AIRPOLLUTION

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-
8th Semester(Chemical)

Engr Kareem Bakhsh

 Topics
Atmosphere.
Definition.
Air pollutants & their classification.
Pollution Controls(Nox,SOx etc.).
Legislations/Administrative Actions for
abatement at National or International level.
PEPA.
Outline
 AIR POLLUTION
Presence of certain substances in the air in
high enough concentrations & for long enough
durations to cause undesirable effects.
Certain substances may be any gas, liquid ,or
solid.
Certain specific substances are considerd
significant pollutants because of very large
emission rates or harmful & unwanted effects.
Classification
of Air Pollutants
Primary Air Pollutants.
Are those which can be directly emitted from
source .
CO,SO2,NO2,HC,H2S,HF,NH3,PM all are
primary pollutants released from source of
generation.
Secondary Air Pollutants.
Are formed in the atmosphere when some
primary pollutants react with one another or
with other chemicals in air.
SO3,HNO3,O3,PAN(Peroxyl Acetyl Nitrate) &
Aldehydes .
,
 Criteria Air Pollutants
1.Particulates (PM10 and PM2.5 ).
2.Sulfur Oxides (SOx).
3.Nitrogen Oxides (NOx).
4.Carbon Monoxide (CO).
5.Photochemical Oxidants (Ozone).
6.Lead.
 Particulate Matters
Extremely small fragments of solids or liquids
suspended in air are called particulates.
Most particulates range in size from 0.1 to 100
micrometer.
Distinguished on the basis of particle size and
the emitting source.
1 micrometer is one millionth of a meter.
 Toxic Air Pollutants
Pollutants hazardous to health or the environment
but not regulated as criteria pollutants:
1.Mercury.
2.Asbestos.
3.Arsenic.
4.Benzene.
5.Radon.
6.Vinyl Chloride.
7.Beryllium.
8.Coke Oven Emissions.
9.188 compounds designated by EPA as Hazardous Air
Pollutants or HAPs.
10.North Carolina has identified 105 Toxic Air Pollutants with
acceptable ambient levels or AALs.
 Global Air Pollutants
Pollutants that because of their persistence or
distribution have a global impact on air quality;

Chlorofluorocarbons Stable freons that

once in the stratosphere breakdown Ozone.
Carbon dioxide Major substance related to
the global greenhouse effect.
Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
Fire fighting systems

alon 1211

Halon 1301

Halon 2402

Air conditioning Cooling systems

CFC-11

CFC-12

CFC 113

CFC 114, CFC- 115

 Hazardous Air Pollutants

188 Specific compounds

A substance when released to the
atmosphere can cause significant harm
to human health or the environment;
includes.

Particularly or extremely toxic substances

Carcinogens
Mutagens
 Activities Pollutants Immediate effects Impacts

Transport Human health

PM
concentration

Power
Production
Acidic Environment
deposits

Residences

utrophication Materials
deterioration
Agriculture

Agricultural
Industry Ozone
concentration cultivation
Air Pollution
Control-Technologies
Common Control devices,typical contaminates & examples
Nitrogen Oxides emissions/NOx
Control
 NOx Sources
Chemicals Production(Nitric acid,Nitration
Reactions etc).
Use of nitric acid metal and mineral
processing.
Combustion of Fuels.
 Oxides of Nitrogen
Nitrogen forms eight different oxides.
NO(Nitric Oxide) and NO2 (Nitrogen
Dioxide)are principal air pollution interests
(NOx).
N2O
N2O3
N2O5
N2O4
N2O2
Typical NO-NO2 emission
ratios from combustion sources

