Journal of Behavioral Health and Medicine 2010, 1, 25-41 Number 1 (Spring 2010)

EVALUATING THE EFFICACY OF TAGTEACH AS A TRAINING

STRATEGY FOR TEACHING A GOLF SWING
Victoria A. Fogel, Timothy M. Weil, and Heather Burris
University of South Florida

TAGteach (Teaching with Acoustical Guidance) is a training methodology for

implementing operant principles. Although the TAGteach methodology was de-
rived from clicker training, TAGteach provides additional procedures along with
the audible stimulus to promote skill acquisition. This methodology is being
taught to the mainstream population to increase skill performance across many
domains (e.g. gymnastics, golf, dance, rock-climbing, parent training, academ-
ics, communication, vocational training, etc.); however, it has yet to be
scientifically evaluated. The purpose of this study was to evaluate TAGteach by
utilizing its methodology as an intervention for teaching a golf swing to a novice
golfer. The participant was a woman in her early thirties. Seven training ses-
sions were conducted utilizing TAGteach to train the components of a golf
swing. Results of a multiple baseline design showed that the TAGteach treat-
ment package resulted in skill acquisition in 4 out of 5 skill sets and effects were
observed to generalize to another golf club.
Keywords: Audible stimulus, Generalized conditioned reinforcer, Skills train-
ing, Coaching
_____________________
The U.S. Department of Health and Human an increase in physical activity.
Services (2007) reported that the more than Increasing performance in any sport can be
50% of U.S. adults do not engage in enough difficult if the coach does not possess the
physical activity to produce health benefits skills needed to breakdown the repertoire,
and 25 % of U.S. adults do not engage in assess the individual’s deficits, and utilize
physical activity at all. Improving or estab- effective teaching strategies to evoke desired
lishing a repertoire in a sport is one potential responses (e.g. shaping, chaining, positive
strategy that may lead to an increase in physi- reinforcement, specific feedback (verbal, vis-
cal activity among adults and children. The ual, audio), goal setting, public posting, and
ability to accurately perform a repertoire in self monitoring). Traditional coaching proce-
any given sport may serve as reinforcement dures often rely on providing the individual
and/or as an establishing operation for contin- with verbal instructions and modeling to teach
ual engagement in that sport thus producing or improve sport performance; however, the
___________ feedback usually focuses on what behaviors
Address Correspondence to: were performed incorrectly and instructions to
Victoria A. Fogel correct multiple behaviors at one given time
University of South Florida
Department of Child and Family Studies
(Allison & Ayllon, 1980; Anderson &
13301 Bruce B. Downs Blvd./MHC 2113A Kilpatrick, 2002). Although behavioral tech-
Tampa, Florida, 33612 niques might be utilized by coaches (e.g. goal
Email: victoriafogel@hotmail.com setting, video feedback, public posting, and
Requests for reprints should be sent to: feedback), without behavioral oversight, these
Timothy M. Weil
University of South Florida
___________
Department of Child and Family Studies The authors would like to thank Raymond Miltenber-
13301 Bruce B. Downs Blvd./MHC 2113A ger for helpful comments and feedback during the
Tampa, Florida, 33612 preparation of this manuscript.
Email: tweil@fmhi.usf.edu

