THERMAL ENGINEE

PETROLEUM Source of
Energy

TWAAHA1311150
WASIL13
JUNAID131057
PARA1242689
AKKI131
BEng Mechanical Engineering
(Minor: Energy Systems)
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRO.3
1.1 What is Petroleum?............................................................................................................3
1.2 Extraction and transportation of petroleum.......4
1.3 Refining of petroleum5
1.4 Petroleum Worldwide5
1.5 Proven reserves and Reserves-to-Production ratio (R/P ratio).6
1.6 Productions.7
1.7 Consumptions.8
1.8 Crude oil prices..9
1.9 Significant fall after 2013..10
2.0 Refining...11
2. IMPORTANCE OF PETROLEUM....13
3. IMPACTS OF USING PETROLEUM AS AN ENERGY SOURCE...14
3.1 Environmental Impacts.14
3.11 Air pollution..14
3.12 Petroleum contaminated soil15
3.13 Global warming.16
3.2 Impact of engineering work of Petroleum on environment...........16
3.21 Atmospheric impacts17
3.22 Aquatic impact..21
3.23 Terrestrial impact.24
3.3 Economical Impacts...25
4. HEALTH AND SAFETY RELATED TO THE INSTALLATION OF PETROLEUM..26
4.1 Health and safety issues.27

4.2 Vapor Monitoring..27

4.3 Release detection monitoring28

4.4 Groundwater monitoring..28

4.5 Pipelines..29
5. HEALTH AND SAFETY RELATED TO THE USES OF PETROLEUM.31
5.1 Bunker fuel.32
5.2 Fertilizers and pesticides...33

5.3 Detergents..34

5.4 Plastics35
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6. CONCLUSION..37
7. REFERENCE....38

INTRO
What is Petroleum?
Petroleum which consists of crude oil is a fossil fuel that was formed millions of years before by
the decomposition of marine organisms. Under enormous heat and very high pressure, the
remains of these organisms are transformed into fossil fuels, that is, coal, natural gas, and
petroleum.

Below is an image illustrating the petroleum formation:

Diagram 1: Petroleum and Gas Formation (2006)

Petroleum is found in huge amount under the surface of the globe. Crude oil is then extracted
using giant machines for drilling and pumping up the liquid.
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Diagram 2: Crude oil flowing out from pipe- Nigeria (2014)

Crude oil is usually black or dark brown. A variation in color is caused due to the difference in
chemical compositions of different supplies of crude oil. For example, oil tends to be clearer
when it consists of fewer metals or sulfur.
Crude oil contains a large amount of carbon and thus yields a large amount of energy. This
carbon is left from organisms mainly plants. Upon the decomposition of biological
matter, hydrocarbons (molecules of hydrogen and carbon) get chemically trapped in rocks.
The extracted oil is chemically broken and linked again to manufacture many different types of
petroleum products, for example, gasoline, kerosene and asphalt. This process is known as
refining.

Extraction and transportation of petroleum

An oil well is created by drilling a hole into the Earth. A steel tube is also set inside the hole to
protect and give support the raw sides of the well.
Finally an assembly of valves, spools and fittings are installed so as to regulate the flow of oil
out of the well.
Before it is transported to refineries, the petroleum is separated from natural gas and water on the
oil platform.
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Diagram 3: Schematic drawing of oil rig (2011)

Refining of petroleum
The petroleum is then transported to refineries through pipelines or in tankers.
In refineries, the crude oil is heated in a furnace and then passed through a distillation column
which splits the heated oil according to its boiling point. In other words, the oil which is made up
of hydrocarbons is broken into smaller pieces and recombined to form other forms of molecules.
Furthermore, metals such as sulfur, nitrogen and oxygen that are harmful to engines and other
machines are removed from the oil.
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Diagram 4: Oil refining (2000)

Petroleum Worldwide
Oil is extracted all over the world but the three main grades of crude oil that are used as
references for ranking and pricing other oil supplies are: Brent Crude(Europe), West Texas
Intermediate(North America), and Dubai and Oman Crude(Asia).

Another important benchmark for oil pricing is the OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries) Reference Basket. The OPEC Reference Basket is an average price of petroleum from
OPECs 12 member countries: Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria,
Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela.

The top oil-producing countries are Saudi Arabia, Russia, the United States, China, Canada,
U.A.E and Iran. Together, these countries produced more than half of the total oil resources in
the world.
According to a statistical review of World Energy by a major oil and gas company known as BP,
consumption of oil increased by 1.4 million barrels per day (b/d), or 1.4% in 2013 compared to
2012- surpassing the maximum average recorded. The refinery crude runs also grew by an
average of 390,000 barrel per day or 0.5%.

Below are some important distributions from the statistical review, as well as, other information
about oil around the world.

1. Proven reserves and Reserves-to-Production ratio (R/P ratio)

Over the years, the volume of oil in proven reserves around the world had increased. It
nowamounts to 1687.9 thousand billion barrels compared to 1334.1 in 2003.

The Middle East has most of the reserves with Saudi Arabia possessing the largest amount of
proven reserves.
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However, South and Central America has the highest R/P ratio as from 2010. This means little
amount of the resource is used compared to the amount in its reserves. Venezuala found in South
America is the second country which possesses the largest amount of oil worldwide.
Amount of knownresources
The R/P ratio is given by: Reserves Production ratio=
Amount of used resources

Diagram 5: Distribution of proved reserves in 2003 and 2013 (2014)

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Diagram 6: Reserves-to-Production ratio (2014)

2. Productions
The ten countries producing largest amount of oil daily (in 2013) were:
Table: Ten worlds largest oil producers (2013)
Country Thousands barrels/day % share of total
1 Saudi Arabia 11 525 13.1
2 Russia 10 788 12.9
3 United States 10 003 10.8
4 China 4 180 5.0
5 Canada 3 948 4.7
6 U.A.E 3 646 4.0
7 Iran 3 558 4.0
8 Iraq 3 141 3.7
9 Kuwait 3 126 3.7
10 Mexico 2 875 3.4

The world oil production was 86 754 thousands barrels daily.

