POWDER

TECHNOLOGY
ELSEVIER Powder Technology 82 (1995) 105-11'3

Solids flow imaging and attrition studies in a pneumatic conveyor

S.L. M c K e e a, T. Dyakowski a, R.A. Williams a.1, T.A. Bell b, T. Allen b
a Department o f Chemical Engineering, UMIST, PO Box 88, Manchester, M60 1QD, UK
b E.L Du Pont de Nemours and Co., Engineering, Louviers Building, PO Box 6090, Newark, DE 19714-6090, USA
Received 1 February 1993; in revised form 14 January 1994

Abstract

This work describes the first application of a non-invasive capacitance tomographic technique to monitoring the behaviour
of industrial-scale pneumatic conveyors. Dynamic images of the solids distribution within a pipe have captured the movement
of slugs in dense-phase solids conveying, and the presence of saltation in dilute-phase conveying. It has also been possible
to acquire images downstream of a pipe bend and to use this information to establish a suitable location for obtaining a
representative sample of a material stream. The information provided by cross-sectional images facilitates the validation of
theoretical models and ultimately will allow improved design as the sensitivity and resolution of the technique are enhanced.
A study of particle (sea salt) attrition is reported using a conveying line 32 m in length. It is demonstrated that particle
breakage can be described as a function of the conveying velocity and solids-gas loading factor. Particle breakage is described
in terms of the mass-specific surface area, and is seen to increase with conveying velocity. Particle breakage rates are found
to be inversely related to the solids loading factor.

Keywords: Attrition studies; Pneumatic conveyor; Solids flow imaging; Tomography; Capacitance sensors

1. Introduction itance and resistive tomography [4,5]. The emergence

The control and operation of an industrial conveying
line can often present problems in the form of pipeline
blockages or the creation of an unwanted flow regime
[1-3]. The operation of a conveying line, whether it
be dilute or dense phase, is highly dependent upon
the suspending gas velocity. An excessively low velocity
can lead to large deposits of material within the pipeline,
which inevitably cause blockage if not controlled. T o m -
ographic imaging of the conveying operation can provide
real-time images of the interior of the pipe and lead
to the alleviation of such problems. During conveying-
system design, tomographic images of flow within a test
loop can be used to optimize system p a r a m e t e r s for
full-scale plant installations.
T o m o g r a p h y provides a technique by which slice
images can be obtained of the contents of a process
vessel or a pipe, by the use of non-intrusive sensors.
T h e r e are many tomographic sensing methods available,
including the radiation-based methods of nuclear mag-
netic resonance and X-ray imaging, as used in medicine,
and the evolving electrically based methods of capac-
of these new methods in a process environment rep-
resents a novel approach to the control of chemical
processes. "The sensors are much more conducive to
industrial applications than radiation-based methods,
because of their portability, low cost and fast dynamic
response [5].
In this work, capacitance tomography has been applied
to the two principal modes of transport in pneumatic
conveying: dense- and dilute-phase conveying. The in-
vestigations have b e e n carried out on two industrial-
scale rigs and represent the first such interrogation of
pneumatic conveying. The solids conveyed were poly-
propylene and an acetal resin (both in pellet form)
and sea salt in its natural crystallized form. Undesirable
particle attrition can frequently occur in conveying
processes. T h e effect of two principal parameters, the
air-conveying velocity and loading factor, are analysed
in relation to particle breakage of sea salt.
2. Experimental measurements
2.1. C a p a c i t a n c e i m a g i n g

I Present address: Colloid and Engineering Group, Cambourne The electrical sensing technique requires the use of
School of Mines, University of Exeter, Redruth, Cornwall, UK. brass electrodes positioned on a non-conductive section

0032-5910/95/$09.50 1995 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved

SSDI 0032-5910(94)02894-T
106 S.L. McKee et al. / Powder Technology 82 (1995) 105-113

Non-conductive Reconstructed" ~ ~ 1)
pipe section Image N= n(n -
2 (1)