25
26 VICTORIA A. FOGEL ET AL.
procedures might be implemented incorrectly
and consequentially seen as ineffective to the
mainstream population.
Many studies have proven the effectiveness
of implementing behavioral techniques to
improve sport performance and some have
also utilized coaches as the change agents
(e.g. Anderson & Kirkpatrick, 2002; Klado-
poulas & McConas, 2001; McKenzie &
Rushall, 1974; Scott, Scott, & Goldwater,
1997; Smith & Ward, 2006; Ziegler, 1994);
however, these studies do not provide sugges-
tions on how to disseminate these techniques
in a manner that is accessible to the main-
stream coaching population.
TAGteach (Teaching with Acoustical Guid-
ance) is a training package, designed for the
mainstream population, which utilizes several
behavioral principles and procedures. Some
of these include: chaining, task clarification,
positive reinforcement, and shaping to pro-
mote skill acquisition (see Method). This
training package evolved from clicker train-
ing, a method of animal training that employs
an audible sound to mark behavior as it oc-
curs. In the human arena, TAGteach has been
applied to areas such as dance, soccer, gym-
nastics, self-help, academics, classroom
management, and staff training (McKeon,
personal communication, April 2008).
The main component of the TAGteach
training is the tagger which is an audible
stimulus used to mark desirable behavior as it
occurs. The purpose of the tagger is to pro-
vide immediate feedback and reinforcement
in close temporal proximity to the occurrence
of behavior (TAGteach International, 2004).
This audible stimulus is said to serve as a
bridging stimulus between the emission of the
behavior and the delivery of the primary rein-
forcer (Pryor, 1999). In behavior analytic
terms, this audible stimulus may function as a
generalized conditioned reinforcer because it
is paired with either another generalized con-
ditioned reinforcer and/or unconditioned
reinforcer. For example, in clicker training,
the audible stimulus is usually followed by a
primary reinforcer (e.g. food); whereas in
TAGteach, the audible stimulus might be fol-
lowed by a primary reinforcer (e.g. food), a
conditioned reinforcer (e.g. token), and/or a
generalized conditioned reinforcer (e.g. feed-
back) (Skinner, 1951). The selection of the
stimulus that follows the tagger depends on
the individual’s history of reinforcement.
McCall and Burgin (2002) suggest that an
audible stimulus may enhance learning as
their results showed that horses, when trained
with the use of an acoustical marker, exhib-
ited a higher frequency of responses than
horses not trained with an acoustical marker.
However, in comparison to the widespread
adoption of clicker training in animal training
programs, there are few animal studies that
have evaluated the effectiveness of such a
device on skill acquisition (Ferguson &
Rosales-Ruiz, 2001; Langbein, Siebert, Nuer-
berg, & Maleuffel, 2007; McCall & Burgin,
2002). In addition, it is important to note that
only one article with human subjects could be
found in which an audible stimulus was util-
ized as a method of providing feedback to
improve performance. Scott and Scott (1997)
utilized a photoelectric beam that provided an
audible stimulus (beep) as a method of feed-
back for a pole-vaulter. When the pole-
vaulter broke through the photoelectric beam,
a beep sounded indicating that the desired
height was achieved. Although this study em-
ployed an audible stimulus, the stimulus was
used to provide feedback on the outcome of a
set of skills (i.e. desired height achieved) not
on specific behavior. Currently, there is no
research reported that has attempted to test the
efficacy of utilizing an audible stimulus as a
generalized conditioned reinforcer with hu-
man subjects on skill acquisition.
Although the tagger is the main component
of TAGteach, it is the methodology of using
the tagger which defines the difference be-
tween using a tagger alone and using the
methodology called TAGteach. The differ-
 TEACHING A GOLF SWING
ences between clicker training and the TAG-
teach method, employed in this study, are the
use of the following procedures: TAG phra-
seology, personalized tagpoint, debrief, and
the focus point (see Method). These proce-
dures currently lack empirical evaluation. In
addition to the procedures listed above, the
TAGteach treatment package also includes
behavioral interventions that have been
proven effective in increasing sport perform-
ance such as positive reinforcement, shaping,
instructions, feedback, modeling, and re-
hearsal (Allison & Ayllon, 1980, Andreson &
Kilpatrick, 2002, Kladopoulos & McComas,
2001; Scott & Scott, 1997).
The TAGteach treatment package is being
utilized by many individuals, across fields and
has yet to be scientifically evaluated. There-
fore, the purpose of this study was to take the
first step towards evaluating TAGteach by
utilizing this methodology to teach a complex
skill, a golf swing, to a novice golfer.
METHOD
Participant, Setting, & Apparatus
One novice golfer, Bailey, was chosen to
participate in this study. Bailey was a female
in her early thirties. An interview was con-
ducted to determine if Bailey had any
physical limitations as well as to obtain in-
formation on her past history with golf. Prior
to this study, she had no golf experience; Bai-
ley had never hit a golf ball. She reported no
physical limitations. Following the interview,
direct observation utilizing a camera with a
video function, was performed to assess her
golf swing.
The following materials were used in this
study: five task analyses of skills sets that
comprise a golf swing; a golf instruction
video by David Leadbetter (2005) which was
utilized to develop the five task analyses; a
tagger; practice logs; a ball path scoring sheet;
a chair; a paper plate; a 5 iron (training club);
a driver (generalization club); and a camera
with a video function.
27
All sessions were conducted at a public
driving range one time per week either on a
Saturday or Sunday and lasted from 1 hr 30
min to 2 hrs and 30 min. Duration of sessions
depended on the number of steps in each skill
set. A total of eight sessions were conducted.
Baseline measures were collected during the
first session, at the beginning of each session,
and ceased for each skill set once intervention
was implemented. Each training session was
dedicated to 1 of the five task analyses. The
seventh session was conducted to assess