The diagram below shows oil production by region.

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Diagram7: Production by region (2014)

According to industry leaders and analysts, world oil production will peak between 2010 and
2030, while others say that there will be a decline after 2050. The effect of peak oil on the world
economy remains much disputed.
3. Consumptions
The ten countries consuming highest amount of oil daily (in 2013) were:
Table: Ten worlds largest oil consumers (2013)
Country Thousands barrels/day % share of total
1 United States 18 887 13.1
2 Hong Kong SAR 10 756 12.1
3 Iran 3 558 5.0
4 India 3 727 4.2
5 Russia 3 313 3.7
6 Saudi Arabia 3 075 3.2
7 Brazil 2 973 3.2
8 South Korea 2 460 2.7
9 Germany 2 382 2.6
10 Canada 2 385 2.5

The world oil consumption was 91 331 thousands barrels daily.

The diagram below shows oil consumption by region.
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Diagram 8: Consumption by region (2014)

4. Crude oil prices

In 2013, Dated Brent averaged $108.66 per barrel, a decline of $3.01 per barrel from the 2012
level during which the highest mean value was recorded.This is due to production issues in
Middle East regions such as those in Sudan, Syria and Yemen.
The table below demonstrates how the spot prices varied between 2007 and 2013. The maximum
average value from each benchmark prices is written in red.

Table: Spot prices variation from 2007 to 2013

Year Brent Dated West Texas Intermediate Dubai Crude
2007 72.39 72.20 68.19
2008 97.26 100.06 94.34
2009 61.67 61.92 61.39
2010 79.50 79.45 78.06
2011 111.26 95.04 106.18
2012 111.67 94.13 109.08
2013 108.66 97.99 105.47
*All the prices are in US dollars per barrel.
The oil price is partly determined by actual supply and demand, and partly by
expectation. Demand is usually closely related to economic activities.
World events also have the ability to affect oil prices. The diagram below shows how they varied
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with wars, geopolitical upsets and weather related problems, usually leading to the rise and fall
in oil prices.

Diagram 9(a): World events and price of crude oil (2014)

Significant fall after 2013

However, there has been a significant fall as from June 2014. The Brent Dated price was about
$111 per barrel, as of January 2015, it had fallen by more than half, to $ 49 per barrel.

According to The Economists blog, four major things that influenced the prices are:
1. Because of low economic activity, increased efficiency and replacing with other fuels,
consumption of oil has lowered.
2. Countries in the Middle East such as Libya, Iran and Iraq had an increased in production of oil
disrupting oil exportation.
3. America has overtaken Saudi Arabia to become the largest oil producer, thus importing less.
This causes a dramatic glut of oil through the world.
4. The seven Arab states which border the Persian Gulf could restrain production to restore the
price. However they refused in doing so, as this would be beneficial to countries (Iran and
Russia) that they dont like.

The high supply and low demand can be seen in the chart below.
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Diagram 9(b): Supply demand (2015)

Oil Supplied during 2014 and 2015 is always higher than the demand whereas between 2010 and
2013, the averages of oil supply and oil demand tends to be equal.
Refining
In 2013, global refinery capacity was 94 929 thousand barrels per day. The table shows refinery
capacities from different regions of the world.

Table: Refinery capacities classified by regions

REGION Thousand % share of total
barrels / day
Asia Pacific 31 284 33.0
Europe and Eurasia 23 887 25.2
North America 21 389 22.5
Middle East 8 822 9.3
S. and C. America 6 029 6.4
Africa 3 517 3.7
Total 94 929 100.0

Data obtained from the BP statistical review about the refinery throughputs (production) in 2013
is tabulated below.
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Table: Refinery throughputs classified by regions

REGION Thousand % share of total

barrels/day
Asia Pacific 25 525 33.4
Europe and Eurasia 19 142 25.1
North America 18 301 24.0
Middle East 6 353 8.3
S. and C. America 4 786 6.3
Africa 2 177 2.9
Total 76 284 100.0

35

30

25

20

15

Million barrel daily

Refinery Reserves Refinery throughputs
10

Diagram 10: Difference between reserves and refining of oil in different regions of the world
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Importance of petroleum
Without natural gas, oil and coal, our world would stand still. Computers would shut down and
the lights would go out in most offices. Today almost all industrial nations are entirely dependent
on fossil fuels, and it was observed that energy consumption around the world has risen by about
70 per cent over the past three decades. It was estimated by International Energy Agency (IEA)
in Paris that consumption will increase by at least another 50 per cent by 2030. The biggest
consumers being USA, China and Russia bear living testimony to the fact that that demand for
fossil fuels will keep on increasing.

Benefits of Petroleum

1. It is a highly compact portable source of energy that can be used for most forms of mechanical
transportation.

2. It is an excellent source of organic molecules for building plastic, medicines, rubber and fiber.

3. It is useful as lubricants like motor oil and grease since it can withstand high heats without
breakdown

4. Residuals make excellent surface for asphalt roads and waterproof roofing materials

5. Certain specific components make excellent solvents for paint and industrial uses.

6. Other components like propane, butane make excellent compact source of portable cooking
fuel and heating in areas that do not have infrastructure for natural gas delivery.