In this particular study, the eight-electrode system

i vo,toge
Capacitance
Sensors
Fig. 1. Principal components of a capacitance imaging system installed
on a pneumatic pipeline.
\ j results in a total of 28 independent measurements. A
schematic diagram of the essential components of the
tomography device is shown in Fig. 1. The resultant
Capacitance two-dimensional images reflect the dielectric distri-
easurements bution across a pipe cross section, thereby allowing
different phases to be discerned. Capacitance tomog-
raphy is by its nature a technique which requires that
Acquisition the process fluids be either insulating or of low con-
System ductivity.
2.2. Dense-phase conveying test plant

The dense-phase conveying of polypropylene pellets

of process pipe in a non-invasive manner. In the present
approach, eight 200 mm electrodes were positioned on
a portable section of glass pipe, 1 m in length. The
sensing electrodes are, in turn, connected to a data-
acquisition system, which is responsible for sensor ex-
citation and successive impedance measurements. Mea-
surements of capacitance were made between any two
of the electrodes in all possible combinations using a
charge-discharge method [6]. The data-capture, or
'snapshot', time was 2.3 ms. Images were acquired at
4 s intervals and reconstructed via a back-projection
algorithm [6-8]. The number of independent mea-
surements, N, that can be obtained from an n-electrode
system is given by:
was investigated by installing the capacitance unit within
the plant illustrated in Fig. 2. This shows the location
at which the tomograms were obtained, 1.55 m down-
stream of the pipe bend at the base of tank 2. The
pellets were ellipsoidal in shape with a diameter of 3.8
mm, a solids density of 906 kg m-3 and a bulk density
of 548 kg m-3. The reported dielectric constant of the
polypropylene was 2.25 compared with a value of unity
for air. Pellets were conveyed by compressed air, after
being discharged from tank 2 and recycled back to the
feed hopper. The hopper, in turn, was used to load
tank 1 with particulate material. During the pneumatic
operation it was found that as the supply pressure of
the compressed air was increased, a wave-like motion

FTIIIipper

capocit .... s ......

/ DataAcquisitionSystem

I .

p4 1.55m .4
Fig.2. Schematicdiagramof testplantfor dense-phaseconveying.
 S.L. McKee et aL / Powder Technology 82 (1995) 105-113
of the particles became more apparent. The pressure
rating of the glass pipe restricted the pressure at which
the conveying system could be operated to between 2
and 3 bar (gauge) and therefore also restricted the
range of solids mass flow rates. Results are presented
for three runs, at mass flow rates of 1587, 1701 and
1761 kg h - 1.
2.3. Dilute-phase conveying test plant
In the conveying rig shown in Fig. 3, tomographic
images were acquired at several locations, as annotated,
for conveying of an acetal resin (in pellet form) and
fine and coarse sea salt. The acetal resin pellets had
a diameter of 2.85 mm, a bulk density of 879 kg m -3
and a measured solids density of 1350 kg m -3. The
sea salt had a bulk density of 1292 kg m -3 and a
measured solids density of 2204 kg m -3.
The principal aims were to image flow patterns and