maintenance (follow-up) and to re-teach a
component (key positions) in the last skill set.
Response Measurement and Interobserver
Agreement
The dependent variables were the percent-
age of steps performed of each of the five
skill sets which comprise a golf swing (grip,
address, alignment, pivot (lower body), and
arm positions). These skill sets were identi-
fied and defined through viewing a golf
instruction video by David Leadbetter (2005).
Each skill set was task analyzed so that the
component behaviors (called tagpoints) could
be easily identified and marked (tagged).
Exemplars of tagpoints for two skill set are
listed in the Appendix A for illustrative pur-
poses. Training involved the use of a 5 iron
golf club for all skill sets. Generalization data
were collected on a driver to evaluate transfer
of the skill to a longer club with a different
angle of clubhead.
Prior to and immediately following each
session, five pictures were taken of Bailey’s
grip as well as video footage for 5 golf swings
across both clubs. The pictures and video
footage from each session were scored inde-
pendently by the first and third author
utilizing the task analyzed checklists for each
skill set. Percentages of each skill set per-
formed during an attempt were calculated by
taking the number of steps performed inde-
pendently divided by the number of possible
steps. Due to technical error with the video-
28 VICTORIA A. FOGEL ET AL.
taping on session 3 (alignment) and session 5
(arm positions), no data from session 3 on
alignment were collected and only 3 attempts
for session 5 on arm positions were collected.
In addition to filming and scoring the skill
sets, the ball path and distance of the last 5
balls hit at the end of each session were
measured (this was not an exact measurement,
but an estimation of the product of the golf
swing). At the end of sessions 2-7, the re-
searcher instructed Bailey to hit 5 golf balls.
Ball path and distance were recorded by util-
izing a diagram of the driving range and field
markers (see Figure 1). These measures were
added during session two (alignment) and
therefore no baseline or reliability data were
collected.
Interobserver agreement was conducted by
an independent observer across all phases and
skill sets for 33% of the total data. Two ob-
servers independently viewed video from
each session scoring all 5 skill sets for each
swing recorded during the session. Task ana-
lyzed checklists were used to score each skill
set and each component was scored either as
occurring or not occurring. Agreement was
then calculated by taking the number of
agreements divided by the number of agree-
ments plus disagreements and then
multiplying by 100. Agreements averaged
93% across all observations, with a range of
80% to 100%.
Experimental Sequence and Design
A multiple baseline design across skill sets
with a follow-up component was used to
evaluate TAGteach. All sessions were con-
ducted by the first author. In addition to
participating in training sessions, Bailey was
asked to practice the previously learned skill
sets at least three times during the week and
to record her practice on logs provided to her
weekly (practice logs). Practice logs, which
consisted of practicing and recording the
practice of newly acquired skills outside of
the training session, were employed as a strat-
egy to promote response maintenance of
previously acquired skill sets (Ericsson, 2003;
Krampe & Ericsson, 1996).
Baseline. During the baseline condition for
each skill set, Bailey was asked to take swings
with both clubs prior to and following each
session. Baseline data were collected on each
of the 5 skill sets at the beginning of each
session until each skill set was taught, with
both the 5 iron and driver, via picture and
video footage. No feedback regarding her
performance was provided. Baseline data
were not collected on ball path and distance
as this analysis was added during the second
session.
TAGteach. During the intervention condi-
tion, Bailey systematically received training
on each skill set utilizing the TAGteach
methodology. The TAGteach methodology
used in this study consisted of the following
components which have been previously de-
fined by TAGteach International, 2004.
TAG phraseology- providing a specific
verbal discriminative stimulus, to avoid
any prior learning history that may inter-
fere with skill acquisition such as utilizing
instructions that have been used in the
past, prior to an incorrect response, and
then followed by a potential punisher (e.g.
“That’s not it.”) .In addition, the phraseol-
ogy is contained to one sentence and is
stated in terms of what is desired (e.g.
“The tagpoint is_”), not what should be
avoided; identifying events that meet cri-
teria, rather than identifying errors or
failures; instruction for one aspect of the
targeted behavior is given at a time, rather
than several; and breaking behavior down
into single units that can be easily identi-
fied when achieved (must be binary, yes
or no). This specific terminology is anec-
dotally reported to have a positive effect
on the acquisition rate of the desired be-
havior, but has yet to be scientifically
evaluated (McKeon, personal communica-
tion, April 2008).
 TEACHING A GOLF SWING
Tagger- a hand-held device emitting a
brief, distinct, uniform stimulus used to
mark behavior as it occurs (generalized
conditioned reinforcer).
Tagpoint- a single selected behavior that
is acoustically marked with a tag as it is
occurring. TAGteach only tags one spe-
cific behavior at a time. Once the tagpoint
is occurring consistently, the coach may
move on to the next target behavior or
successive approximation of the desired
behavior (shaping).
Tag- the sound produced by the tagger
which follows the occurrence of a tag-
point. The student is taught that a tag is
defined as “‘yes, that is correct,” and the
absence of a tag is defined as “try again.”
It is important to note that no vocal feed-
back is provided when the targeted
behavior does or does not occur.
BID (Break it Down) - dividing a behav-
ior into segments that are easily achieved
and reinforced. This is the process of de-
fining and choosing the tagpoint (task
analysis).
Three-try rule- a teaching procedure in
which a learner is quickly redirected in the
event they have not successfully produced
a tagpoint within three tries. At this junc-
ture, the teacher utilizes the BID method
to outline a new tagpoint within the
learner’s repertoire from which a new