Source: USEPA, APTI 418, NOx Emissions Control from Stationary Sources
 NOx from the combustion of fuels is formed
initially as NO which subsequently oxidizes to
form NO2.
There are three sources of NO production
from combustion of fuels.
 Thermal NOx: forms by heating of N2 and O2 in
flames
Prompt NOx: N2, O2 plus some hydrocarbon
species in fuel.
Fuel NOx: Conversion of nitrogen in fuel into
NOx
 Fuel NOX
NOX generated from organically bound nitrogen contained
in fuel is termed fuel NOX.
Organic Nitrogen is more reactive than Nitrogen in air.
Fuel Nox formation is weakly dependent on temp.
Organic nitrogen (not N2) in the fuel burns along with the
carbon and hydrogen. It either forms N2 or it forms NOx.
Although only about 50% or less of the fuel nitrogen
converts to NOx, fuel NOx can constitute most of the total
NOx emissions from coal or any fuel with a high nitrogen
content (excluding N2).
How much of the fuel nitrogen coverts to NOx depends on
the oxygen levels in the flame. Consequently, the
reduction of flame oxygen level is a key element in reducing
the emissions that are formed by the fuel NOx mechanism.

Source: USEPA, APTI 418, NOx Emissions Control from Stationary Sources
 The most universal of these is thermal
NOX formation.
In thermal NOX formation, NOx is
formed by the reaction of N2 in the
combustion air with combustion
reactants such as O and OH radicals.
Thermal NOX is emitted from virtually
all combustion sources.
 Coal and residual oil have significant amounts
of nitrogen that can generate half or three
quarters of the total NOx emissions.
Diesel oil typically have very little nitrogen.
Natural gas has no fuel nitrogen, and
therefore no NOX is formed by this
mechanism.
 Prompt(Rapidly forming) NOX
the third formation mechanism, forms NOx by
converting molecular nitrogen to NO via
intermediate products.
This reaction occurs in the early phase in the
flame front with hydrocarbons and is observed
in laboratory research studies.
While prompt NOx may be responsible for some
of the NOx from practical combustors, it isnt
normally considered when dealing with NOx
emissions control.
Forms due to carbon bearing radicals from the
fuels
CH+ N2HCN +N

N+O2NO+O

NO in low temperature flames are prompt NO and

weekly depend on T.

Prompt NOx formation cannot be prevented in spite

of the temperature and oxygen amount adjustment.
The main factors affecting the quantity of NOX formed by
thermal fixation are:
(1)the flame temperature,
(2) the residence time of the combustion gases in the peak
temperature zone of the flame,
(3) the amount of oxygen present in the peak temperature zone of
the flame.

Thermal NOx reduction is therefore accomplished by various

combustion modification techniques that either reduces the peak
flame temperature or the oxygen in the primary zone, or both.
These methods include:
(1)reducing the local oxygen concentration at the peak flame
temperature,
(2) reducing peak flame temperature,
(3) decreasing the furnace release rate
Source: USEPA, APTI 418, NOx Emissions Control from Stationary Sources
Contribution of Thermal, Prompt and Fuel NOx
Reactions of Nitrogen oxides
Concentration (ppm)
 NO+HC+O2+sunlight NO2 +O3

NO2 +h O+NO (2)

O+O2+M O3+M (3)
NO+O3 NO2+O2 ozone is consumed
In the presence of VOC
VOC+2NO+O2H2O+RCHO+2NO2 (1)
NO is converted to NO2 without consuming ozone
 NO and NO2 equilibrium
N2+O2 2NO
They are reversible reactions

K
NO
2

O2 N 2
 N2+O22NO NO+1/2O2NO2

Increase with T
Decrease
with T
 Reaction Rate is fast.
Equilibrium is reached in
about 0.3 s. Equilibrium
conc. of NO is higher

Equilibrum conc of
NO is low. Reaction
rate is slow. Even at
30 th second it does
not reach equilbrium
 Remarks: Zeldovich mechanism
In order to decrease NO
Reduce T
Reduce O2