to determine the effect of loading factors and air-inlet
conveying velocity on the distance necessary for solids
to become airborne after introduction to the system.
Loading factors employed ranged from 1:1 up to a
maximum of 15:1 with air velocities in the range 15-40
m s- 1. Particles were conveyed under vacuum, provided
by a positive displacement rotary blower, and solids
were introduced into the line via a side-entry rotary
valve located under a feed hopper. The solids were
disengaged from the air stream with a bag filter, whilst
the air was discharged to the atmosphere via the blower.
The bag filter was emptied after each run.
Loading factors were established by careful control
of the rotary-valve rotational speed [9], whilst the initial
air velocity was established by adjustment of the blower
variable-speed drive in conjunction with a pitot tube
upstream of the feed hopper. Actual air-inlet velocities
immediately downstream of the solids feed point dunng
I
To Bog I:]lter
ico,,~to~
& Bl. . . .
Feed H o p p e r ~
I D103 mm
Air
I- 0.88 rn .j
r-
L
I-
I I
I"
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of plant for dilute-phase conveying and tomogram locations.
107
each experimental run were determined from manu-
facturer's calibration curves for the rotary blower. The
rpm value of the blower and inlet vacuum level were
Used to determine the gas flow rate, which was then
corrected for the pressure at the rotary valve.
2.4. Attrition measurements
Obtaining representative samples from large quan-
tities of bulk materials is often a problem in pneumatic
conveying tests. For this investigation, all of the salt
samples taken for measurement and individual con-
veying runs were obtained by repetitive binary splitting
of the entire original volume of material.
The test programme started with two batches of salt,
one weighing 136 kg and the other 180 kg. The first
batch was split into three batches of 45 kg each, with
a representative 'before conveying' sample (sample num-
ber 1) extracted from one of the three (Table 1). Each
of the three batches was then used in conveying trials,
producing samples 3, 4 and 5. A similar procedure was
used with the second batch, producing 'before conveying'
sample 2 and 'after conveying' samples 6, 7 and 8.
At the completion of an extensive series of runs
(including several that are not reported here), 168 kg
of the used, attrited salt were blended together and
then re-split. This produced 'before conveying' sample
9 and 'after conveying' samples 10, 11, 12 and 13.
Because these studies were performed with crystalline
salt, it is likely that most of the change in size distribution
is due to crystal fracture rather than attrition arising
from erosion mechanisms. Sieve analysis data for the
'after conveying' samples and original feed materials
were plotted, with interpolation used to find the particle
size by plotting sieve size (/~m) versus cumulative weight
percent. For original feed samples 1, 2 and 9 the mass
median particle sizes were 6099, 5459 and 2863 /xm,
respectively.
15.15 rn
L. 2.44 m ..J
I
Ii~ -I
Air & Solids ' 1.52 m
Location 5 /ocotlon 4
TomographYLocatl
1 onunit.
L0.914 mmj
I
-I I I
4.0B m .J
-I I
14.91 m
108 S.L. McKee et al. / Powder Technology 82 (1995) 105-113