shaping plan can be developed.
Value-Added tagpoint- a single tagpoint
that will produce more than one desired
behavior within the same behavioral chain
(behavioral cusp).
Debrief- a verbal interaction between the
teacher and the learner in which the tag
session is analyzed to determine the next
tagpoint(s). For example, after a specific
behavior has been tagged consistently, the
teacher might ask the learner if he/she is
ready to move on to the next tagpoint
and/or what tagpoint the learner would
like to work on next.
29
Focus point- an instruction provided in
terms of what is desired, but in which no
tag will be provided (i.e. “The focus point
is _”).
Personalized tagpoint- Once a behavior is
defined to the student, the student engages
in the behavior and provides their own
tact (label) for that behavior. The TAG
theory is that when the personalized tact is
used in the tagpoint, this will provide a
higher likelihood that the desired behavior
will occur in the future.
Point of success- a behavior that occurs in
the student’s repertoire, to start with or re-
turn to, in which the student is guaranteed
a tag. For example, if the student does not
exhibit the behavior within three trials, the
coach is to break this behavior down into
components to increase the probability of
completing the skill and to start with a be-
havior that is already occurring
consistently in the student’s repertoire.
Forward chaining- The system of building
a series of tagpoints from the start point to
the end point. Teaching starts with the
first behavior (tagpoint) in a chain of be-
haviors. Once the first tagpoint (behavior)
is acquired, training begins on the second
tagpoint. This process repeats itself until
all tagpoints are acquired.
Training. The first author received certifi-
cation and training in the methodology of
TAGteaching by attending, presenting, and
teaching at several TAGteach workshops over
the past three years. In addition, a checklist
outlining the format of the session was util-
ized and filled out every session to ensure that
each session was conducted in the same for-
mat (see Appendix C). No treatment integrity
was conducted by an independent observer.
Session Format. Each session was con-
ducted in the following format: Review
practice log from the previous week (with the
exception of the first session as there was
nothing to review); take five pictures of grip;
record video footage on five golf swings with
30 VICTORIA A. FOGEL ET AL.
both clubs, review over last session’s tag-
points to ensure skills maintained (e.g. the
instructor would ask Bailey to demonstrate
each tagpoint once, no training was conducted
at this time); conduct TAG session over new
skill set (utilizing the TAGteach components
discussed above); collect video footage of
five swings with both clubs; collect data on
ball path and distance for the last 5 balls hit;
and review new practice log (Figure 3).
Intervention was implemented in sessions 2-
6 with each session focusing on a different
skill set (i.e., session 2 trained grip, session 3
trained alignment, etc.). In session 2, the
trainer would physically prompt Bailey on the
proper hand and finger positions for a proper
grip; tag each component as it occurred; and,
given errors, back up to a previously demon-
strated behavior and provide a prompt for the
subsequent behavior in the chain. More spe-
cifically, when a component response was
performed correctly, it was ‘tagged’ with the
tagger. Once the component response oc-
curred six times independently, the researcher
would ask Bailey if she was ready to place the
step in the skill (Debrief). If Bailey agreed,
the response was placed back into the chain
(skill set) and tagged. If she was not ready,
additional repetitions were marked. When the
component response occurred six times in the
chain, the protocol above was followed, and
the next component response was taught until
all component responses were independently
occurring within the chain. The session was
completed after reviewing the practice log for
the week (see Appendix B). The practice log
consisted of a list of the steps for the grip and
Bailey was asked to practice each step three
times before the next session and to record
each practice.
Sessions 3-6 involved training on each of
the remaining skill sets and was conducted in
similar fashion to session 2. In each session,
the researcher described and demonstrated the
new skill set for Bailey and then used the tag-
ger to mark each correct demonstration of the
skills in the set. However, these sessions also
started with a review over the previous ses-
sion’s tagpoints (instructor asked the
participant to demonstrate each tagpoint once
to ensure maintenance of previously acquired
skill sets) and the practice logs not only in-
cluded the skill set taught during that session,
but all previously taught skill sets (see Ap-
pendix B).
Session 7 was conducted as a follow-up to
assess maintenance of all trained skill sets.
During this session it was observed that the
arm position skill set was not performed cor-
rectly and a decision was made to re-train the
arm position skill set by further breaking
down the skill set into more precise approxi-
mations.
Generalization. The intervention employed
the 5 iron during all training sessions. A sec-
ond club, the driver, was utilized in this study
to assess generalization effects across clubs.
No training occurred with the driver, data
were recorded on five swings before and after
each session to assess generalization effects.
Social Validity. A social validity form em-
bedded in the practice log was provided at the
end of each session and at the end of the study
to assess the acceptability of the use of this
training. The social validity form (Likert scale
1-6) was comprised of five statements regard-
ing the participant’s view of the intervention
(Appendix B). Questions pertained to the
acceptability of the TAGteach protocol and
perceived outcomes of her participation in the
training. In addition to the likert scale, an
opened-ended question survey was provided
at the end of the last training session (Appen-
dix D).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The use of the TAGteach treatment package
resulted in skill acquisition on four of the five
skill sets with the target golf club and general-
ized to the driver without training. In addition,
maintenance was observed for the
 TEACHING A GOLF SWING 31
BL T AG Ma inte n a nc e
10 0 %

