Prelims 2017

in 100
Everything for Prelims
Days

Day 18

NOTE: To get All India Ranking (AIR)

of Free Test, Login at:

www.iasscore.in
 Geography www.iasscore.in

URBANIZATION
Urbanization and economic development have a strong positive correlation which is indicated by the fact
that a country with a high per capita income is also likely to have a high degree of urbanization. The
economic advantages provided by urban areas are many.
Generally, the industrial, commercial and service sectors tend to concentrate in and around urban areas.
These areas provide a larger concentration of material, labour, infrastructure and services related inputs
on the one hand and also the market in the form of consumers, on the other. But the situation is different
for India.

E
Urbanization in India has become an important and irreversible process, and an important determinant of
national economic growth and poverty reduction.

OR
The process of urbanization is characterized by a dramatic increase in the number of large cities, although
India may be said to be in the midst of transition from a predominantly rural to a quasi urban society.
In Census of India, 2011 two types of town were identified:
a) Statutory towns: All places with a municipality, corporation, Cantonment board or notified town area
SC
committee, etc. so declared by state law.
b) Census towns: Places which satisfy following criteria:-
i) A minimum population of 5000;
ii) Atleast 75% of male working population engaged in non agricultural pursuits; and
GS

iii) A density of population of atleast 400 persons per sq km.

At current rate of growth, urban population in India will reach a staggering total of 575 million by 2030
A.D. According to Census 2011, as many as 52 Cities in India had population of a million plus. Over
successive decades, the number of urban areas and towns has increased.
BASIC FEATURE OF URBANIZATION IN INDIA
a) Lopsided urbanization induces growth of class I cities.
b) Urbanization occurs without industrialization and strong economic base.
c) Urbanization is mainly a product of demographic explosion and poverty induced rural - urban migration.
d) Rapid urbanization leads to massive growth of slum followed by misery, poverty, unemployment,
exploitation, inequalities, degradation in the quality of urban life.
e) Urbanization occurs not due to urban pull but due to rural push.
f) Poor quality of rural-urban migration leads to poor quality of urbanization.
g) Distress migration initiates urban decay.
Notes

1
 www.iasscore.in

ISSUES RELATED TO URBANIZATION IN INDIA

1. Rural Urban Migration
Migration and urbanization are direct manifestations of the process of economic development in
space, particularly in the contemporary phase of globalization.
A large part of migration and urbanization in India have been linked to:
a) Stagnation and volatility of agriculture.
b) Lack of sectoral diversification within agrarian economy.
c) Low growth rates in agricultural production and income.
d) Unstable and disparate across regions over the past several decades.
e) A low rate of infrastructural investment in public sector in the period of structural adjustment.
This has led to out-migration from several backward rural areas, most of the migrants being absorbed
within urban informal economy.

E
But the capacity of the cities and towns to assimilate the migrants by providing employment, access
to land, basic amenities etc. are limited.
OR
2. Emergence of Slums
Due to lack of housing, in every city almost fifty percent population lives in slums.Slums have few
characteristics in common:
SC

a) Poor structural quality and durability of housing

b) Insufficient living areas (more than three people sharing a room)
c) Lack of secure tenure
d) Poor access to water
GS

According to the Census data, 1.37 crore households, or 17.4% of urban Indian households lived in a slum in
2011. The new data is difficult to compare with previous years, because the 2011 Census covers all 4,041
statutory towns in India, as compared to 2001 when only statutory towns with population over 20,000 were
covered.
Among all million-plus cities, Vishakhapatnam has the highest proportion of slums (44.1% of households).
However, Census authorities were treating with skepticism the unexplained spurt in slum populations across
cities in Andhra Pradesh.
There are various reasons for creation of slums of which the most important are as follows:
a) Increased urbanization leading to pressure on the available land and infrastructure, especially for the poor.
b) Natural increase in the population of urban poor and migration from rural areas and small towns to larger
cities.
c) Inappropriate system of urban planning which does not provide adequate space for the urban poor in the
City Master Plans.
d) Sky-rocketing land prices due to increasing demand for land and constraints on supply of land.
Notes

2
 www.iasscore.in

e) Absence of programmes of affordable housing for the urban poor in most States.
f) Lack of availability of credit for low income housing.
g) Increasing cost of construction.
3. Urban Transport
India is transiting from a developing to developed country with high pace of economic development.
Urbanization is too increasing at high pace as mega cities, cities and towns are providing better
economic opportunities.
The major objective of urban transport initiative is to provide efficient and affordable public transport.
Urban transport problems
a) Traffic injuries and fatalities
Causes can be poor conditions of roads, burgeoning fleet of motor vehicles, unsafe drinking behavior, overcrowding

E
of buses, autos etc.
b) Environmental pollution
Both noise and air pollution is occurring on a major level.
c) Roadway congestion
OR
The most visible immediate transport problem plaguing Indian cities on a daily basis.
SC
d) Lack of funding
The huge amount of funding required to increase more number of buses, provide improved technology etc is
missing.
4. Waste Disposal
GS