At high temperature flames, Zeldovich mechanism

predictions are high in accuracy.
At lower temperatures it predicts much lower NO
concentrations.
In automobile engines and large coal fired furnaces,
thermal NOX forms.
 General Methods For Control Of NOx
Emissions
NOx control can be achieved by:
Fuel De-nitrogenation.
Combustion Modification.
Modification of operating conditions.
Tail-end control equipment.
Selective Catalytic Reduction.
Selective Non - Catalytic Reduction.
Electron Beam Radiation.
Staged Combustion(Fuel Staging & Air Staging)
 Fuel De-nitrogenation

o One approach of fuel de-nitrogenation is to remove a large part of the nitrogen

contained in the fuels.

o Nitrogen is removed from liquid fuels by mixing the fuels with hydrogen gas,
heating the mixture and using a catalyst to cause nitrogen in the fuel and
gaseous hydrogen to unite. This produces ammonia and cleaner fuel.

This technology can reduce the nitrogen contained in both naturally

occurring and synthetic fuels.
 Combustion Modification
Combustion control uses one of the
following strategies:
Reduce peak temperatures of the flame zone. The methods are :
increase the rate of flame cooling .
decrease the adiabatic flame temperature by dilution .
Reduce residence time in the flame zone. For this we change the
shape of the flame zone.
Reduce Oxygen concentration in the flame one. This can be
accomplished by:
decreasing the excess air
controlled mixing of fuel and air
using a fuel rich primary flame zone
Catalytic Emission Control
 Modification Of Operating Conditions

The operating conditions can be modified to

achieve significant reductions in the rate of
thermal NOx production. the various methods
are:
Low-excess firing
Off-stoichiometric combustion ( staged combustion )
Flue gas recirculation
Reduced air preheat
Reduced firing rates

Water Injection
 Tail-end Control Processes
o Combustion modification and modification of operating
conditions provide significant reductions in NOx, but not
enough to meet regulations.
For further reduction in emissions, tail-end control equipment is
required.
Some of the control processes are:
Selective Catalytic Reduction
Selective Non-catalytic Reduction
Electron Beam Radiation
Staged Combustion
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
Schematic process flow diagram NOX control
 Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
In this process, the nitrogen oxides in the flue gases are reduced to
nitrogen
During this process, only the NOx species are reduced
NH3 is used as a reducing gas
The catalyst is a combination of titanium and vanadium oxides. The
reactions are given below :
4 NO + 4 NH3 + O2 -----> 4N2 + 6H2O
2NO2 + 4 NH3+ O2 -----> 3N2 + 6H2O

Selective catalytic reduction catalyst is best at around 300 too 400 oC.
Typical efficiencies are around 80 %
For NO removal:
4 NO + 4 NH3 + O2 4 N2 + 6 H2O

For NO2 removal:

4 NO2 + 8 NH3 + 2 O2 6 N2 + 12 H2O

This reaction is called selective reduction because it uses a

reagent to react with the NOx.
 The chemical reactions are the same as SNCR, but the
reactions are catalytically driven. The temperature range
depends on the catalyst used:
Conventional SCR Systems are called base metal systems.
They usually use a Vanadium Pentoxide catalyst. The best
performance will be in the range of 650 to 750F.
For low temperature applications, Precious Metal is used,
usually platinum. These systems can be used at
temperatures as low as 350F, and as high as 550F.
High Temperature applications usually use Zeolite catalysts
and have been used successfully at temperatures as high as
1050F.

Source: USEPA, APTI 418, NOx Emissions Control from Stationary Sources
Source: USEPA, APTI 418, NOx Emissions Control from Stationary Sources
 SCR --Process Design Issues
NOx Removal Efficiency (impacts costs and
ammonia slip)
Ammonia Slip (Consideration of catalyst life vs.
ammonia slip)
SO2 Oxidation to SO3
System Draft Loss (imposing backpressure on the
combustion device)
Catalyst Life Expectancy
Ammonium Bisulfate Formation
Application Specific Issues

Source: USEPA, APTI 418, NOx Emissions Control from Stationary Sources
Source: www.ctre.iastate.edu/educweb/CE524/NOx.ppt
 Selective Non-catalytic Reduction
(SNCR)
At higher temperatures (900-1000oC), NH3 will
reduce NOX to nitrogen without a catalyst.

