these
Total Organic 4.50 3.40
Carbon communities is associated with effect of flooding
Score 1 1 and erosive action of water which leads to loss of
Available 2.67 0.93
Phosphorus organic matter, intense leaching process and
Score 1 1 disintegration of the structural stability of the soil.
Biological 0.48 0.51
Properties Soil
Respiration CONCLUSION
Score 3 3
Scoring 9 10 The study concluded that the flooding has a great
SQI 15 16.67
effects on soil characteristics through intense

Table 4 and 5 showed the scoring of indicators of leaching and erosive action of water. The major

soil quality measured in each of the four sampling soil properties affected by flooding in the four

communities of Sagbama Local Government Area communities studied were organic carbon, total

of Bayelsa State. The Soil Quality Index (SQI) is nitrogen, organic matter content, available

100
phosphorus and exchangeable bases. The soil
quality assessed in these four communities was
generally low. The highest soil quality index value
(18.33) was obtained in Elemebiri community,
followed by Adagbabiri community (16.67) while
Asamabiri and Agbere communities have a range
of (15 16.67). Hence, the proper application of
fertilizer and effective recycling of organic
amendments, such as crop residues and manures,
seem to be necessary especially in cultivated land.
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