Removing garbage, cleaning drains and unclogging sewers are the main jobs of municipalities and
municipal corporations in Indian cities.
In most cities, the municipal service for the collection and transportation of urban solid wastes
comprises three separate functions as follows: sweeping, curbside and domestic waste collection from
garbage bins; Transportation by handcarts to large or road collection points, which may be open
dumps and Transportation by vehicles to the disposal sites.
The weaknesses of the existing system of solid waste management are:
a) the professional and managerial capacities of the municipal bodies are limited and this is more
pronounced in case of smaller cities;
b) no charges are levied for garbage collection or disposal, nor are there any incentives for reducing
garbage generation or recycling waste;
c) no separate costing is done for this function;
d) indiscriminate use of plastic bags and goods;
e) recourse to modern technology is rare and;
f) segregation of garbage at the source is not enforced.
Notes

3
 www.iasscore.in

Thus, Indian waste management system is starved of resources to tackle the increasing demands associated
with growing urbanisation. Due to budgetary constraints, inadequate equipment and poor planning, house-
to-house collection is very rare in India, particularly in certain low-income areas where waste is not
collected at all. It is estimated that upto 30-40 per cent of disposed solid wastes are left uncollected.
5. Water Supply, Drainage and Sanitation
According to the 2011 Census, amenities available with the households has been listed as follows:
87% of households are using tap, tube well, hand pump and covered well as the main source of
drinking water while 43.5 percent use tap water. Only 47% of households have source of water within
the premises while 36% of households have to fetch water from a source located within 500 m in
rural areas/100 m in urban areas and 17% still fetch drinking water from a source located more than
500 m away in rural areas or 100 m in urban area.
Thus, government has come out with Swatchch Bharat Mission which would attempt to banish open
defecation within a decade.
Further a new technology Bio-toilets have been introduced which is suitable for any area/ application
in India.

E
6. Electronic Waste
OR
E-waste consists of all waste from electronic and electrical appliances which have reached their end-
of- life period or are no longer fit for their original intended use and are destined for recovery, recycling
or disposal.
It includes computer and its accessories monitors, printers, keyboards, central processing units;
typewriters, mobile phones and chargers, remotes, compact discs, headphones, batteries, LCD/Plasma
SC

TVs, air conditioners, refrigerators and other household appliances.

The main sources of electronic waste in India are the government, public and private (industrial)
sectors, which account for almost 70 per cent of total waste generation. The contribution of individual
households is relatively small at about 15 per cent; the rest being contributed by manufacturers.
Though individual households are not large contributors to waste generated by computers, they
consume large quantities of consumer durables and are, therefore, potential creators of waste.
GS

In India E-waste management system in India most of the activities right from the collection,
transportation, segregation, dismantling, etc., are done by unorganized sectors manually. Being a rich
source of reusable and precious material, E-waste is also agood source of revenue generation for
many people in India.
The big portion (rag pickers) of the Indian population earn their livelihood by collecting and selling
the inorganic waste-like plastics, polythene bags, glass bottles, cardboards, paper, other ferrous metals,
etc. In absence of the adequate technologies and equipment, most of the techniques used for the
recycling/treatments of E-waste are very raw and dangerous.
Improper recycling and disposal operations found in different cities of India often involve the open
burning of plastic waste, exposure to toxic solders, dumping ofacids, and widespread general dumping.
7. Urban Poverty
Urban poverty is a major challenge before the urban managers and administrators of the present time.
Though the anti-poverty strategy comprising of a wide range of poverty alleviation and employment
generating programmes has been implemented but results show that the situation is grim. Migration
alone accounts for about 40 per cent of the growth in urban population, converting the rural poverty
into urban one.
Notes

4
 www.iasscore.in

Thus with the objective of putting in place a uniform criterion to identify the BPL households in urban
areas so that objectivity and transparency is ensured in delivery of benefits to the target groups, the
Planning Commission constituted an Expert Group under the Chairmanship of Professor S.R. Hashim.
8. Haphazard Growth of Real Estate Sector
The real estate sector is a critical sector of India economy. It has a huge multiplier effect on the
economy and therefore, is a big driver of economic growth. It is the second-largest employment-
generating sector after agriculture. Growing at a rate of about 20% per annum and this sector has been
contributing about 5-6% to Indias GDP. Not only does it generate a high level of direct employment,
but it also stimulates the demand in over 250 ancillary industries such as cement, steel, paint, brick,
building materials, consumer durables and so on.
The Real Estate (Regulation and Development) Bill, 2013 has been introduced to curb the issues
related to unsustainable urban real estate sector. It aims to provide a uniform regulatory environment
in the real estate sector which is laced with black money, corruption, red tapism, land mafias and
corruption.

E
GOI INITIATIVES RELATED TO URBAN DEVELOPMENT
National Urban Transport Policy.