At NH3 : NOX molar ratios 1:1 to 2:1, about 40-

60%reduction is obtained.

SNCR is cheaper than SCR in terms of operation cost

and capital cost.

Tight temperature controls are needed. At lower

temperatures, un-reacted ammonia is emitted. At
higher temperatures ammonia is oxidized to NO.
 Selective Non-catalytic Reduction (SNCR)
The first of these technologies was Thermal DeNOx. In this
technology, ammonia is sprayed into the post-combustion
area of a boiler or furnace when the temperature is 1650 F.
Under these condition, a 50% reduction of NOx can be
achieved.
The reaction is temperature sensitive, and the window is
small. If the temperature is to high, ammonia will convert
to NOx faster than the reduction process. If the
temperature is to low, the reaction with the NOx will not
occur.
The NOxOUT process uses urea (CO(NH2)2) as a reactant
instead of ammonia. The urea gives the technology a
broader and slightly lower temperature window. Also, urea
can be transported and stored as a solid.

Source: USEPA, APTI 418, NOx Emissions Control from Stationary Sources
NSCR - Non-selective Catalytic Reduction
The catalytic reaction is based on the reaction
between Nitrogen Oxides and a fuel to give
nitrogen and water. The reducing fuel is
generally chosen by site availability & price
(typically Natural Gas, Light Naphtha or
Hydrogen).
The fuel gas is introduced into the NOx process
upstream where it homogeneously mixes
before entering the catalytic bed. The following
reactions take place:

CH4 + 4NO2 ---> CO2 + 2H2O + 4NO

CH4 + 4NO ---> CO2 + 2H2O + 2N2
 NSCR or three-way catalyst is used in rich-burn
or stoichiometric engines for simultaneous
conversion of NOx, CO, HC, formaldehyde and
HAPs. NSCR catalysts are effective in a wide
variety of engine applications and fuels,
including natural gas, propane and gasoline. A
closed loop air-fuel ratio controller is required
for the three-way catalyst to work effectively.
 Electron Beam Radiation
This treatment process is under development,
and is not widely used. Work is underway to
determine the feasibility of electron beam
radiation for neutralizing hazardous wastes and
air toxics.
Irradiation of flue gases containing NOx or SOx produce nitrate
and sulfate ions.
The addition of water and ammonia produces NH4NO3, and
(NH4)2SO4
The solids are removed from the gas, and are sold as fertilizers.
Staged Combustion
 Staged Combustion
PRINCIPLE
Initially, less air is supplied to bring about incomplete combustion

Nitrogen is not oxidized. Carbon particles and CO are released.

In the second stage, more air is supplied to complete the combustion

of carbon and carbon monoxide.

30% to 50% reductions in NOx emissions are achieved.

 Staged combustion burners, the most common type of low
NOx burners, achieve lower NOx emissions by staging the
injection of either air or fuel in the near burner region.
The division of combustion air reduces the oxygen
concentration in the primary burner combustion zone,
lowering the amount of NOx formed and increasing the
amount of NOx reducing agents.
Secondary and tertiary air complete the combustion
downstream of the primary zone, lowering the peak
temperature and reducing thermal NOx formation.
Low NOx Burner

Source: USEPA, APTI 418, NOx Emissions Control from Stationary Sources
Reburning in a Utility Boiler
 Flue Gas Recirculation
(FGR)
Flue gas recirculation (FGR), also called exhaust gas
recirculatoin (EGR), works by mixing some flue gas with
the incoming combustion air.

This increases the mass flow through the combustion zone

and decrease the concentration of O2 available for
combustion.

Increasing the gas flow in the combustion zone decreases

the temperature, because the same amount of energy is
distributed to a larger thermal mass.

Source: USEPA, APTI 418, NOx Emissions Control from Stationary Sources
Two versions of the concept of
drawing gas from the exhaust
ducts and mixing it with
combustion air.