7. Natural gas is used to make fertilizers used in agriculture and household detergents

8. It is still one of the most economical fuel source compared to most other fuel sources.

9. Production of oil has much less impact and a smaller footprint on the earth surface than
production of coal from strip mining

10. All whales would likely be extinct if not for the discovery of oil as they were the primary
source of lamp oil for lighting before oil.

11. The oil industry has been a source of much advanced technology and many new products that
have changed our lives for the better.

12. During World War 2 oil produced in Texas was the major source of fuel supply for the Allied
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Forces and without that advantage over both the Germans and Japanese, the world might look
very different today. At that time the US was the major supplier of oil in the world.

13. Natural gas wells are the world's supply of helium gas.
14. Oil refining produces the world's supply sulfur as a byproduct, for industrial applications.

Impact of using Petroleum as an energy source on society

Environmental Impacts
The combustion of petroleum products leads to numerous detrimental impacts on the
environment. These include air pollution, water pollution from gasoline and gasoline additives
and global warming. It is the low-income, minority populations and developing nations that are
mostly affected by these problems.
Gasoline comprising mostly of hydrocarbons, contain several carcinogenic substances. Alkyl
lead, oxygenates, and additional hydrocarbons including benzene, xylene, and toluene are added
to gasoline in order to improve the performance of the combustion and these substances can
cause severe health problems if one gets exposed to these compounds. It was observed that the
lower-income populations that live closer to service stations, refineries, and transfer or storage
facilities tend to suffer from cancer, central nervous system toxicity, and poisoning due to
exposure to gasoline and its additives.
Air pollution
In order to determine air quality, the U.S Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has designated
six criteria pollutants. These are
1. Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
2. Carbon monoxide (CO)
3. Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
4. Ground level ozone (O3)
5. Particulate matter including soot, dust, asbestos fibers, pesticides, and metals
6. Lead (Pb)
The combustion of petroleum products is mostly responsible for the release of Carbon monoxide
and Nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere. Ozone, while important in protecting earth from
ultraviolet rays can be detrimental to human health if present in the lower atmosphere since it is
an essential component in urban smog. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) when combined with
Nitrogen oxides leads to the formation of ozone in the lower atmosphere. The VOCs are mainly
released by industrial processes.
Nitrogen oxides and Sulfur dioxide, mainly released by petroleum power plants and oil
refineries, are the main components that make up acid rain. These two gases react with water,
oxygen and other chemicals to form more acidic pollutants resulting into acid rain. Sulfur
dioxides and nitrogen oxides dissolve very easily in water and can be carried away very far by
wind. As a result, the two compounds can travel long distances where they become part of the
rain, snow, and fog that we experience on certain days.
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Diagram 11: Acid rain formation (2009)

Petroleum contaminated soil

Oil residue released from land sources, pipeline and oil-well accidents, unregulated industrial
waste, and leaking underground storage tanks all contribute in permanently contaminating large
areas of soil thus making them economically useless and also causing it to be detrimental to the
health of all living organisms around it. These contaminated soil if not treated immediately can
result into catastrophic consequences. The hydrocarbons can leach into the underlying
groundwater and move into human residential areas.

Diagram12: Contaminated soil (2010)

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Global warming

Diagram 13: Demonstrating causes and effects of global warming (2011)

Impact of engineering work of Petroleum on environment

Most countries in the world depend on the production or trade of petroleum to fuel their
economies. However the processes involved from the extraction of are detrimental to the
environment and cause what we call pollution. Pollution is introduction by man directly or
indirectly of substances or energy into the environment resulting in such deleterious effects as
harm to living organisms , risks to human health, interference to marine activities including
fishing, damage of quality for use of water and reduction of services [2] . As per definition of
the World Health Organisation, the environment is considered polluted when it is altered in
composition or condition directly or indirectly as a result of the activities of man so that it
becomes less suitable to some or all of the uses for which it would be suitable in its natural
state.[3]
Despite all the precautions, petroleum pollution is inevitable and it may result from accidents due
to equipment, improper maintenance, corrosion of pipes and human error. In the process of
extraction and production of petroleum, different solid, liquid and gaseous constituents may be
released in the environment. The elements may originate from the drilling process, chemicals
injected to separate oil from water or waste products at the end.
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1.0 Atmospheric impacts

Atmospheric issues related to the oil industry are getting more attention nowadays due to the
global warming issue. Due to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate change
which will be in force as from 2020, over 190 nations have willed to review their carbon balance.
This act may help slow down the pollution caused by petroleum producing countries.
Engineering work related to the atmospheric impacts:
1. Extraction process causing gas flaring as an unwanted output.
2. Processing of petroleum where equipment are subjected to losses.
3. Construction of the extraction facility and also vehicle traffic at that particular period
causing soil disturbance giving rise to airborne particles.
The principal gases emitted include carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, volatile carbons
and nitrogen oxides. Depending of the sulfur content of the hydrocarbon, there may be emissions
of sulfur dioxides which may lead to odors near the facility.
The volumes of atmospheric emissions and their potential impact depend upon the process being
considered. Emissions originating from exploration activities are generally considered to be low,
however those during production with more exhaustive activity may lead to increased level of
emission.
1.1 Gas flaring
Flaring is an oxidation process conducted at a high temperature to burn mostly hydrocarbons,
originating from waste gases during the extraction process of petroleum. Natural gas, pro-pane,
ethylene, propylene, butadiene and butane constitute 95% of the waste gases flared.