Table 1 Particle trajectory

Designation of powder-sample reference n u m b e r s and corresponding
conveying conditions C) The mixing zone
(~) Slug body
Sample no. Sample no. Experimental conveying con- (~ Slug tail
of original feed (after conveying) ditions
(~) Settled layer
(before conveying)
(~) Gas bubble
Air velocity Solids loading
(m s -1) factor
Moving Moving
1 3 13.5 5.0:1
1 4 21.0 4.9:1
1 5 31.5 4.3:1
fOkOoooS ',
OOO O O \
(q_Oooooo
\Oo OOO \ "

2 6 27.0 8.8:1
2 7 37.0 4.9:1
2 8 33.5 9.4:1 Static Static
9 10 14.0 5.0:1 7qme, t
9 11 21.0 4.7:1
9 12 28.0 5.0:1
9 13 34.0 5.3:1
particle trojecto~ /
dt/dx = I/Vp / / Slug celerity
= 1/c
3. Results and discussion

3.1. Slug celerity measurement in dense-phase conveying

Whilst conveying the polypropylene pellets, the flow

regime observed through the glass pipe section and
recorded by the tomography instrument was decidedly
plug like in nature. The mechanism of flow was that Distance, x
of a slug of solids moving ahead of a settled layer of Fig. 4. A simple representation of the structure of a slug (above)
particles on the pipe base, the overall effect being that and a slug movement (top).
of wave-like motion. A simple representation of the
structure of a slug is shown in Fig. 4. Slugs move with t = 0
a wave velocity or celerity, c. The slug entrains particles I I
in its path and accelerates them in the mixing zone [
to a velocity that has the same order of magnitude as
the average particle velocity over the entire pipe cross
section. The slug celerity (wave velocity) is larger than
AI
the average particle velocity. Also shown in this Figure I
is the trajectory of a particle at the front of a slug.
Particles are shed from the tail of the slug to a trailing
layer and after travelling a short distance cease to t = IAT I
move, as indicated schematically in Fig. 4.
Applying a mass balance over some time period, AT,
for the control volume shown in Fig. 5 and assuming AI Vp IA
the voidage of the settled layer to be the same as that
of the slug (as in Tomita et al. [10]):
Fig. 5. M o v e m e n t of slug over time period AT.
T(A -Ao)c=AVpT (2)
where A0 is the area occupied by the settled layer of a settled layer, have to be found. The average particle
particles, A the cross-sectional area of the pipe, Vp the velocity varies with the mass flow rate of solids and is
average particle velocity and c the celerity. Rearranging given by:
Eq. (2), the celerity can be determined from
M~
VpA Vp p~(1- E)A (4)
c= (3)
A -Ao
where e represents the voidage, Ps the solids density
In order to determine the celerity, two variables, namely and Ms the mass flow rate of solids. The mass flow
the average particle velocity and the area occupied by rate of solids varied from 1587 to 1761 kg h -a, and
 S.L. McKee et al. / Powder Technology 82 (1995) 105-113
was estimated for each run by the difference between
the initial and final masses in the feed hopper. This
variation was reflected in the area occupied by a settled
layer of particles in the pipe that was visualized. The
corresponding tomographic images enable the area
occupied by the air and hence the settled layer (area
Ao) to be quantified by manual measurement of the
angle of the arc subtended at the pipe centre. Typical
images obtained at the three different solids mass flow
rates studied are reproduced in Fig. 6, with the white
regions representing the presence of an established
settled layer of polypropylene pellets. The images of
the settled layer remained stable in the absence of a
slug, therefore those images chosen are representative.
The region above this layer depicts a combination of
air and some spurious signal interference due to elec-
trical noise. Determination of the celerity and average
particle velocity (via Eqs. (3) and (4)) and solids mass
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 6. Tomographic images obtained at differingmass flow rates of
polypropylene pellets in dense-phase conveying; (a) M , = 1587 kg
h-t; (b) 34,=1708 kg h-X; (c) M,=1761 kg h-'.
109
flow rate yields Fig. 7. This shows the variation of the
solids mass flow rate with celerity relative to the average
particle velocity, the latter decreasing with increasing
solids mass flow rate.
3.2. Effect of loading factor on particle dispersion in
dilute-phase conveying
The traditional methods of calculating the acceler-
ation zone length provide the horizontal distance be-
tween the solids inlet point and the point at which the
solids have reached a steady-state speed, typically
50-95% of the gas speed. A separate but equally
important problem is the horizontal distance after the
inlet required for all of the solids to become airborne.
Any change in flow direction before this distance has
been covered is likely to result in pluggage.
As solids enter the conveying pipe, some instantly
become airborne and never settle inside the pipe. A
fraction of the material, however, travels a short dis-
tance, then falls to the bottom of the pipe. This layer
of solids is gradually eroded by the gas stream, but
new solids are re-deposited in the same location. The
length of this unstable, settled layer of particles and
its relationship to the inlet air conveying velocity and
solids loading factor was examined by tomography.
The tomograms obtained at location 1 (Fig. 3), 0.88