The upper path, sometimes called

induced FGR uses the ID fan
inlet suction to draw gas from the
stack. This increases the flow
through the fan, but otherwise
there is no energy penalty.

The lower path, active FGR

requires a dedicated fan and
pumps relatively hot gas across is
significant pressure differential
into preheated combustion air -
which means that the FGR fan is
fairly large. Active FGR systems
use a significant amount of
power. Source: USEPA, APTI 418, NOx Emissions Control from Stationary Sources
 Low Excess Air (LEA)
combustion
As shown in the figure, we can minimize
diffusion flame NOx by reducing the excess
air as far as possible without excessive CO or
smoke.

This highlights the need to control air flow

precisely on any combustion system that is
attempting to minimize NOx. Air flow needs
to be maintained near the minimum practical
(not quite smoking) level. The automatic air
flow control system needs to do this
continuously as the boiler load changes.
Precise control of excess air is the first and
most important step in controlling emissions
from boilers and furnaces. This can only be
achieved by using an O2 monitor tied into
an intelligent (microprocessor based) control
system.
The NOx creation rate typically peaks at excess oxygen levels of 5 7% where
the combination of high combustion temperatures and the higher oxygen
concentrations act together. At both lower and higher air/fuel ratios, NOx
production falls off due to lower flame temperature at high excess air levels
and lower oxygen at low excess air levels.
 Reducing NOx with Water Injection
This figure is an example of the effect of water or steam injection
on turbine emissions. Water injection is not commonly used in
other types of combustion sources.
Water injection in a turbine
requires very clean water, but
there is only a small penalty to
engine efficiency. Water
provides cooling that would
otherwise have to be provided
with air - because the
maximum allowable turbine
inlet temperature is far below
the peak flame temperature in
the primary zone.
Source: http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/coalpower/cctc/cctdp/project_briefs/limb/limbdemo.html
Sulfur emissions/SOX
CONTROL
GENERAL METHODS FOR CONTROL OF SO2
EMISSIONS
Switching/Change to Low Sulfur Fuel
Natural Gas
Liquefied Natural Gas
Low Sulfur Oil

Low Sulfur Coal

Increase Effective Stack Height

Build Tall Stacks
Redistribution of Stack Gas Velocity Profile
Modification of Plume Buoyancy
 Desulfurizing the fuel prior to combustion.
Increase in process yield in chemical
production.
Increase in energy efficiency leading to less
fuel burnt.
Use Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems
Use Alternative Energy Sources, such as
Hydro-Power or Nuclear-Power .
 Flue Gas Desulfurization
SO2 scrubbing, or Flue Gas Desulfurization processes can be
classified as:
Throwaway or Regenerative, depending upon whether the recovered sulfur is
discarded or recycled.
Wet or Dry, depending upon whether the scrubber is a liquid or a solid.

Flue Gas Desulfurization Processes

The major flue gas desulfurization ( FGD ), processes are :
Limestone Scrubbing
Lime Scrubbing
Dual Alkali Processes
Lime Spray Drying
Wellman-Lord Process
Limestone Scrubbing
 Limestone Scrubbing