OR
The National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP) was formulated in 2006, to integrate land use and
transport planning in cities, and to bring about comprehensive improvements in urban infrastructure.
While urban transport is a State responsibility under the Constitution, there is a need to guide State-
level action plans, particularly linked to land use planning, in order for transport plans to best support
SC
the key social and economic activities of its resident.
Key objectives:
a) Incorporate urban transport as an important parameter in urban planning
b) Bring about more equitable allocation of road space with people rather than vehicles as the main
GS

focus
c) Encourage greater use of public transport and non-motorized modes of transport
Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation and Smart Cities Mission
The Smart Cities Mission and the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation of 500
cities (AMRUT) with outlays of Rs.48,000 crore and Rs.50,000 crore respectively has been launched
by government of India.
Under the Smart Cities Mission, each selected city would get central assistance of Rs.100 crore per
year for five years.
Smart City aspirants will be selected through a City Challenge Competition intended to link financing
with the ability of the cities to perform to achieve the mission objectives. Each state will shortlist
a certain number of smart city aspirants as per the norms to be indicated and they will prepare smart
city proposals for further evaluation for extending Central support.
This Mission of building 100 smart cities intends to promote adoption of smart solutions for efficient
use of available assets, resources and infrastructure with the objective of enhancing the quality of
urban life and providing a clean and sustainable environment. Special emphasis will be given to
participation of citizens in prioritizing and planning urban interventions.
Notes

5
 www.iasscore.in

It will be implemented through area based approach consisting of retrofitting, redevelopment, pan-
city initiatives and development of new cities.
Under smart cities initiative, focus will be on core infrastructure services like: Adequate and clean
Water supply, Sanitation and Solid Waste Management, Efficient Urban Mobility and Public
Transportation, Affordable housing for the poor, power supply, robust IT connectivity, Governance,
especially e-governance and citizen participation, safety and security of citizens, health and education
and sustainable urban environment.
Smart City Action Plans will be implemented by Special Purpose Vehicles(SPV) to be created for each
city and state governments will ensure steady stream of resources for SPVs.
Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) has a wider reach in terms of
the number of cities covered and therefore the funds available for each city would be proportionately
less. The mission takes a project approach in working towards improving existing basic infrastructure
services like extending clean drinking water supply, improving sewerage networks, developing septage
management, laying of storm water drains, improving public transport services and creating green
public spaces like parks etc, with special focus on creating healthy open spaces for children.

E
Housing for All by 2022 Mission
Around one third of the human population in urban as well as rural areas in the country are deprived
OR
of adequate housing facilities. Out of the estimated 200 million families in India, approximately 65
to 70 million families do not have adequate housing facilities. They are not able to procure a house
for want of financial resources. The situation of the Scheduled Tribes, Scheduled Castes and the other
socially and economically backward class families is worst affected by poor housing conditions.
Hence government has launched Housing for All Scheme.
SC

Salient Features of the Programme are:

a) Central grant of Rs. one lakh per house, on an average, will be available under the Slum
Rehabilitation Programme.
b) A State Government would have flexibility in deploying this slum rehabilitation grant to any
GS

slum rehabilitation project taken for development using land as a resource for providing houses
to slum dwellers.
c) State Government or their parastatals like Housing Boards can take up project of affordable
housing to avail the Central Government grant.
d) The scheme will be implemented as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme except the credit linked
subsidy component, which will be implemented as a Central Sector Scheme.
e) The Mission also prescribes certain mandatory reforms for easing up the urban land market for
housing, to make adequate urban land available for affordable housing. Houses constructed under
the mission would be allotted in the name of the female head of the households or in the joint
name of the male head of the household and his wife.
f) The scheme will cover the entire urban area consisting of 4041 statutory towns with initial focus
on 500 Class I cities and it will be implemented in three phases as follows, viz. Phase-I (April
2015 - March 2017) to cover 100 Cities to be selected from States/UTs as per their willingness;
Phase - II (April 2017 - March 2019) to cover additional 200 Cities and Phase- III (April 2019
- March 2022) to cover all other remaining cities. However, there will be flexibility in covering
number of cities in various phases.
Notes

6
 Geography www.iasscore.in

HUMAN MIGRATION
Migration (human) is the movement of people from one place in the world to another for the purpose
of taking up permanent or semipermanent residence, usually across a political boundary. An example of
semipermanent residence would be the seasonal movements of migrant farm laborers. People can either
choose to move (voluntary migration) or be forced to move (involuntary migration).
Migrations have occurred throughout human history, beginning with the movements of the first human
groups from their origins in East Africa to their current location in the world.
Migration occurs at a variety of scales:

E
a. Intercontinental (between continents),
b. Intracontinental (between countries on a given continent), and

c. Interregional (within countries).
OR
One of the most significant migration patterns has been rural to urban migrationthe movement of
people from the countryside to cities in search of opportunities.
Types of migration
SC

a) Internal Migration: Moving to a new home within a state, country, or continent.