Environmental issues of gas flaring are generally described in terms of efficiency and emissions.
It is widely acknowledged that flaring and venting of associated gas contributes significantly to
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and has negative impacts on the environment. (Kadafa,Adati
Ayuba,2012)

Gas flaring is one of the most stimulating energy and environmental issues faced by the world in
the 21th century. It causes billions of waste in terms of dollars, local environment disaster and an
environmental problem globally. The World Bank has estimated that the annual volume of
associated gas being flared and vented is about 110 billion cubic meters, which is enough fuel to
satisfy the combined annual natural gas consumption of Germany and France. Flaring in Africa
(37 billion cubic meters in 2000) could produce 200 Terawatt hours (TWh) of electricity,
approximately 50 percent of the existing power consumption of the African continent and more
than twice the level of power consumption in Sub-Saharan Africa with the exception of the
Republic of South Africa [5]. Libya flares about 21% of its natural gas, whereas Canada, Saudi
Arabia, and Algeria flare 20%, 8% and 5%, respectively. Nigeria has one of the worst rates of
gas flaring in the world. In 2002, it flared about 76% of its natural gas. (Kadafa,Adati
Ayuba,2012). Flaring during oil production produces CO2, methane and other forms of gases
which contribute to the global warming effect causing climate change. Out of these gases
methane is more dangerous than the others as it is more predominant in flares that burn at lower
efficiency. Those low efficient gases tend to have more moisture and particles that reflect heat
and have the same effect as aerosols on the ozone layer (Bassey, 2008)
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Flaring also has a contribution on environmental problems such as acid rains with associated
impact on the flora and infrastructure. The acid rain results in the environmental degradation of
soil and water and roof erosion.

Diagram 14: Example of Gas flaring (2011)

Diagram 15: Greenhouse effects due to gas flaring (2012)

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1.2 Acid rain

Acid rain is predominant in developing countries like Nigeria where the unethical gas flaring has
significantly contributed to the degradation of the environment. The concentration of acid in rain
water appears to be higher in the Niger Delta region and decreases further away from the region.
The acid rain caused by gas flaring has altered the vegetation of the Niger Delta area. On a
casual observation of the flares in the Niger Delta one sees that they are sooty and are evidently
burn at low efficiency. Gas flare sites, which often times are situated close to villages, produce
soot, which is de-posited on building roofs of nearby villages. When it rains, this soot runs off
the roofs of building and pollutes the soil and water aquifers of the people. Observations from
studies have shown that gas flaring significantly disturbs not only the microclimate but also the
soil physic-chemical properties of the flare sites. (Kadafa,Adati Ayuba,2012)

Researches have shown that the effect of gas flaring on maize yield size and concluded the sand
content of the soil, pH, bulk density, air and soil temperatures increased toward the flare site. For
optimum yield of maize within the Niger Delta where gas flaring is taking place, a re-
commended that maize must not be cultivated within 2 km of the bund wall of the flare sites was
made. Research findings show that there is indeed a correlation between environmental variables
resulting from gas flaring and the development of certain ailments found in individuals residing
in such area. (Kadafa,Adati Ayuba,2012)

Diagram 16: Acid rain effect on a forest (2013)

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1.3 Airborne particles

Dusts are solid particles having a size in the range of 1 m up to around 100 which may
become airborne depending on their source, physical characteristics and surrounding conditions.
These airborne particles then form aerosol which are omnipresent in the troposphere and exert an
important effect on the global climate. These aerosol particles play a major role on global climate
as they scatter or absorb both incoming solar radiation and emitted Earths thermal radiation.
They act as cloud condensation nuclei and therefore modify the relative properties of clouds. The
volumetric ratio of aerosol particles to atmospheric gases is between roughly 1010 and 1014.
(UNEP, 1997)

In general, there are two major types of particles: primary and secondary .Primary particles are
formed by soil deflation and tend to be larger, dominating the coarse fraction, which is >1 m
in diameter. The fine fraction is augmented in secondary particles, having a range from 0.1 to 1
m in diameter. The smaller size range is also called the accumulation mode, in distinction to
the coarse mode. In addition, there is a nucleation mode, with particles smaller than 0.1 m.
(UNEP, 1997)
The magnitude of the effects of aerosol particles depends on their compositions, sizes,
abundances, surface properties, densities, and refractive indices.

Diagram 17: Effect of aerosols on the coming and outgoing sun rays (2006)
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2.0 Aquatic impact

The main waste resulting from the exploration and production processes of petroleum are as
follows:
1. Drilling which involves usage of drillings fluids
2. Spills and leakage due to storage
3. Process and drainage water

Water based drilling fluids have been observed to have a limited effect on the environment due to
their composition which consists mainly of clay and betonies, two chemically and non-toxic
materials and the other constituents are biodegradable and some having toxic properties.

Oil based drilling fluids and oily cuttings have more toxicity and redox content compared to
water based drilling fluids. The oil content of the discharge is the main factor governing the
effects.

2.1 Oil spillage

Crude oil has to be transported to refineries due to the separation of location of oil reserves and
the location of oil consumption. This has led to the creation of complex transportation systems
that virtually allows oil to be delivered anywhere in the world. Oil is mostly transported via
supertankers, barges, trucks and pipelines. Oil spills are most likely to occur when transported by
water rather than pipelines. When large-scale oil spills happen due to accidents in supertankers,
this result in disastrous consequences on animal life and their ecosystems.