Limestone slurry is sprayed on the incoming

flue gas. The sulfur dioxide gets absorbed The
limestone and the sulfur dioxide react as
follows :
CaCO3 + H2O + 2SO2 ----> Ca+2 + 2HSO3-+ CO2
CaCO3 + 2HSO3-+ Ca+2 ----> 2CaSO3 + CO2 + H2O
Lime Scrubbing
 Lime Scrubbing
The equipment and the processes are similar to those
in limestone scrubbing Lime Scrubbing offers better
utilization of the reagent. The operation is more
flexible. The major disadvantage is the high cost of lime
compared to limestone.
The reactions occurring during lime scrubbing are :
CaO + H2O -----> Ca(OH)2
SO2 + H2O <----> H2SO3
H2SO3 + Ca(OH)2 -----> CaSO3.2 H2O
CaSO3.2 H2O + (1/2)O2 -----> CaSO4.2 H2O
 Dual Alkali System
Lime and Limestone scrubbing lead to deposits inside spray tower.
The deposits can lead to plugging of the nozzles through which the
scrubbing slurry is sprayed.
The Dual Alkali system uses two regents to remove the sulfur dioxide.
Sodium sulfite / Sodium hydroxide are used for the absorption of sulfur
dioxide inside the spray chamber.
The resulting sodium salts are soluble in water,so no deposits are formed.
The spray water is treated with lime or limestone, along with make-up
sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate.
The sulfite / sulfate ions are precipitated, and the sodium hydroxide is
regenerated.
 Lime Spray Drying
Lime Slurry is sprayed into the chamber

The sulfur dioxide is absorbed by the slurry

The liquid-to-gas ratio is maintained such that the spray dries

before it reaches the bottom of the chamber

The dry solids are carried out with the gas, and are collected
in fabric filtration unit

This system needs lower maintenance, lower capital costs,

and lower energy usage
 Wellman Lord Process
Schematic process flow diagram SO2 scrubbing and recovery system
 Wellman Lord Process
This process consists of the following subprocesses:
Flue gas pre-treatment.
Sodium sulfite solution spraying.
Sulfur dioxide absorption by sodium sulfite
Purge treatment
Sodium sulfite regeneration.
The concentrated sulfur dioxide stream is processed to a marketable product.

The flue gas is pre - treated to remove the particulate. The sodium sulfite neutralizes

the sulfur dioxide :

Na2SO3 + SO2 + H2O -----> 2NaHSO3

 Wellman Lord Process (contd.)
Some of the Na2SO3 reacts with O2 and the SO3 present in the flue gas to

form Na2SO4 and NaHSO3.

Sodium sulfate does not help in the removal of sulfur dioxide, and is

removed. Part of the bisulfate stream is chilled to precipitate the

remaining bisulfate. The remaining bisulfate stream is evaporated to

release the sulfur dioxide, and regenerate the bisulfite.

CARBON MONOXIDE CONTROL
 Formation Of Carbon Monoxide

Due to insufficient oxygen

Factors affecting Carbon monoxide formation:

Fuel-air ratio

Degree of mixing

Temperature
 General Methods For Control of CO
Emissions
Control carbon monoxide formation.
Note : CO & NOx control strategies are in conflict.

Stationary Sources
Proper Design
Installation
Operation
Maintenance

Process Industries
Burn in furnaces or waste heat boilers.
CARBON DIOXIDE CONTROL
 Sources of Carbon Dioxide
Human-Related Sources
Combustion of fossil fuels: Coal, Oil, and Natural Gas in
power plants, automobiles, and industrial facilities
Use of petroleum-based products
Industrial processes: Iron and steel production,
cement, lime, and aluminum manufactures

Natural Sources
Volcanic eruptions
Ocean-atmosphere exchange
Plant photosynthesis
Sources of CO2 Emissions in the U.S.

(x-axis units are teragrams of CO2 equivalent) Source: USEPA

CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuel Combustion
by Sector and Fuel Type

(y-axis units are teragrams of CO2 equivalent) Source: USEPA

 General Methods For Control of CO2 Emissions

Reducing energy consumption, increasing the

efficiency of energy conversion

Switching to less carbon intensive fuels

Increasing the use of renewable sources

Sequestering CO2 through biological, chemical, or

physical processes
CONTROL OF MERCURY EMISSIONS
 Mercury Emissions
Mercury exists in trace amounts in
Fossil fuels such as Coal, Oil, and Natural Gas
Vegetation
Waste products
Mercury is released to the atmosphere through
combustion or natural processes.
It creates both human and environmental risks
Fish consumption is the primary pathway for human
and wildlife exposure.
United states is the first country in the world to
regulate mercury emissions from coal-fired power
plants (March 15, 2005).
 Types of Sources

Source: Seingeur, 2004 and Mason and Sheu, 2002.