b) External Migration: Moving to a new home in a different state, country, or continent.
c) Emigration: Leaving one country to move to another (e.g., the Pilgrims emigrated from England).
d) Immigration: Moving into a new country (e.g., the Pilgrims immigrated to America).
GS

e) Population Transfer: When a government forces a large group of people out of a region, usually based
on ethnicity or religion. This is also known as an involuntary or forced migration.
f) Impelled Migration (also called reluctant or imposed migration): Individuals are not forced out of
their country, but leave because of unfavorable situations such as warfare, political problems, or religious
persecution.
g) Step Migration: A series of shorter, less extreme migrations from a persons place of origin to final
destinationsuch as moving from a farm, to a village, to a town, and finally to a city.
h) Chain Migration: A series of migrations within a family or defined group of people. A chain migration
often begins with one family member who sends money to bring other family members to the new
location. Chain migration results in migration fieldsthe clustering of people from a specific region into
certain neighborhoods or small towns.
i) Return Migration: The voluntary movements of immigrants back to their place of origin.
This is also known as circular migration.
j) Seasonal Migration: The process of moving for a period of time in response to labor or climate conditions
Notes

7
 www.iasscore.in

PULL AND PUSH FACTORS OF MIGRATION

There are a number of reasons why people choose to migrate to another country.
Globalisation has increased the demand for workers from other countries in order to sustain national economies.
Known as economic migrants, these individuals are generally from impoverished developing countries migrating
to obtain sufficient income for survival.This income is usually sent home to family members in the form
ofremittancesand has become an economic staple in a number of developing countries. People also move or
are forced to move as a result of conflict, human rights violations, violence, or to escape persecution.
Another reason people move is to gain access to opportunities and services or to escape extreme weather. This
type of movement is usually from rural to urban areas and is known as internal migration.Socio-cultural
and geo-historical factors also play a major role. In North Africa, for example, being an immigrant in Europe
is considered a sign of social prestige. Moreover, there are many countries which were former European
colonies. This means that many have relatives that live legally in Europe, who often constitute an important
help for immigrants who have just arrived in a European country. Relatives might help with job research and
accommodation. The geographical proximity of Africa to Europe and the long historical ties between Northern
and Southern Mediterranean countries also prompt many to migrate.

E
Push factors are those that force the individual to move voluntarily, are in many cases, they are forced because
the individual risk something if they stay. Push factor may include conflict, drought, famine-natural disaster,
OR
war, few jobs or extreme religious activity.
Poor economic activity and lack of job opportunities are also strong push factors for migration. Other strong
push factors include race and discriminating cultures, political intolerance and persecution of people who
question the status quo.
Pull factors are those factors in the destination country that attract the individual or group to leave their home.
SC

Those factors are known as place utility, which is the desirability of a place that attracts people. Better
economic opportunities, more jobs, and
the promise of a better life often pull
people into new locations. Sometimes
individual haves ideas and perception
about places that are not necessarily
GS

correct, but are strong pull factors for

that individual. As people grow older
and retire, many look for places with
warm weather, peaceful and comfortable
locations to spend their retirement after
a lifetime of hard work and savings. Such
ideal places are pull factors too.
Very often, people consider and prefer
opportunities closer to their location than
similar opportunities closer to their
location than similar opportunities farther
away. In the same vein, people often like
t move to places with better cultural,
political, climatic and general terrain in
closer locations than locations farther
away. It is rare to find people move over
very long distances to settle in places that
they have little knowledge of.
Notes

8
 www.iasscore.in

Impacts of migration
Human migration affects population patterns and characteristics, social and cultural patterns and processes,
economies, and physical environments. As people move, their cultural traits and ideas diffuse along with them,
creating and modifying cultural landscapes.
a) Diffusion: The process through which certain characteristics (e.g., cultural traits, ideas, disease) spread over
space and through time.
b) Relocation Diffusion: Ideas, cultural traits, etc. that move with people from one place to another and do
not remain in the point of origin.
c) Expansion Diffusion: Ideas, cultural traits, etc., that move with people from one place to another but are
not lost at the point of origin, such as language.
d) Cultural markers: Structures or artifacts (e.g., buildings, spiritual places, architectural styles, signs, etc.)
that reflect the cultures and histories of those who constructed or occupy them.

E
Measuring migration
In-migration: people moving into one place from another place within a nation (internal migration).

OR
Out-migration: people moving out of one place to another place within a nation (internal migration).
Gross migration: total number of in-migrants and out-migrants (internal migration).
Net internal migration: the difference between in-migration and out-migration.
SC
Movers from abroad: people coming into a nation from another country or part of the world.
Net migration: the difference between net internal migration and movers from abroad.
GS
Notes

9
 Indian Polity www.iasscore.in

JUDICIARY TERMS
A. Judicial Activism
Judiciary plays an assertive role to force the other organs of the state to discharge their constitutional
duties towards public
Judicial activism basically has been forced upon the judiciary by insensitive & unresponsive
administration that disregards the interest of the people, to ensure that administration of country does
not suffer because of the negligence on the part of executive & the legislature
Concept of Judicial activism emerged when SC started playing assertive role by giving some landmark

E
judgments & issued some stern directives to legislature & executives concerned
Phenomenon of judicial activism is welcome step only in short run & if it is carried out for long, it