Diagram18: Oil spill southeast of Bangkok (2013)

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Table 1: Ten largest oil spills in history ranked by volume (2000)

Rank Name Year Volume in gallons

1 Persian Gulf: tankers, pipelines and 1991 240,000,000

terminals offshore Saudi Arabia
2 Ixtoc I oil well, Ciudad del Carmen, 1979-1980 140,000,000
Mexico
3 Nowruz Field, Persian Gulf 1983 80,000,000
4 Fergana oil well, Uzbekistan 1992 80,000,000
5 Castillo de Bellver tanker, offshore Cape 1983 78,500,000
Town, South Africa
6 Amoco Cadiz tanker, offshore Brittany 1978 68,670,000
7 Aegean Captain tanker, offshore Tobago 1979 48,800,000
8 Production well D-103, Tripoli, Libya 1980 42,000,000
9 Irenes Serenade tanker, Pilos, Greece 1980 36,600,000
10 Kuwait storage tanks 1981 31,170,000

Oil spills are deadly to marine life. Crude oils like petroleum are very difficult to clean and do
not evaporate quickly. Its best cleaned immediately after the spill.

Diagram19: Oil slick on surface (2001)

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Some oil spills can have short-term consequences due to weathering. Weathering degrades oil
through natural processes. However if shallow water has been contaminated, the oil mixes with
mud and other substances and accumulate at the bottom thus lasting decades and causing lots of
problems for marine life.
Oil spills lead to fish experiencing impeded growth, respiratory and cardiac malfunction, and
stunned larval development thus decreasing the survival rates of offspring. Many birds die
drowning or die of hypothermia when direct contacts are made with the oil since it can get into
their feathers disabling their ability to fly. Oil can be lethal, once injected it damages the kidney,
liver and lungs.

2.2 Drilling fluids

Environmental impacts may result from the discharge of drilling fluids and cuttings to the ocean
are of two categories: effects on water-column (pelagic) ecosystems; and effects on sea-bottom
(benthic) ecosystems. WBF cuttings mix with and disperse in the ambient seawater. The WBF
plume, containing the clay sized particles, entrains seawater as it descends and eventually
reaches the seafloor or becomes neutrally buoyant. The salts found in seawater cause the clay
particles to flocculate as the mud dilutes. [8]

Studies on the environmental impacts of WBF discharges have shown that the effect of mud
toxicity to organisms in water column is low unless if the water column is also subjected to
diesel used as lubricant or hexavalent chromium (added to temperature stabilize chrome
lignosulfonate) [8]. No adverse effects have been documented or are expected in pelagic
organisms exposed in open waters of the outer continental shelf and slope to discharged WBF.
[9]

The mass of SBF discharged to the ocean per well is much less than the mass of WBF discharged
per well, because the drilling fluid itself is not discharged and cuttings are cleaned before
discharge .The toxicity of WBFs and SBFs is low enough that they probably represent only a
small direct toxic threat to marine organism living on or in sediments near the platform.
However, SBF cuttings may harm benthic communities by production of anoxia in sediments
through microbial biodegradation if SBF cuttings concentrations in sediments are high
enough .WBFs and WBF cuttings do not usually cause sediment anoxia because they contain
only low concentrations of biodegradable organic chemicals. However, they may harm benthic
communities by burial and smothering, or they may alter sediment texture, rendering the local
benthic environment less suitable for some species of benthic fauna and better for others [10]
Thus, biological effects of SBF cuttings discharges are likely to be greater than effects of WBF
and WBF cuttings discharges in the immediate vicinity (within 50 to 100 m) of platforms where
SBF cuttings are likely to accumulate to high concentrations.

Note: SBF = synthetic based fluids

WBF = water based fluids
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Diagram 20: Petroleum extraction facility with drilling fluids (2013)

3.0 Terrestrial impact

Potential impacts to soil due to extraction and exploration processes originate from:
1. Disturbance due to construction.
2. Contamination due to spillage and leakage on soil

3.1 Land subsidence

Land subsidence can result from fluid extraction in weakly consolidated materials and this cause
the surface of the earth to move downwards. It happens for a number of reasons such as
petroleum extraction, mining and earthquakes. Nevertheless, land subsidence due to petroleum
production happens when large amounts of petroleum have been excessively extracted from a
reservoir. A petroleum reservoir originally has an initial pressure that supports the soil above.
This pressure drops due to unceasing production, until it becomes inadequate to hold the weight
of the preceding layers hence giving rise to land subsidence occurs in that area. More than 10
meters of land subsidence were reported in Long Beach, California in 1960 due to petroleum
extraction activities.[11]
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Diagram 21: Land subsidence due to petroleum extraction (2015)

3.2 Impacts on microorganisms

Microbial populations in the vicinity of a petroleum production facility are typically affected in
numerous ways during spilling of oil compounds on soil. The principal interest is on the
populations of oil-degrading microorganisms. By comparing contaminated and non-
contaminated soils several authors have shown that the microbial populations in contaminated
soil has a higher number of mobile genetic elements such as plasmids than non-contaminated
soil. These plasmids often carry resistance genes, which if they are expressed are responsible for
the degradation of the organic contaminant. Observing the changes among cultivable
microorganisms the numbers of specific oil degrading microorganisms will increase while the
total number of microorganisms will not change [12]

Economical Impacts
The modern petroleum industry started in the year 1859 in Pennsylvania. Since then, petroleum
has become a necessity in industrialized parts of the world. Oil companies are constantly
searching for petroleum deposits and build large oil extracting facilities. Demand for petroleum
has been increasing exponentially over the last century in industrialized nations like the United
States, Japan and Germany. However, on a per capita basis, the consumption in these countries is
nowhere near the consumption in the United States. People in the United States and Canada rely
more on personal vehicles for their transportation and tend to drive greater distances, making
petroleum their major source of energy. In the United States, about two-thirds of the petroleum
consumed is transportation fuel, and two-thirds of that (45% of the total) is gasoline for cars and
trucks. About 40 percent of the energy used in the United States every year comes from
petroleum.
Since the United States are heavily dependent on foreign oil, they are at the mercy of foreign
governments, some of them hostile to the United States. 65% of the worlds known petroleum
deposits are located in the Persian Gulf region of the Middle East. About half of U.S. imports
come from members of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), a group
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of countries encompassing the Persian Gulf and certain parts of Africa and South America. Since
the U.S. society rely heavily on foreign oil, any event in these volatile regions can result in a
huge impact in oil prices in the U.S. and worldwide and thus can eventually lead to
uncontrollable shifts in the countrys economy. Dependence on foreign oil can become both a
political liability as well as a risk to national security.