90%
80%

70%

60%

50%
40%

30%

20%

10%
0%
G r ip
-1 0 %

10 0 %
90%
Percent of Task Analyses Completed Correctly for Each Skill Set

80%
70%

60%
50%

40%
30%

20%

10%
A d d r e ss
0% P o s itio n
-1 0 %

No
10 0 % Vid e o R e li
90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0% Alig n m e n t
-1 0 %

1 00 %
90 %
80 %
70 %

60 %
50 %
40 %
30 %
20 %
10 %

0% P ivo t
-1 0 %

R e ta u g h t
1 00 % On e C om p o n e n t
90 %
80 %
70 %
60 %
50 %
40 %
30 %
20 %
10 %
A rm
0% P o s itio n s
-1 0 %
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 21 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 26 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 31 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 36 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 7 48

A tte m p t s

Figure 1. Percentage of skill set (task analysis) performed on the 5 iron immediately following
and prior to new training sessions. Each data point represents one attempt.
 32 VICTORIA A. FOGEL ET AL.
BL TAG Maintenan c e
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0% G r ip
-10%

100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
Percent of Task Analyses Completed Correctly for Each Skill Set

40%
30%
20%
10%
A d d re s s
0% P o s itio n
-10%

N o Vid e o
100% R e li
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0% A lig n m e n t
-10%

100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0% P iv o t
-10%

R e ta u g h t
100%
One C om p onent
90%
80%

70%
60%
50%
40%

30%
20%

10% Ar m
0% P o s itio n
-1 0 %
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 12 13 14 1 5 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 3 4 35 36 37 3 8 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
A tt e m pts