B.
OR
may destroy the very essence of separation of powers , with the judiciary assuming greater powers
compared to legislature & executive in the absence of proper checks & balance mechanism.
Public interest litigation (PIL) Appellate Jurisdiction
Right to entertain PIL cases lies with Supreme Court and High Court only.
SC
A tool of judiciary to enforce legal & constitutional obligations towards executives & legislatures in
interest of public at large.
Basic aim of PIL is to render justice & help in promotion of well-being of public interest (not of
individuals interest -In individuals case, writ petition for FR).
Usually, relief provided by court is in form of directions or order of state including compensation to
GS

affected parties.
A PIL may also be introduced in a court of law by the court itself (suo motu), rather than the
aggrieved party or another third party. It is a result of judicial activism, not mentioned in constitution
or any law enacted by Parliament.
C. Judicial Review
Both Supreme Court & High Court enjoys the power of judicial review in India
It is based on the concept of supremacy of the constitution
Judicial Review means the power of the Supreme Court to examine the constitutionality of any law;
so, if the Court arrives at the conclusion that the aforesaid law is inconsistent with the provisions of
the Constitution, such a law is declared as unconstitutional and inapplicable.
The Supreme Court (and the High Courts) has the power to check the Constitutional validity of any
legislation or action of the executive, when it is challenged before them. This power is called judicial
review.
For any law or executive order to be valid, it must confirm to the provisions of the constitution.
Notes

1
 www.iasscore.in

The chief instrument through which judicial activism has come into existence in India is Public
Interest Litigation (PIL) or Social Action Litigation (SAL)
When a case is filed not by aggrieved people, but rather on their behalf, someone else, as it involves
a consideration of an issue of public interest, hence, it is known as Public Interest Litigation (PIL)
or Social Action Litigation (SAL).
D. Procedure established by law (India) v/s Due process of Law (US)
Procedure established by law:
The court examines a law only from the point of view of legislatures competence
Court sees that the prescribed procedure has been followed by the executive
Court examines only procedural aspect not the motive behind the law or reason behind it, hence can
not pronounce it unconstitutional unless the law is passed without the authorities competence
Due process of Law:

E
Court can examine the law, not only from the point of view of legislatures competence, but also from
the aspect of motive behind the law
OR
Though constitution of India follows procedure established by the law, but in case of Maneka Gandhi
case, SC interpreted Article 21 to include the expression of due process of law in it.
Hence, Article 21 protects an individual both against the legislature & executives action. However, it does
not mean that due process of law has come in form under judicial review of India.
SC

E. Prominent Doctrines associated with Supreme Court

1. Doctrine of Severability:
While interpreting an impugned law, court has to see whether the law as a whole or some part
of it is unconstitutional.
GS

Court can declare impugned law as a whole or some part of it unconstitutional as the case may
be.
2. Doctrine of Progressive Interpretation:
Court interpret the provisions of the constitution in the light of social, economic & legal conditions
prevailing at that point of time.
3. Doctrine of Prospective Over-ruling:
Judicial invalidation or new view of interpretation of law will not affect the past transactions or
vested rights, but will be effective with regards to future transactions only.
4. Doctrine of Empirical Adjudication:
While exercising the power of judicial review, courts are not supposed to deal with hypothetical
cases; therefore it is essential that the matter bought before the court must be of concrete nature.
Court seeks to confine its decisions, as far as possible; within the narrow limits of controversy
b/w the parties concerned in particular case.
Notes

2
 www.iasscore.in

F. Presumption in favor of Constitutionality:

Whenever the constitutional validity of a law is challenged, court will not hold it ultra vires until the
invalidity is clear from all doubts which means there is always presumption by the court, in favour
of laws validity
However, despite the extensive power of judicial review enjoyed by SC & HC, scope of judicial
review in India is limited, as while interpreting a law, SC will not self-legislate
SC is not supposed to question the reasonableness of any law except where the constitution has
expressly authorised the court to exercise its power.
G. Lok Adalat (Peoples court)
Legal services authority act, 1987 gave Statuary status to Lok Adalats
Alternative dispute resolution system developed in India Works under NALSA
To provide speedy & economic justice to weaker sections of the society

E
Focus in Lok Adalat is on compromise, When no comprise is reached, matter goes back to the court



OR
No advocate, No witnesses examined, No court fee is levied.
Resolves cases which have not yet gone to courts or are pending in courts
Established at Central, state & district level - have their own funds
SC
Powers of LOK ADALATs:
The summoning and enforcing the attendance of any witness and examining him on oath The discovery and
production of any document The reception of evidence on affidavits The requisitioning on any public record
of document or copy of such record or document from any court or office and Such other matters as may
be prescribe. All the proceedings before LOK ADALATs shall be deemed judicial civil court. It can specify
its own procedure for the determination of any dispute coming before it.
GS

A Lok Adalat has the jurisdiction to settle, by way of effecting compromise between the parties. Any
matter which may be pending before any court, as well as matters at pre-litigative stage, that is, disputes
which have not yet been formally instituted in any Court of Law.
Such matters may be civil or criminal in nature, but any matter relating to an offence not compoundable
under any law cannot be decided by the Lok Adalat even if the parties involved therein agree to settle
the same.
Lok Adalats can take recognisance of matters involving not only those persons who are entitled to avail
free legal services but of all other persons also, be they women, men, or children and even institutions.
Any civil dispute with a public utility service and where the value of the property in dispute does not
exceed l0-lakh: or any criminal dispute which does not involve an offence not compoundable under any
law, can be taken up in the Permanent Lok Adalat. For eg. - transport services for the carriage of
passengers or goods by air, road or water, postal, telegraph or telephone services; insurance service, as also
services in hospital or dispensary, supply of power, light or water to the public, besides systems of public
conservancy or sanitation.
Lok Adalats have been held and therein regularly held in India end millions of cases have been settled,
and interestingly majority of these cases are motor accident claim cases.
Notes