Worldwide Distribution of Emissions

Source: Presentation by J. Pacyna and J. Munthe at mercury workshop in Brussels,

March 29-30, 2004
 Control Technologies for Mercury
Emissions
Currently installed control devices for SO2, NOX, and particulates, in a
power plant, remove some of the mercury before releasing from the
stack

Activated Carbon Injection:

Particles of activated carbon are injected into the exit gas flow, downstream
of the boiler. The mercury attaches to the carbon particles and is removed in
a particle control device

Thief process for the removal of mercury from flue gas:

It is a process which extracts partially burned coal from a pulverized coal-
fired combustor using a suction pipe, or "thief," and injects the resulting
sorbent into the flue gas to capture the mercury.
PARTICULATE MATTER CONTROL
Range: 20 to 40000 mg/m3
First step: Process control
Second step: Use of collection device
Particles produced during combustion or as secondary products in the atmosphere, that
might shift for very long periods far from their point of source.

PM 10 PM 2.5
Human hair
(10 m) (2,5 m)
(70 m diameter)
 Particulate matter (PM)
Their chemical composition depends
on fuel quality. They invariably consist
of soot, hydrocarbons, ash, metals
(vanadium, nickel, zinc), sulphur and
nitrate compounds

The smaller the size of the particles,

the deeper penetrate into the human
respiratory system.
 Industrial Sources of Particulate Emissions
Iron & Steel Mills, the blast furnaces, steel making furnaces.
Petroleum Refineries, the catalyst regenerators, air-blown asphalt stills,
and sludge burners.
Portland cement industry
Asphalt batching plants
Production of sulfuric acid
Production of phosphoric acid
Soap and Synthetic detergent manufacturing
Glass & glass fiber industry
Instant coffee plants
 EFFECTS OF PARTICULATE EMISSIONS

Primary Effects
Reduction of visibility
size distribution and refractive index of the particles
direct absorption of light by particles
direct light scattering by particles
150 micro g / m3 concentration ~ average visibility of 5 miles
( satisfactory for air and ground transportation )

Soiling of nuisance.
increase cost of building maintenance, cleaning of furnishings, and
households.
threshold limit is 200 - 250 micro g / m3 ( dust )
levels of 400 - 500 micro g / m3 considered as nuisance
Choice/selection of Control equipment
Physical & Chemical properties of chemicals.
Particle size distribution .
Temperature & humidity of medium.
Carrier gas(throughput) vol & rate of removal.
Efficiency required.
Permissible pressure drop.
Particle loading.
Economic considerations.
 General Methods For Control Of
Particulate Emissions
Five Basic Types of Dust Collectors :
Gravity and Momentum collectors
Settling chambers, louvers, baffle chambers

Centrifugal Collectors
Cyclones
Mechanical centrifugal collectors

Fabric Filters
Baghouses
Fabric collectors
 General Methods For Control Of
Particulate Emissions (Contd.)
Electrostatic Precipitators
Tubular
Plate
Wet
Dry

Wet Collectors
Spray towers
Impingement scrubbers
Wet cyclones
Packed towers
Mobile bed scrubbers
 Size ranges removed by particular equipments

Equipment Approximate particle size range(m)

Settling Chambers
>100
Inertial separators
>50
Cyclones
>5
Scrubbers
>3
Venturi Scrubbers
>0.3
Bag Filters
>0.1
Electrostatic Precipitators
>0.001
 Particulate Collection Mechanism
Gravity Settling
Centrifugal Impaction
Inertial Impaction
Direct Interception
Diffusion
Electrostatic Effects
Tubular Dust Collector Arrangement for an
ESP
 Overall Collection