Health and safety related to the installation of petroleum

The installations of petroleum refer to the Underground petroleum storage which is done by
using Underground Storage Tanks (USTs). They are used to store petroleum and are regulated to
prevent release of petroleum and contamination of groundwater. They are basically utilized at
vehicles filling stations, and numerous have leaked, permitting petroleum to taint the soil and
groundwater. Consuming food cultivated from the contaminated soil and water will definitely
lead to health hazards.

Diagram 22(a): USTs associated with pipelines used at a filling station.

Hazardous and Solid Wastes Amendments of 1984, P.L. 98-616, 98 Stat. 3224, November 8,
1984.

Diagram 22(b): Leaking underground storage tanks are one source of toxic liability.
(Same as diagram 22(a))
 28

Underground petroleum storage has to be done is such a way so as to cater for the environmental
impacts thus, the health and safety issues concerning the workers as well as people residing near
the concerned area.

Health and safety issues

Leakage of USTs is the most common hazardous situation for petroleum storage. The best safety
prevention is the monitoring of the tanks. One must be knowledgeable of the key components of
release detection for tanks and piping, Corrosion Protection and record keeping in managing
USTs. There consist several types of monitoring.

Vapor Monitoring

Vapor monitoring measures product vapors in the soil at the UST site to check for a leak. A site
evaluation must determine the number and placement of monitoring wells to make sure that a
release is detected. Vapor monitoring has to be done at least once each month.

Features of vapor monitoring systems are:

1) Vapor checking faculties or measures exhaust from released item in the soil around
the tank to figure out whether the tank is spilling.
2) Completely computerized vapor observing frameworks have permanently introduced
supplies to persistently or occasionally accumulate and examine vapor specimens and
react to a discharge with a visual or an audible alert.
3) Manually operated vapor checking frameworks range from gear that promptly
dissects an assembled vapor sample to gadgets that assemble a specimen that must be
sent to a research center for investigation. Observing results from manual frameworks
are for the most part less precise than those from computerized frameworks. Manual
frameworks must be utilized in any event once a month to screen a site.

Release detection monitoring

Release detection is a key piece of UST administration. Release detection is vital so as to avoid
blazes and blasts because of vapors in sewers and cellars, and releases into the environment that
can hurt groundwater assets. Release detection is for both tanks and piping. A normally utilized
Automatic Tank gauge system comprises of a probe permanently in the tank(s) and wired to a
screen to give data on item/water levels and temperature.
 29

Diagram 23: Probe

Groundwater monitoring

This method monitors the groundwater table near an UST for the presence of released free
product on the water table. Monitoring wells near the UST are checked frequently to see if
petroleum can be detected. The regulations describe several requirements for the use of this
method. For example, this method cannot be used if the water table is more than 20 feet below
the surface of the ground.
 30

Diagram 24: A monitoring well used for groundwater monitoring.

(Same as Diagram 23)

Features of groundwater monitoring are:

1) Groundwater checking includes the utilization of permanent observing wells put near
to the UST. The wells are checked at any rate month to month for the vicinity of item
that has spilled from the UST and is skimming on the groundwater surface.
2) The two principle parts of a groundwater observing framework are the monitoring
well (ordinarily a well of 2-4 inches in measurement) and the monitoring gadget.
3) Detection devices may be permanently installed in the well for automatic, continuous
measurements for leaked product.
4) Detection devices are likewise accessible in manual structure. Manual devices range
from a bailer (used to gather a fluid specimen for visual assessment) to a device that can
be embedded into the well to electronically demonstrate the vicinity of spilled item.
Manual devices must be worked at any rate once a month.

Other leak detection methods used are:

Secondary containment and interstitial monitoring

Automatic tank gauging (ATG) systems
Statistical inventory reconciliation (SIR)
Manual tank gauging
Tank tightness testing and inventory control

Pipelines
Pipeline networks are used every day to transport products such as natural gas and petroleum to
homes, businesses and industrial facilities. Millions of gallons of petroleum products and natural
gas are quietly, safely and economically delivered every day. Petroleum companies are
committed to helping communities that they serve to live safely with nearby pipelines that they
 31

operate. Not surprisingly many hazards can arise when it concerns the transportation of
petroleum through pipelines which is why the safety issues for this concerned matter are of great
importance.
.

Diagram 25: Pipeline transporting

petroleum to residential areas
(2007)

Pipeline identification, damage

prevention and safety information
are of great importance especially
if the network is located within an area where underground pipelines are owned or operated by
petroleum companies. Pipelines transporting petroleum to houses can get easily damaged if the
maintenance is not done well enough and its quite important to be aware of their presence since
something as simple as repairing or installing a fence, planting trees, constructing a deck,
building a shed or installing landscaping can potentially damage a pipeline.