3
 www.iasscore.in

An important feature of this amendment is that after an application is made to the Permanent Lok Adalat,
no party to that application can invoke jurisdiction of any court in the same dispute.
Such disputes involving public utility services shall be attempted to be settled by the Permanent Lok
Adalat by way of conciliation and failing that, on merit, and in doing so the Permanent Lok Adalat shall
be guided by the principles of natural justice, objectivity, fair play, equity and other principles of justice
without being bound by the Code of Civil Procedure and the Indian Evidence Act.
H. Nyaya Panchayats
The Nyaya Panchyats are the judicial bodies in village, which provide speedy and inexpensive justice
on all petty civil suits and minor offences within their domain of operations. Usually their domain
of jurisdiction is limited to four to five villages only-They can impose only monetary fines at the most
as punishments and are barred from the power to award imprisonment sentences (except in Bihar).
I. Family courts
The Family Courts Act (1984) aims at promoting conciliation in and securing speedy settlement of
disputes relating to marriage, family affairs and related matters.

E
It envisages that courts shall be set up in a city or town with a population of more than 10 lakh and
at such other places as the state government may deem necessary. Family courts have been set up
OR
in Andhra Pradesh (7), Assam (1), Bihar (2) Karnataka (8), Kerala (7), Maharashtra (16), Manipur
(1), Orissa (2), Puducherry (1), Rajasthan (6), Sikkim (l),Tamil Nadu (6), Uttar Pradesh (16) and West
Bengal (1).
The Governments of Gujarat (1) and Punjab (2) have also decided to establish Family Courts.
Besides, necessary notifications extending the jurisdiction of the Family Courts, Act have also been
SC

issued by the Government of India in respect of Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and the Union Territory
of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Revenue courts
Land Revenue - Important source of income for government
GS

Since India is an agrarian country, therefore disputes relating to land revenue are quite common.
Each district has separate courts for its land revenue system
Every dispute relating to land revenue 1st comes before Tehsildar
An appeal against decision of Tehsildar court lies in court of Deputy commissioner /Collector (DM)
An appeal against the decision of DM can be made in court of commissioner / Magistrate
Further appeal can be made in Board of revenue, which forms highest court of land in revenue matters
Full faith & Credit:
Final judgment or orders delivered by civil courts in any part of the territory of India shall be capable of
execution anywhere in India. Clause only applicable to civil courts not on criminal courts.
J. Consumer Forum:
The Parliament has enacted the Consumer Protection Act, 1987 which provides a consumer protection against
deficiency in a service or goods. The Act has provided for the following three types of consumer courts with
defined jurisdictions:
Notes

4
 www.iasscore.in

District Consumer Forum: It is presided by the District Judge. It can hear cases upto worth Rs. 20 lakh.
State Consumer Commission: It is presided by a High Court Judge. It can hear cases between Rs. 20 lakh
and Rs. 1 crore. It can also appeals against the judgement of the District Consumer Forum.
National Consumer Commission: It is presided by a Supreme Court judge. It can hear cases worth Rs.
1 crore and above. It can also hear appeals against the judgment of the State Consumer Commission.

E
OR
SC
GS

K. Fast Track Courts:

Set up under the recommendations of the 11th Finance Commission, Fast Track Courts have been
set up to expedite long pending cases in various courts on priority basis. It is a completely centrally
funded scheme.
These courts take up matters pending for three years or more and expeditiously dispose them within
a given time frame. The state are supposed to given priority to cases relating to offences against senior
citizens, women and physically handicapped.
So far 1711 fast track courts have been established. Initially they had tenure of five years, but in 2006,
their tenure was extended for another five years.
L. Concept of plea Bargaining:
The concept of plea bargaining has been newly introduced in the Indian Judicial system. It has been
in practice in USA for a long time. A plea bargain is an agreement in a criminal case in which a
prosecutor and a defendant arrange to settle the case against the defendant.
The defendant agrees to plead guilty in exchange for some agreement from the prosecutor as to the
punishment.
Notes

5
 www.iasscore.in

In plea bargaining, the prosecutor agrees to reduce the charges against the defendant and may dismiss
some of the charges against him. The effects of plea bargaining are manifold.
It saves the litigation costs of both the parties.
It saves the time of the court.
The under-trial gets lesser punishment.
In India, plea bargaining has been introduced by inserting a new chapter-Chapter XXIA in the Criminal
Procedure Code (1973).
Plea bargaining was introduced through the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2005. The provision is
likely to bring relief to a large number of under-trials lodged in various jails of the country and help
reduce the long pendency in the courts.
It is applicable only in respect of those offence for which punishment of imprisonment is up to a
period of 7 years, it does not apply where such offence affects the socio-economic condition of the
country or has been committed against a woman or a child below the age of 14 years.