m from the feed hopper, revealed an established settled
layer of particles. The average thickness of the settled
layer was lowered with increasing air inlet velocity and
decreasing loading factor. Images were also found to
reflect dynamic events within the conveying line. As
each pocket in the rotary valve emptied its contents
into the conveying line, a momentary increase in the
settled layer thickness was observed. Fig. 8 shows the
fluctuations in area occupied by a settled layer of acetal
Solids mass flowrate (kg/h)
0.49
0.48
0.47
0.46
0.45
0.44
0.43 i = = t I
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0,3
Celerity relative to average particle velocity (m/s)
Fig. 7. Variation of solids mass flow rate with celerity relative to
a v e r a g e particle velocity.
110 S.L. McKee et aL / Powder Technology 82 (1995) 105-113
40
Percentage pipe c.s.a, filled (%)
35
20
/ velocity of 30 m s -1 and a loading factor of 4.7:1. The
15 / Duckworth correlation, is 14 m and with the sensors
105~ = ~, ~ \~
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (sec)
Fig. 8. Variation of area occupied by settled layer with time, for
acetal resin pellets. Results obtained at location 1 (0.88 m from
feed hopper) with a loading factor of 8:1 and an air velocity of 18
m s -I.
pellets with time after starting the rotary feeder, for
a loading factor of 8:1 and an air velocity of 18 m s- 1.
After a period of 1 min from start-up, the fluctuations
in the area occupied by a settled layer tended to be
less prominent. An average fill of about 30% of the
pipe cross section was established.
Tomograms obtained at location 2 (4 m from the
rotary feed hopper) differed since under certain con-
ditions no image of a settled layer could be obtained,
indicating that a fully suspended flow of particles pre-
vailed. Fig. 9 shows the effect of loading factor on
solids dispersion. It compares images at the same value
of loading factor but at different imaging locations:
location 1 (top row) and location 2 (bottom row) for
an air conveying velocity of 28 m s-1. No images were
obtained for loading factors of 4:1 and 1:1, which
indicated a fully suspended, but not necessarily stable,
flow of acetal pellets at this point.
The existence of the unstable settled layer effect was
apparent whilst conveying the sea salt, with the sensors
positioned at location 2. Salt particles were deposited
just upstream and within the electrode region, forming
images of settled layers, as verified by visual observation
of flow in the glass pipe. This distinct effect accounts
for the collection of more images of a settled layer for
the sea salt at location 2 than with the acetal resin
under the same operating conditions.
3.3. Imaging within the acceleration zone in dilute-
phase conveying
To investigate further the acceleration zone, Rose
and Duckworth's empirical correlation [11] was utilized
to estimate acceleration lengths:
LA = 6 [ ( M~ ](D]l/2(p~]1/2] in
--D Pagl/2DS/a]\ d ] \Pal (5)
where LA is the acceleration length, D the pipe diameter
and d the mean particle diameter.
As an illustrative example, the acceleration length
was determined for acetal resin conveyed under a
acceleration length, as determined from the Rose and
positioned such a distance away (location 3) from the
feed hopper, no image of a settled layer was found,
thereby confirming the absence of a settled layer at
this location.
3.4. Flow perturbation due to a pipe bend
In any sampling of a material stream, the flow regime
developed in the conveying line must be stable. A
common assumption made in the process industry is
that such stability will occur 10 pipe diameters down-
stream of a pipe bend. To test the validity of this
premise, tomograms were obtained at a distance of 20
pipe diameters (1.52 m) from a vertical-to-horizontal
pipe bend (Fig. 3).
When coarse sea salt was conveyed, no image of a
travelling layer of particles along the pipe wall was
obtained for loading factors of 4.5:1 or 1:1 at an air
velocity of 22 m s-1. In contrast, a high loading factor
of 14.9:1 at 14 m s-1 did yield images. While conveying
the finer sea salt, images of non-suspended layers were
obtained for a loading factor of 14.9:1 (with an air
velocity of 24 m s -a) and, in contrast to the coarse
salt, also for 1.2:1 (with an air velocity of 20 m s-a).
A similar study of the acetal resin indicated that solids
were still not suspended at loading factors of 4.4:1 and
1.3:1 with a conveying velocity of 21 m s -a and 14:1
at 24 m s-1 velocity.
The sensors were then installed 30 pipe diameters
(2.44 m) from the pipe bend. The same loading factors
and conveying air velocities were employed, but no
images of settled layers were acquired, thereby implying
a fully suspended flow pattern. These results suggest
that the particulate stream should be sampled at a
distance of at least 30 pipe diameters from a vertical-
to-horizontal pipe bend.
3. 5. Particle breakage measurements for the dilute-
phase conveying of sea salt
The relative mass-percentage distributions of sea salt
after conveying are presented on semi-logarithmic axes
to allow equal sensitivity over a wide range (Fig. 10).
The approach adopted in this analysis of particle at-
trition is based on the sieve harmonic mean, Xh:
 S.L. McKee et al. / Powder Technology 82 (1995) 105-113 111