Health and safety issues

Good maintenance of pipelines is the best safety precaution that can be taken to prevent risk of
failure of the pipes.
Offering high tensile strength
Offering endurance under both inner and outer pressure as well as flexibility against distortion
and stun, high-elasticity steel channels are utilized as a part of the development of petroleum
pipelines. Intended to withstand real quakes, steel funnels have shown their unwavering quality
most recently during the Miyagi Prefecture offshore and Niigata Prefecture Chuetsu tremors.
Technology that protects pipes against corrosion
Pipelines laid underground are secured by an outer surface covering. What's more, cathodic
protection accomplished by the impresses current protection system is connected in light of such
issues as galvanic corrosion. Perceived for its simple support and operation, the impressed
current protection technique has demonstrated to a great degree dependable in the control of
consumption of metal surfaces. This is especially valid for long-separate, expansive scale
pipelines. Under this strategy, the metal surface goes about as a cathode for an electrochemical
cell. Insoluble anodes (which are utilized to corrode in place of the pipeline) are set underground
in contact with the surface to be ensured and go about as the anode of the electrochemical cell.
Shielded from the situation of common erosion, underground pipelines have a virtual lasting life
compass.
 32

Diagram 26: Protection techniques used against corrosion of pipelines.

It is really important for anybody to know if there is a pipeline network which runs through their
property. Safety precaution must be taken when there is leakage of the pipes.

How do you know if a leak has occurred?

Smell Gas products leaking from pipelines will generally have the smell of sulfur or rotten
eggs. Be alert of any foul or unusual smells surrounding the area near any pipeline markers.

Sound Listen for hissing, rumbling or roaring sounds that indicate the escape of pressurized
liquids or gases from a pipeline along the right-of-way.

Sight Look for liquids that are pooling on the ground above the pipeline zone and for any
brown or discolored grasses or vegetation that would otherwise be green. Watch for any vapor
clouds or heat waves that are rising above the pipeline area.

What do you do if a leak occurs?

Leave the area immediately.

Avoid all contact with any escaping liquids or gases.
Do not attempt to operate pipeline valves.
Do not drive into the area.
Do not use a cellular phone.
Do not light a match or smoke.
Notify your local emergency agencies and pipeline company.

Uses of Petroleum
 33

Uses of petroleum around the globe are immeasurable and are relevant in numerous aspects of
our every day life. We utilize and depend on petroleum every day, in a large number of ways:
from the gas in our vehicles to the fertilizers and pesticides utilized for our yields, even the
garments we wear! In spite of the fact that an extensive rate of the oil we refine does go to
energizing our transportation needs and warming our homes, a portion of the petroleum we are
unknowingly reliant on is refined into chemicals which are the building squares for some items
that are used as a part of regular life.

Diagram 27: uses of petroleum in various facets (2012)

Bunker fuel
Bunker fuel is a kind of fluid fuel which is partially refined from raw petroleum. Otherwise
called fuel oil, this material can be separated into diverse classifications in light of its compound
creation, expected reason, and boiling temperature. In examination with other petroleum items,
bunker fuel is amazingly rough. It is in fact any sort of fuel oil utilized on board vessels. It gets
its name from the tanks on boats and in ports in which it is stored. In the beginning of steam they
were coal bunkers yet now they are bunker fuel tanks.

Diagram 28: Detailed process of the manufacturing of bunker fuel from crude oil.
 34

Health issues
Using bunker fuel, marine vessels are a significant source of emissions where ports are located.
Ships and commercial boats were estimated to contribute about 51 percent of the oxides of
sulfur, about 5 percent of the oxides of nitrogen, and up to 3 percent of the particulate matter
emissions in 2003 (South Coast Air Quality Management District, 2003).Marine vessel
emissions have the potential to impact the health of a significant portion of the nearby
population. The hydrocarbon chains in bunker fuel are long, and this fuel is exceptionally gooey.
It is additionally vigorously polluted with different substances which can't be uprooted, so when
it is blazed, it contaminates intensely.

Safety
The best safety aspect is to make ships become more environmental friendly. Stringent
international regulations on emissions are forcing the shipping industry to rethink its fuelling
options and ship owners must begin to consider alternatives to traditional heavy fuel oil. A key
topic in this quest is liquefied natural gas (LNG) as an alternative to conventional fuels.
Compared to oil, natural gas has an important advantage that is it combines efficiency with a
lower environmental impact. Using LNG, as ship fuel, can reduce sulfur oxide (SOx) emissions,
which are created using fuel with high sulfur content, by approximately 90% to 95%. Due to the
lower carbon content in LNG, 20% to 25% reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions will be
possible.

Fertilizers and pesticides

All real business fertilizers are alkali based, produced using common gas, and most business
pesticides originate from oil. The statement "pesticide" is an expansive term that alludes to any
gadget, system, or substance that executes plants or creatures that seek humankind's nourishment
supply or are overall undesirable. At the point when agriculturists started to utilize mechanical
advances to help yields manufactured fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides turned into something
of great importance, especially for farmers. These chemicals, large portions of which were
produced in the lab and are petroleum-based, have permitted agriculturists and cultivators of
each stripe to practice more noteworthy control over the plants that need to be done by enriching
environment and avoiding pests. However such profits have not come without health and
environmental costs.

Diagram 29: Pesticide irrigation used in large scale (2009)

 35

Health impacts

The major contamination of the vast majority of our streams, waterways, lakes and even
beachfront territories are because of these manufactured chemicals which run off into conduits
bringing on green growth sprouts (algae). At the point when the algae die, they sink to the base
and decay in a process that defiles and expels oxygen from the water. The utilization of this
water will without a doubt lead to extreme health perils. At the point when those chemicals get
into conduits, fish ingest them and get to be ailing. People who consume infected fish can
themselves get sick, finishing the circle produced by pollution.