Figure 2. Percentage of skill set (task analysis) performed on the driver immediately following and
prior to new training sessions on the 5 iron. These data support the notion that the skill set trained
with the 5 iron generalized to the driver. Each data point represents one attempt.
 TEACHING A GOLF SWING
target club (see Figures 1 and 2 for both clubs).
No effect was observed on the arm positions
skill set. Session 7 was conducted to assess
follow-up and to re-train one component of
the arm positions skill set (identified as a
value added tagpoint in that other behaviors
within the chain were likely to occur if this
behavior occurred). Although the results of
this additional training session yielded an
increasing trend, no substantial increase in the
arm positions skill set was observed with the
follow-up session. Unfortunately, we were
unable to continue sessions with Bailey.
25
Shape Code
Session 2:
Session 6:
Session 7:
Figure 3. Ball path and distance data from the last 5 swings in sessions 2-7
33
Ball path varied widely and was seen to be
inconsistent in session 2 (the first training
session). Nonetheless, ball path became more
consistently straight across the five training
sessions such that all shots landed in the cen-
ter during session 6. However, ball path
became more erratic in session 7 when a
component in the arm positions skill set was
re-taught (Figure 1). This is not surprising as
correcting inappropriate physical movements
by training on proper movements, especially
with foundational skill sets such as the arm
position, will cause performance to initially
200
150
100
50
34 VICTORIA A. FOGEL ET AL.
deteriorate (unlearning the inappropriate
movements) before improvement is seen
through consistent use of the proper move-
ments. No significant change in ball distance
occurred during the study (Figure 3). The
purpose of the study was to teach a straight
forward golf swing; ball path and distance
were added in session two to assess the con-
comitant effects of skill acquisition on these
two variables. Although no significant im-
provement was observed in ball distance,
there was an improvement in the mechanics
of the golf swing which resulted in straighter,
more consistent ball path [insert Figures
1here]. To clearly show the differences in
ball path and distance observed throughout
the study, data for sessions 3, 4, 5 were left
out of Figure 3.
TAGteach was reported to have been a so-
cially acceptable teaching method to Bailey.
She reported an average of 5.4 out of 6 on the
social validity surveys administered at the end
of each session. In addition, her written feed-
back to the open-ended questions on the last
practice was favorable of the teaching strat-
egy. For an example, Bailey wrote, “I was
given a clear description of what to do, and
when I did it…CLICK! I knew right away
that it was correct and could easily return to
that position. Now, when I pick up a club, my
hands go naturally through all the tagpoints
within seconds. I used to think of them each
time, individually, seeing the image of my
hand in the position, hearing the name of the
tagpoint in my mind, putting the two together
and moving into position. Now, my hands fly
into position on their own immediately- I
don’t even think about it.”
A limitation to this study is the failure to
produce skill acquisition with the arm posi-
tions skill set. TAGteach had little effect on
this skill set and we hypothesized this was not
acquired because of two factors: 1) the arm
positions are the arm movements to the upper
portion of the swing. The lower portion was
taught separately the week prior (pivot). Since
movements of the upper and lower body need
to occur in synchronization, it is quite possi-
ble that learning these skills separately
resulted in uncoordinated movements of the
newly acquired upper portion skills when put
together. For example, if Bailey engaged in
the newly acquired upper portion components
at the incorrect times, these responses may
have been incompatible with the previously
learned lower portion responses, therefore
resulting in no acquisition of the upper por-
tion when placed back into the natural swing.
In addition, this lack of synchronization may
also account for the erratic ball placement
observed following session 7. Future research,
should investigate the effects of providing
tagpoints that target synchronized movement
of the upper and lower body. 2) The arm posi-
tions were only comprised of seven
components, but each of these components
required more intensive training (more repeti-
tions, longer session, and greater response
effort) to obtain consistency in each compo-
nent, than did the other skill sets. It is
hypothesized that maintenance did not occur
due to the intensive session (fatigue). In addi-
tion, future research should evaluate the
effects of dividing the arm positions skill set
into two sessions: back swing and follow
through. Furthermore, the type of clubs util-
ized in this study (5 iron and driver) may have
affected performance. The results from this
study indicated similar effects across the two
different clubs used; however, it is possible
that different results may have been obtained
if another club was used. Future research
should evaluate the types of clubs utilized to
determine if results would vary across clubs.
Another limitation to this study is the ab-
sence of treatment integrity. Data on
treatment integrity were not collected due to
the potential reactivity that might have oc-
curred with the presence of another observer
and/or camera. However, the addition of
treatment integrity would have ensured that
the researcher conducted the methodology
 TEACHING A GOLF SWING
consistently across conditions and would have
validated the session checklists, thereby, also
providing data on the frequency of repetitions
for each step. It is recommended that future
research includes these measures.
Technical difficulties with equipment oc-
curred during sessions 3 and 5 and did not
allow for a true assessment of the effects of
TAGteach on skill acquisition for the align-
ment skill set. Maintenance data would
suggest that skill acquisition occurred as a
result of the TAGteach training; however,
without the data this cannot be validated.
Also, data collection on ball path and distance
was added to the study after session one and
therefore, there was no baseline data to com-
pare. Furthermore, to record an estimation of
the direction and placement of the ball after
each training session, distance markers on the
field and a paper diagram were utilized. It
would have been desirable to have accurate
measurement techniques such as a range
finder to evaluate both precise distance as
well as measurable variation for off-center
shots (actually measure angle of flight path or
simply the distance from the centerline to
where the ball comes to rest). The primary