Ci inlet concentration
Co outlet concentration

Note: The smaller the particle, the lower is

efficiency of removal.
 Problem
A cyclone operates removes 75% of
particulate matter fed to it. The filter is then
fed to an ESP which operates with 90%
efficiency. What is the overall efficiency of this
particulate system?
 Step 1:
Assuming an initial feed of 100%, determine the
percentage of the stream fed to the ESP.
100% - (100% x 0.75) = 25%

Step 2:
Determine final composition after ESP.
25% - (25% x 0.9) = 2.5%

Step 3:
Determine overall efficiency
hoverall = (initial final)/ initial
= 100% - 2.5%100% = 97.5%
VOCs CONTROL
 VOCs are precursors to ground-level ozone
production.
HC (VOCs)+NOx+O2 on reacting in the
presence of photochemical light(hf) to
produce Ozone & other objectionable
photochemical pollutants.
 Control of VOC emissions to atm.
The hierarchy appropriate for control of VOC
emissions is;
Eliminate or reduce VOC emissions at the
source.
Recover the VOC for reuse.
Recover the VOC for treatment & disposal.
Treatment & disposal of the VOC-laden gas
stream.
 Sources of VOC emissions.
Tank loading can be a significant source of
VOC emissions from atmospheric storage
tanks used or the storage of organic liquids.
Number of ways are there for prevention of
VOC emissions,a simple technique involving a
balance line is used.
Tanks with different types of roofs
to stop breathing
Discuss figures
 External floating roof
In this arrangement, the roof floats directly on
the surface of the stored liquid and is open to
the atmosphere.
The floating roof has a seal system for the gap
between the roof and the tank wall.
In principle, this eliminates breathing of the
tank to atmosphere, but maintaining a reliable
seal between the edge of the floating roof and
the tank wall can be problematic.
 Internal floating roof

In this arrengment, tne tanks has a fixed roof

in addition to the floating roof, and the
floating roof is not open to the atmosphere.
The space between the floating and fixed
roofs should normally be purged with an inert
gas.
The inert gas would be vented to atmosphere
after traetment.
 Internal floating roofs are used when there is
likely to be a heavy accumulation of rainwater
or snow on the floating roof.
 Flexible membrane

In this arrangement, the roof changes shape

to stop the vapor space breathing to
atmosphere.
EFFLUENT SYSTEMS
Effluent can be significant sources of the VOC
emissions.
If organic material is sent to effluent, along
with aqueous effluent, then evaporation from
open drains can create significant VOC
emissions.
 If this is the case, then having separate sewers
for organic and aqueous waste, as illistrated
can eliminate the problem.
The organic waste is collected in a closed
system, typically draining to a sump tank, from
which the organic material can be recovered
or treated before disposal.
 The segregation system has many other
benefits.
Effluent systems can be a significant source of
VOC emissions.
Organic plus aqueous effluent goes to open
drains ,2nd one evaporated to create
significant VOC emissions.
Segregation of aqueous and organic waste can
prevent VOC emissions from open drains.
Built separate Sewers for both types of
wastes.
 The organic waste collected in a closed
system, typically draining to a sump tank ,from
which organic material can be recovered or
treated before disposal.
 Sampling of Organic Liquids
Sampling of organic liquids for analysis &
quality control can also be significant source
VOC emissions.
Traditional sampling technique involving a
sample point with a valve.
 Slow leaks from gaskets & machines seals

Slow leaks from gaskets and from compressor,

pump & valve seal can create fugitive
emissions of VOCs.
Such emissions can be controlled at the
source by better maintenance.
More sophisticated sealing arrangements are
desirable to eliminate the problem at source.
 Recovery of vapors for reuse need a vapor
recovery system to be installed at storage
tanks.
 Processes involving open operations

Filters,drum handling can create VOC

emissions.
It is impractical to enclose all such operations.
 Methods of VOC recovery
Condensation.
Membranes.
Absorption.
Adsorption.
 4 main issues
Green House gases
Acid Rain
Ozone Depletion
Urban Smog
 Adminstrative Controls
The Worldwide;
Montreal Protocol
Kyoto Protocol
The Pakistan;
PEPA