E
The application for plea bargaining should be filed by the accused voluntarily, a person accused of
an offence may file an application for plea bargaining in the court in which such offence is pending
OR
for trial and the complainant and the accused are given time to work out a mutually satisfactory
disposition of the case, which may include giving to the victim by the accused, compensation and
other expenses incurred during the case.
In the event of a satisfactory disposition of the case being worked out, the Court shall dispose of
the case by sentencing the accused to one- fourth of the punishment provided or extendable, as the
SC

case may be for such offence.

The statement or facts stated by an accused in an application for plea bargaining shall not be used
for any other purpose other than for plea bargaining; the judgment delivered by the Court in the case
of plea-bargaining shall be final and no appeal shall lie in any court against such judgment.
M. National Litigation Policy:
GS

The Centre has formulated a National Litigation Policy to reduce the cases pending in various courts
in India under the National Legal Mission to reduce average pendency time from 15 years to 3 years.
The National Litigation Policy is based on the recognition that Government and its various agencies
are the pre-dominant litigants in courts and Tribunals in the country.
Its aim is to transform Government into an Efficient and Responsible litigant. This policy is also
based on the recognition that it is the responsibility of the Government to protect the rights of
citizens, to respect fundamental rights and those in charge of the conduct of Government litigation
should never forget this basic principle.
Litigators on behalf of Government have to keep in mind the principles incorporated in the National
mission for judicial reforms which includes identifying bottlenecks which the Government and its
agencies may be concerned with and also removing unnecessary Government cases.
Prioritisation in litigation has to be achieved with particular emphasis on welfare legislation, social
reform, weaker sections and senior citizens and other categories requiring assistance must be given
utmost priority.
Notes

6
 www.iasscore.in

Salient Features:
Its aims to transform Government into an Efficient and Responsible litigant.
It instructs to place correct facts, all relevant documents before the court/tribunal and not to mislead
them.
Pending cases with government as party to be reviewed on priority basis to enable quick disposal.
Propose a monitoring and review mechanism to sensitize government in important cases and avoid delay
and neglect of the same.
It gives recognization to the principle that government is responsible for the protection of the rights of
the citizens.
N. Rural Courts for Speedy Justice

E
OR
SC
GS

Perhaps the most important practical reform would be constitution of rural courts for speedy justice.
As already stated, the number of judges in our society is slightly over 10 per million population.
This density is roughly 10% of the density of judges (per unit population) in more advanced and law
abiding societies. Even this low number is highly skewed with pitiful shortages in subordinate judiciary
and ridiculously large numbers in higher courts.
Obviously what is needed is a substantial increase in the number of judges at the local level giving
access to the ordinary people.
In addition to the number and access, the procedures of these local courts should be simple and
uncomplicated giving room for sufficient flexibility to render justice.
Notes

7
 www.iasscore.in

These courts should use only the local language and they should be empowered to visit the villages
and hear the cases and record evidence locally.
Above all they should be duty bound to deliver the verdict within the specified time frame. There
could be several models like the gram nyayalaya advocated by the Law Commission in its 114th
report.
Essentially, there should be such rural courts with special magistrates with jurisdiction over a town,
or a part of a city or a group of villages.
These special magistrates should be appointed by District Judge for a term of 3 years. They should
have exclusive civil and criminal jurisdiction of all civil disputes up to Rs one lakh in civil cases and
up to an imprisonment of one year in criminal cases. In addition, certain civil disputes arising out of
implementation of agrarian reforms and allied statutes, property disputes, family disputes and other
disputes as recommended by the Law Commission could be entrusted to these rural courts.
In civil cases there should be only a provision for revision by the District Judge on grounds of
improper application of law and on no other ground. In criminal cases where imprisonment is awarded,
there could be a provision for appeal to the Sessions Judge.

E
The procedures must be simplified and these courts should be duty bound to deliver a verdict within
90 days from the date of complaint.
OR
O. E-Courts Mission Mode Project:
SC
GS

The E-courts project was established in the year 2005. According to the project, all the courts
including taluk courts will get computerised. As per the project in 2008, all the District courts were
initialised under the project.
In 2010, all the District court were computerised. The entry of back log case has started. The IT
department had one system officer and two system assistants in each court. They initiated the
services in the Supreme Court in June 2011.
Notes

8
 www.iasscore.in

The case lists and the judgements of most district courts is used to connect all High Courts and
Supreme Court judgements and cause list. The special websites are updated daily by a technical team.
Now the establishment work is going on taluk courts.
The project also includes producing witnesses through video conferencing. Filing cases, proceedings,
and all other details will be in computers. Each district court contains 1 system officer and 2 system
assistants. This technical manpower is involved in training the staff, updating web sites.
P. Judicial Service Centre
This is a part of e-court project. The judicial service centres are available in all court campus. The Public as
well as the advocates can walk in directly and ask for the case status, stage and next hearing dates. This service
is provided for free.