dependent variables for this study were the
five skill sets that comprise a straight forward
golf swing. All sessions were conducted at a
public driving range and because the partici-
pant had no prior experience with golf, there
was no assessment of the effect of this train-
ing on the participant’s score in a game of
golf. However, it is important to assess the
product of these skill sets to ensure that train-
ing results in desirable outcomes in the
natural environment (e.g. a game of golf);
therefore, forthcoming studies should include
assessments of ball path, distance, and score
using accurate measurement instruments in
both the training and natural environment. To
avoid other factors affecting performance
(e.g. social disapproval), it is recommended
that the majority of training is conducted at a
driving range and generalization probes are
35
collected on a golf course unless interference
from others can be avoided (e.g. off times,
unpopular course, etc.).
The use of practice logs could be seen as a
potential confound as it was an additional
procedure added to the TAGteach methodol-
ogy. It could be suggested that results were
affected in some way by the practice logs;
however, data were collected immediately
following the TAGteach sessions to assess the
effects of TAGteach on skill acquisition.
Therefore, practice logs would not have af-
fected these data. The reason for the practice
logs was to promote maintenance of the skills
that were already acquired in the previous
TAGteach training sessions. The five skills
sets complete one behavioral chain and if Bai-
ley did not maintained a previously learned
skill set, it could have made it impossible for
her to demonstrate steps in future skill sets as
the discriminative stimulus needed for a fu-
ture step might be absent if the skill sets were
not maintained. Thus, in order to properly
assess the effects of TAGteach on each skill
set, it seemed necessary to add a component
that would increase the likelihood of mainte-
nance of previously acquired skills.
Future studies should evaluate the compo-
nents of TAGteach that have no empirical
support for improving performance. Specifi-
cally, the question regarding the effectiveness
of the audible stimulus (tagger) alone on skill
acquisition is of extreme interest. Descriptive
verbal praise has been shown to be an effec-
tive way to mark behavior as it occurs.
However, TAGteach would contend that the
delivery of verbal praise is not as immediate
as an audible stimulus and can be inconsistent
in tone and intonation. Skinner (1951) dis-
cusses that to optimize the effects of
reinforcement, the reinforcing stimulus should
be provided as soon as the behavior occurs
and delaying reinforcement, even by seconds,
could diminish the effects of reinforcement.
Therefore, it could be argued that descriptive
verbal praise, if functioning as a generalized
36 VICTORIA A. FOGEL ET AL.
conditioned reinforcer, may result in acciden-
tally reinforcing undesirable responses and/or
punishing desirable responses and ultimately,
slowing down the rate of skill acquisition.
Given that the tagger produces a consistent
sound, is provided almost immediately, and is
paired in such a way as to function as a gen-
eralized conditioned reinforcer, it would be
important to determine if a tagger produces
greater acquisition rates than verbal praise
alone. In addition to evaluating individual
components of the TAGteach methodology, it
would be beneficial to assess which compo-
nents or combinations of components were
response for the skill acquisition demon-
strated in this study.
A noteworthy observation is that, during
sessions, Bailey reported that the sound of the
camera (camera made a click noise when
starting and stopping) made her, “nervous.”
She stated that she thought she performed
better when she was not being recorded. No
data were collected to validate this concern.
However, it is quite possible that the sound of
the camera became a conditioned stimulus
that elicited autonomic arousal as a condi-
tioned response (i.e. anxiety). This may have
created an establishing operation for covert
verbal behavior which may have interfered
with her golf chain. It would be advantageous
for future research to investigate the potential
unintentional effects of equipment utilized in
a study on skill acquisition as well as the ef-
fects of verbal regulation on performance.
TAGteach is a methodology that utilizes
many behavioral procedures. This study
demonstrated that TAGteach implemented by
an individual that is trained in behavioral pro-
cedures and in the TAG methodology resulted
in skill acquisition across all but one skill set.
One participant was used in this study, a rep-
lication across many participants is necessary
to determine if results would generalized
across individuals. In addition, given that the
purpose of TAGteach is to provide an effec-
tive teaching methodology for the mainstream
population, it would be extremely important
to replicate this study with a coach (i.e. golf
instructor) that has only received training in
behavioral procedures via the TAGteach
methodology to see if results would be simi-
lar. Because of TAGteach’s already
widespread use and acceptance across many
different populations and genres, if future
research demonstrates that results are similar
when implemented by a coach, then addi-
tional research should be conducted to
determine if TAGteach isa way for behavioral
procedures to effectively reach the main-
stream population and also if training in
TAGteach results in more skillful coaches
(TAGteach International, 2009). In addition,
if TAGteach proves to produce more effective
coaches, then research should assess if effec-
tive coaching repertories increase the
likelihood that individuals participate and/or
continue participation in sports and further-
more, if participation results in
increasing/maintaining physical activity
among adults and youths.
Overall, results of this study suggest that
TAGteach is effective for training a fairly
complex skill set such as a golf swing. Given
that this is the first study to demonstrate the
effectiveness of TAGteach; more research is
needed to establish its value across a variety
of skills.
REFERENCES
Allison, M. G., & Ayllon, T. (1980). Behavioral coach-
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195-198.
Ericsson, K.A. (2003). Deliberate practice and the
acquisition and maintenance in expert per-
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Ferguson, D.L., & Rosales-Ruiz, J. (2001). Loading the
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McKeon, T. (2008). Personal communication. April,
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Pryor, K. (1999). Don’t shoot the dog: The new art of
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38 VICTORIA A. FOGEL ET AL.