Diagram 30: Contamination of land and water by using pesticides (2008)

Safety

The way out, obviously, is to go organic, both at home and on the ranch. As per the Organic
Trade Association, organic farmers and gardeners use compost and other regular materials to
help enhance soil fruitfulness, instead of engineered fertilizers that can bring about an excess of
supplements. Therefore, these practices ensure ground water supplies and maintain a strategic
distance from overflow of chemicals that can harm amphibian life. There is currently an
extensive mixture of natural compost accessible industrially, and numerous approaches to keep
bothers under control without turning to synthetic chemicals.

Detergents
 36

All soap less detergents used to wash clothes and dishes are derived from petroleum more
precisely petrochemical glycerin. Scientists discovered that they could make thousands of new
chemicals from this petroleum, including what they called detergents which soon became a
regular household item. Detergents are still much less expensive to make than genuine cleansers,
and advertising has guaranteed that a larger part of the populace is completely persuaded that
detergents are safe to use.

Health impacts

Excessive use of detergents may cause the item to develop in your skin which is the reason of
numerous serious health issues such as asthma, autism, infertility, allergies, and even cancer. It is
normal when one want to know what a detergent smells like before purchase. Sniffing
formaldehyde (harmful substance present in detergents) corresponds to inhaling carcinogen
(cancer-causing agent). Formaldehyde causes cancer in animals and may do so in humans. In line
to allergic causes, this gas can likewise aggravate your respiratory framework and cause nausea.
It is sickening in reality to consider how regularly we are presented to these exhaust while doing
laundry and wearing garments that convey the fragrance. The aromas are hurtful, as well as the
transporters of scent (phthalates) show unfavorable consequences for health.

Safety

Safety measures taken to stay away from these health issues are:

Wear gloves when using detergents.

Prevent splashing of the detergent as it may reach your eyes.

Try not to enjoy the scent of the product as deep sniffing of the perfume will
correspond to the inhalation of more carcinogens.

Use the cleaning product as directed by reading the product label.

Plastics

Plastics are derived from organic items. The materials utilized as a part of the generation of
plastics are regular items, for example, cellulose, coal, characteristic gas, salt and obviously,
petroleum (from crude oil). In the United States, the world's biggest buyer of petroleum,
approximately 5% of aggregate petroleum utilized goes to the generation of plastics. That works
 37

out to give or take 330 million barrels of oil every year. Because of their low cost, simplicity of
assembling, flexibility, and impenetrability to water, plastics are utilized as a part of a
tremendous and growing scope of items, from paper cuts to spaceships. They have officially
dislodged numerous customary materials, for example, wood, stone, horn and bone, calfskin,
paper, metal, glass, and artistic, in the greater part of their former uses.

Diagram 31: Manufacture of plastics (from crude oil to plastic)

Health impacts

The chemicals contained in plastics can be very unsafe. These chemicals are known as
endocrine-disturbing compounds (EDCs), and each one influences distinctive components of
hormone disturbance. Additionally, a few chemicals are made of monomers, which have known
mutation inducing and tumor causing qualities. But then different mixes contain harmful metals.
These chemicals can enter the human body in any number of courses and at significantly diverse
levels. Large portions of them saturate nature amid the creation process or as waste. They enter
our conduits and different territories where they inevitably reach people.

Safety
 38

The only means of avoiding the dangers of plastics is to find alternative materials which is less
harmful. The use of glass or stainless steel water bottle instead of disposable plastic bottles thus
also reducing chemical exposure from water. Switching from plastic or paper bags to reusable
grocery bags is a good alternative to reduce plastic wastes. Processed food packaged in plastics
should be avoided thus not only being beneficial to health but also in reducing the amount of
plastic wastes globally. Plastic bags and plastic food storage containers should be replaced by
safer alternatives like glass or stainless steel or an unbreakable option like silicon. Wooden or
metal toys should be bought for children rather than plastic ones. Glass and metal dishes,
silverware and bakeware are better options than plastic. Last but not least the best way of
reducing the use of plastic is recycling.

Conclusion
Petroleum has played an important role in the social, economic and politic history of the United
States and the world. Petroleum has been used as a source of energy production since the
nineteenth century. 3 major crisis were encountered in the year 1973, 1979 and 1990 and all of
them coincided with increased social usage of petroleum as well as political turmoil in major
exporting countries.
Currently the conventional oil reserves are estimated to be a good 157 billion tones. Of this
amount, 26 per cent (41 billion tones) are located in offshore areas. In 2007 1.4 billion tones oil
was obtained from the ocean. Therefore the proportion of offshore production is already
relatively high. The North Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, the Atlantic Ocean off Brazil and West
Africa, the Arabian Gulf and the seas off South East Asia are currently the most productive areas.
For the past few years the trend has been towards drilling in deeper and deeper water. In 2007
extraction of oil was carried out in 157 fields at depths of more than 500 meters. In 2000 there
were only 44 such fields left. Of these, 91 per cent are located in the Atlantic between the Gulf of
 39

Mexico, Brazil and West Africa. Eventually the output of the relatively shallow waters of the
North Sea will decrease in the coming years. However production is likely to increase elsewhere.
The deeper marine areas therefore provides additional potential for the future. It is estimated that
the offshore trend will keep on increasing at an exponential rate as oil becomes increasingly
scarce. The only downside here is that extraction is complex and expensive. For example, for
extraction from fields at great depths, floating production and drilling vessels, or pumping
stations permanently mounted on the ocean bed are needed

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 42

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 43

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 44

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