Definition :

Perception involves the way information from our

environment is
transformed via our senses (sight, hearing, touch,
smell and taste
into experience
Threshold for Perception :
Is where one stimulus has a lower or higher threshold
for perception than others .
Factors that Influence Perception :
1. Threshold of perception .
2. Past experience .
3. Current drive state .
4. Emotions .
5. Individual values .
6. Environment .
7. Cultural background .

Attention is the ability to select information in the

environment to attend and process. important part
of perception , learning and performance.

Attention can be voluntary , or involuntary our

sudden

At a basic level , we can distinguish between being

able to :
- Focus our attention on a particular stimulus
- Remove or disengage our attention from a
stimulus.
- Shift attention between one stimulus and
another.

LEARNING
Associative learning is how we learn the relationship
between two events that occur together.
Key learning processes include :
1.Classical condition .
2.Operant conditioning
3.Modeling
4.Imitation

Classical conditioning ( CC )
is a type of learning , Discovered by Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov . classical conditioning
process by which an organism learns a new
association between two paired stimuli; one of which
was initially neutral the other producing an
unconditional reflex .

Important role in placebo effects and may underpin

many of the effects of alternative therapies .
CC and psychological problems :
Classical condition can be involved the development
of psychological problem such as phobias .

Treatment of phobias :
Done through extinguish the learned association by
exposing the person to the object whist reducing or
minimizing the conditioned response .

through :

Flooding ;
therefore involves exposing a person to the feared
stimulus for a long enough time so that their anxiety
reduces and the association between the stimulus
and anxiety is extinguished .
systematic desensitisation ;
is more gradual procedure where people are taught
relaxation techniques and gradually exposed to
stronger versions of feared object or situation .
However, it only treats the symptoms of the
disorder, not the underlying cause

OPERANT CONDITIONING
Operant conditioning
Is learning from the consequences of our
behaviours and reinforcement.
In operant conditioning behaviours is shaped by
whether it results in positive reinforcement or
negative reinforcement

.
Positive reinforcement
1- primary reinforcers : are those needed for
survival, such as water, food, sleep and sex .
2- secondary reinforcers : are those that acquire
value through experience , such as money, praise,
and attention

Patterns of reinforcement
Peoples behaviours can be shaped by different
patterns of reinforcement :
1- Fixed ratio : behaviours is always rewarded after a
fixed number of times (e.g. bonuses when you reach
a target).
2- Variable ratio : behaviours is usually rewarded
after an average number of times but this varies
(e.g. gambling)

Negative reinforcement is reduces behaviours in two

ways :
1- The first is if the behaviours results in the removal
of an aversive stimulus .

2- the second form is punishment where the

behaviours results in aversive consequences.

Modeling and imitation

( bandura et al.1961 )
Positive reinforcement is an effective way to
encourage adaptive behavior in patients Modelling
and imitation can also influence behavior ,

MEMORY
ORGANIZATION MEMORY
Learning and memory involve three stages of
encoding, storage and retrieval.

Encoding takes place when the stimuli are

presented and memory traces are created.
Storage involves memory stores where information
is organized and stored.
Retrieval involves how we access and recall stored
information.
Memory problems can occur at any of these stages

SHORT-TERM MEMORY
The short-term or working memory is used to
manipulate and temporary hold incoming
information.,with a limited capacity.

LONG-TERM MEMORY
The long-term memory holds information for future
retrieval and is dependent upon the formation of
associations between nodes when information is
active in our working memory.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MEMORY
 Categorization: information is stored in semantic
Spacing and chunking: chunking information
increases the amount that can be learned and
spacing out learning over time improves memory and
retrieval

Distinctiveness: distinctive or unique information is

more likely to be remembered

SOCRATES examination for pain:

Site = Where is the pain?
Onset = When did the pain start, was the onset
sudden or gradual?
Character = What is the pain like?
Radiation = Does the pain radiate anywhere
else?
Association = any other signs or symptoms
associated with the pain?
Time course = does the pain have a pattern
overtime?
Exacerbating/relieving factors = does anything
help the pain? Make it worse?
Severity = how bad is the pain?
Summary :
 Learning and memory involve three stage :
encoding, Storage, and retrieval.
The short-term or working memory manipulates
and temporally holds incoming information.
The long-term memory stores hold information
for future retrieval.
Summary :
Memory is improve through
meaningful encoding, structure retrieval. , and
practice.