UPSTREAM LOCATION

10:1 7:1 4:1 1:1

DOWNSTREAM LOCATION
Fig. 9. Effect of loading factor on solids dispersion by comparing images obtained at locations 1 (upstream) and 2 (downstream) for like
loading factors, at an air conveying velocity of 28 m s -I (see Fig. 3).

Table 2
Attrition of salt under different conveying conditions

Sample Actual Air-inlet Median Harmonic Ratio Reduction Reduction

no. solids conveying Xm mean Xm/Xh Xt/Xm ratio (RR)
loading velocity (/zm) Xh Xf/Xh
(ms-') (/zm)

1 6100 (xr) 3970 1.54 1.00 1.00

3 5.0:1 13.5 5900 3447 1.71 1.03 1.15
4 4.9:1 21.0 5150 2212 2.33 1.18 1.79
5 4.3:1 31.5 2831 1179 2.40 2.15 3.37
2 5500 (xf) 4179 1.32 1.00 1.00
6 8.8:1 27.0 3500 1390 2.43 1.57 3.03
7 4.9:1 37.0 2100 764 2.68 2.62 5.47
8 9.4:1 33.5 2520 995 2.53 2.18 4.20
9 2770 (xf) 789 3.51 1.00 1.00
10 5.0:1 14.0 2673 772 3.70 1.04 1.09
11 4.7:1 21.0 2339 667 3.51 1.18 1.18
12 5.0:1 28.0 1700 429 3.96 1.59 1.84
13 5.3:1 34.0 1064 367 2.90 2.60 2.14

for e a c h s a m p l e ar e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 2 t o g e t h e r with
1 =~ qr
t h e r e d u c t i o n r at i o (RR), w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s t h e d e g r e e
~hh dA,r (6)
o f b r e a k a g e , e x p r e s s e d as t h e r a t i o o f t h e h a r m o n i c
w h e r e q, is t h e f r a c t i o n o f m a t e r i a l r e t a i n e d b e t w e e n m e a n size o f t h e f e e d (Xt) to t h e h a r m o n i c m e a n size
sieves o f m e a n size d,4,r. T h i s p a r a m e t e r was c h o s e n (Xh) a f t e r conveying. H e n c e in T a b l e 2 t h e r e d u c t i o n -
b e c a u s e it illustrates t h e e f f e c t o f p a r t i c l e b r e a k a g e o n r at i o figures ar e unity f o r e a c h o f t h e u n c o n v e y e d f e e d
the s u rf ace area. V a l u e s o f t h e sieve h a r m o n i c m e a n samples. T h e T a b l e also shows a n o t h e r r at i o b a s e d on
112 S.L. McKee et el. / Powder Technology 82 (1995) 105-113

200- 2.2
~N/Ologx (a)
2.02"1 ' ~ ~ ' P

150- vi in 1 1.9
I 13.5 m/s, 5.0:1 solids loading I~ ~_ 1
I 41911 sol!ds Ioad!ng ~ ~ !
1.8
o
100- "" 1.7
~ 1.6

~ 1.5
50
~ 1.4

1..5

0- 1.2
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Sieve size in Microns 1.1

1.0;
300 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 55
0w/0to~x ~) Air [ n l e t C o n v e y i n g Velocity (m/s)

250 Fig. 11. Effect of conveying velocity on reduction ratio for sea salt
Virgin Feed (data for sample nos. 9-13; average solids loading factor, 5.0:1;
27.0 m/s, 8.8:1 solids loading ~.a]_
200- ~ 37.0 m/s, 4.9:1 solids loading I ~m variable conveying velocities).

150 I ~
20 i i i

100

50- !15
10 100 1000 10000 10(K~}
~ 10
Sieve size in Microns

120
aw/au~x (c) ~ 5
100. ,j~
~ Virgin Feed
14.0 m/s, 5.0:1 solids loading . i x _ \\/
80 - --O--- 21.0 m/s, 4.7:1 solids loading ~ "~ 0 1 I I I I I I
28.0m/s, 5.0:1solidsloading / = j / / ~ \ \ \~l~ 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
. , . : .
Air I n l e t C o n v e y i n g Velocity (m/s)

Fig. 12. Velocity effect on new surface generated in a pneumatic

40- conveying rig (data for sample nos. 9-13; average solids loading
factor, 5.0:1; variable conveying velocities).
20~