Appendix A: Task Analysis of the Grip & Address Skill Sets

Skill Set: Grip Final Tagpoint: Grip

Description of Components Tagpoint Name (Named by Subject)

1. Arms hang in front Address
2. Grip with right hand (half inch from the end of the
club) and club will lie in palm across the top of the
palm (where the fingers meet the palm). Club should
form a slight angle in the hand. Start with laying the Angle
club on the palm and bottom of the pinkie and ending
on the index finger (a finger tip from the top of the
index finger)
3. Thumb on top of club, tip of thumb pointing down.
Check to ensure that the first two knuckles are visible Straight thumb
when looking down
4. Apply pressure with the last three fingers No TAG (cannot observe pressure)- practice
only
5. Then put the right hand on the club. Club should rest
in the fingers of the right hand (no palm). Overlap the
Pinkie
little finger with the first two fingers from the left
hand (it should rest on top)
6. Form a gap (half inch) between the index and middle
Space
finger in the right hand
7. Apply pressure with index finger No TAG (cannot observe pressure)- practice
only
8. Wrap right thumb around club Close the bun
9. Push down with right wrist onto the thumb of the left No TAG (cannot observe pressure)- practice
hand only
10. Bring club down Grip

Skill Set: Address Final Tagpoint: Address

1. Feet shoulder width apart Mountain Stance
2. Hold club straight out in front No TAG (teaching point that does not need to
become part of the chain)
3. Flex knees (weight is in the balls of the feet, should
Crouching dragon
only see half of foot)
4. Drop arms down until straight (hands hanging under
Draw bridge
chin)
5. Bend from hips and stick out rear Goofy
6. Arms relaxed. Check crouching dragon, and exhale to No TAG (teaching point that does not need to
lean forward. Shoulders are directly over the toes become part of the chain)

* The table above is an example of components and tagpoints for two out of the five skills
sets taught in this study. The table does not include tagpoints of components that were
broken down into more discrete behaviors during the actual session. Inclusion in this
manuscript is to facilitate understanding of the various behaviors identified and chained
together to create a skill set.
 TEACHING A GOLF SWING 39

Appendix B

Golf Practice Log

For the week of: ________________

Practice for the week: Steps to the Grip, Address, Alignment/Ball & Pivot 3x this week
Please record how many times you practice each step in the boxes below

M T W R F Sa Su
Steps
Grip:
1-7 Tag points
Address:
1-4 Tag points
Alignment:
Arrow
Parallel
Square
Draw Bridge
Grocery list
Ball position (where to stand
in relation to the ball):
Statue
Shift
Mountain Stance
Pivot:
Bump
Crank Back
Transfer
Switch
Turn Through
Face Forward
Stretch
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Slightly Agree Strongly
Disagree Agree Agree
I feel ready to move on to the 1 2 3 4 5 6
next component of the golf
swing
My swing is better after this 1 2 3 4 5 6
training
Learning the pivot via TAG is 1 2 3 4 5 6
contributing to my long term
golf goal
At home practice is beneficial 1 2 3 4 5 6
This intervention is likely to 1 2 3 4 5 6
achieve the target goal
40 VICTORIA A. FOGEL ET AL.

Appendix C

Date:
Behavior Analyst:
Session Scoring Sheet and Checklist
Review practice log

2 Grip shots
-driver
-5 iron

5 Swings- from the back (record set-up)

-driver
-5 iron

5 Swings- from the front (record set-up)

-driver
-5 iron

TAG review session

TAG session pivot

5 Swings-from back
-driver
-5 iron

5 Swings from front

-driver
-5 iron

Data on ball path and distance (5 balls)

Review new practice log

 TEACHING A GOLF SWING 41

Appendix D

TAGteach Golf Survey

Would you recommend this training to a friend?

Would you participate in a similar training in the future?

What components of this training were beneficial? How were they beneficial?

What did you enjoy about the training?

What did you like least about the training?

Other comments?

Strongly Disagree Slightly Slightly Agree Strongly

Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
I feel that I no longer need training 1 2 3 4 5 6
on the golf swing
My swing is better after this training 1 2 3 4 5 6
Learning the swing via TAG is 1 2 3 4 5 6
contributed to my long term golf
goal
At home practice is beneficial 1 2 3 4 5 6
This intervention achieved the target 1 2 3 4 5 6
goal