0-
10 100
Sieve size in Microns
Fig. 10. Relative percentage mass distributions of sea salt after
conveying under various conditions specified in legends: (a) samples
1, 3--5; (b) samples 2, 6-8; and (c) samples 9-13 (Table 2).
the harmonic mean particle size of the unbroken feed
(Xf) normalized by the mass median particle size (Xm).
The mass specific surface S,.A is estimated from the
sieve-size analysis, assuming that the particles possess
the same size-independent shape:
S.,A = a,v.A ~ q,
Ps dA.,
(sieve surface-volume shape coefficient, oqv.A=
constant). Fig. 11 shows the variation of reduction ratio
for samples 10--13 with air inlet conveying velocity, for
I000 10000 100000 an average solids loading factor of 5:1. As the conveying
velocity increases, the reduction ratio (RR) increases.
The effect of conveying velocity on powder surface is
illustrated for samples 10-13 in Fig. 12. This dem-
onstrates that attrition increases with increasing con-
veying velocity, with the form, for samples 10 and 11:
Surface area st [conveying velocity] 196 (8)
A comparison of all the reduction-ratio numbers in
Table 2, for samples originating from the s a m e feed
material, indicates that particle breakage is increased
at low solids loading.
Samples 6--8, having mass median particle sieve di-
(7)
ameters of 3480, 2107 and 2629 /zm, were conveyed
under different velocities and loading factors, as in-
dicated in Table 2. Comparison of the reduction ratio,
 S.L. McKee et al. / Powder Technology 82 (1995) 105-113
RR, figures for samples 7 and 8 with loading factor,
LF, indicates the following relationship:
Reduction ratio (RR) ot [Loading factor (LF)] -'442
(9)
4. Conclusions
In this particular analysis of dense-phase pneumatic
conveying, tomographic images have confirmed the pres-
ence of plug flow under the operational conditions
applied. These images have enabled the area occupied
by a settled layer to be determined accurately and the
celerity (wave velocity) to be measured. The results
have shown that as the mass flow rate of solids increases,
the area of a settled layer decreases while the average
particle velocity is increased.
Capacitance tomography has also provided previously
unobtainable images both within and at the end of the
calculated particle-acceleration zone in dilute-phase
conveying. Whilst facilitating a better understanding of
the mechanics of conveying, the images have also re-
flected the dynamic behaviour of conveying processes
within a pipeline, thereby demonstrating the control
and operation potential of this imaging technique. Al-
though the electrical imaging technique is unable to
detect individual particles suspended in air, it can detect
solids deposition. By reflecting the extent of solids
settling in a pipe under a range of operationalconditions,
it has also been possible to ascertain an appropriate
location for sampling of a material stream downstream
of a pipe bend. Significantly, this study of particle
attrition has been implemented on a large-scale basis
in contrast to common laboratory-scale studies [12].
The effect of loading factor and air inlet conveying
velocity on the breakage of salt particles indicates that
attrition increases with low loading factor and high
conveying velocity.
As an aside from further exploration of regions within
the acceleration zone length, other possible areas of
application for capacitance tomography include inves-
tigation of the effect of multiple bends, sloping pipelines,
powder mixing and the discharge of aerated powders
from silos.
5. List of symbols
A cross-sectional area of pipe
Ao area occupied by a settled layer of particles
c celerity (wave velocity)
d mean particle diameter
dA, r mean sieve size
D pipe diameter
g acceleration due to gravity
LA acceleration zone length
LF solids loading factor
113
Ms mass flow rate of solids
n number of electrodes
N number of independent measurements
qr fraction of material retained between sieves of
mean size dA, r
RR reduction ratio
SW,A mass specific surface by sieving
T time period
average particle velocity
harmonic mean particle size of unbroken feed
material
x. harmonic mean size of conveyed material
Xm median particle size
Greek letters
(~sv,A surface-volume shape coefficient by sieving
Oa density of air
P~ density of solids
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Neu Engineering for
permitting installation of the sensing technique in their
'Neuphase' dense-phase conveying rig, the EPSRC for
the studentship of S.L. McKee and also to the Particle
Science and Technology (PARSAT) group at E.I. Du
Pont de Nemours & Co., USA, for support of S.L.
McKee and extensive use of facilities in the study of
dilute-phase conveying. Appreciation is also extended
to Professor G.E. Klinzing of the University of Pittsburgh
for his comments on the manuscript.
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