E
OR
SC
GS
Notes

9
 Trending Topics www.iasscore.in

ROLE OF ASHA
The National Health Mission was launched to provide effective health care to the entire rural population
in the country.
The core strategy of the mission is to provide well trained female health activist (Accredited Social
Health Activist- ASHA) in each village (1/1000 population) to fill the gap of unequal distribution of
health services in rural area.
ASHAs are expected to create awareness on health and its determinants, mobilize the community towards
local health planning, and increase utilization of the existing health services.

E
Responsibilities of ASHA will be as follows:
a) ASHA will take steps to create awareness and provide information to the community on determinants of

b)
OR
health. such as nutrition, basic sanitation and hygienic practices, healthy living and working conditions,
information on existing health services, and the need for timely utilization of health and family welfare services.
She will counsel, women on birth preparedness, importance of safe delivery, breast-feeding and
complementary feeding, immunization, contraception and prevention of common infections including
reproductive tract infection/sexually transmitted infection and care of the young child.
SC
c) ASHA will mobilize the community and facilitate them in accessing health and health related services
available at the Anganwadi/sub-centre/primary health centres, such as immunization, ante natal check-up,
post natal check-up, supplementary nutrition, sanitation and other services being provided by the government.
d) She will work with the village health and sanitation committee of the gram panchayat to develop a
comprehensive village health plan.
GS

e) She will arrange escort/accompany pregnant women and children requiring treatment/admission to the nearest
pre-identified health facility i.e. primary health centre/community health centre/First Referral Unit.
f) ASHA will provide primary medical care for minor ailments such as diarrhoea, fevers, and first-aid for
minor injuries. She will be a provider of directly observed treatment short-course (DOTS) under revised
national tuberculosis control programme.
g) She will also act as a depot holder for essential provisions being made available to every habitation like
oral rehydration therapy, iron folic acid tablet, chloroquine, disposable delivery kits, oral pills and condoms
etc. A drug kit will be provided to each ASHA. Contents of the, kit will be based on the recommendations
of the expert/technical advisory group set up by the-government of India, and include both AYUSH and
allopathic formulations.
h) Her role as a provider can be enhanced subsequently. States can explore the possibility of graded training
to her for providing newborn care and management of a range of common ailments, particularly childhood
illnesses.
i) She Will inform about the .births and deaths in hervillage and any unusual health problems/disease
outbreaks in the community to the sub-centre/primary health centre.
j) She will promote construction of household toilets under total sanitation campaign.
Notes

1
 www.iasscore.in

Role and integration with Anganwadi:

Anganwadi worker will guide ASHA in performing following activities:
(a) Organizing Health Day once/twice a month. On health day, the, women, adolescent girls and children
from the village will be mobilized for orientation on health related issues such as importance of nutritious
food, personal hygiene, care during pregnancy, importance of antenatal check- up and institutional delivery,
home remedies for minor ailment and importance of immunization etc. AWWs will inform ANM to
participate and guide organizing the Health Days at Anganwadi centre;
(b) AWWs and ANMs will act as resource persons for the training of ASHA;
(c) ICE activity through display of posters folk dances etc. on these days can be undertaken to sensitize the
beneficiaries on health-related issues;
(d) Anganwadi worker will be depot holder for drug kits and will be issuing it to ASHA. The replacement of
the consumed drugs can also be done through AWW;
(e) AWW will update the list of eligible couples and also the children less than one year of age in the village
with the help of ASHA; and
(f)

E
ASHA will support the AWW in mobilizing pregnant and lactating women and infants for nutrition
OR
supplement. She would also take initiative for bringing the beneficiaries from the village on specific days
of immunization, health check-ups/ health days etc. to Anganwadi centres.
SC
GS
Notes

2
 Trending Topics www.iasscore.in

OCEAN ZONATION
Theoceanic zonebegins in the area off shore where the water measures 200 meters (656feet) deep or deeper.
It is the region of open sea beyond the edge of the continental shelf and includes 65% of the oceans
completely open water. The oceanic zone has a wide array of undersea terrain, including crevices that are often
deeper thanMount Everestis tall, as well as deep-sea volcanoes and ocean basins. While it is often difficult
for life to sustain itself in this type of environment, some species do thrive in the oceanic zone.
Sub-zones:

E
OR
SC
GS

The ocean can be divided into many zones. The ocean bottom is the benthic zone and the water itself (or the
water column) is the pelagic zone. The neritic zone is that part of the pelagic zone that extends from the high
tide line to an ocean bottom less than 600 feet deep. Water deeper than 600 feet is called the oceanic zone,
which itself is divided on the basis of water depth into the epipelagic, mesopelagic, and bathypelagic zones.
The epipelagic (euphotic) zone, also called the sunlit zone, receives enough sunlight to support photosynthesis.
The temperatures in this zone range anywhere from 40 to 3C (104 to 27F) (NHPTV).
Notes

3
 www.iasscore.in

The mesopelagic (disphotic) zone, where only small amounts of light penetrate, lies below the epipelagic zone.
This zone is often referred to as the Twilight Zone due to its scarce amount of light. Temperatures in the
mesopelagic zone range from 5 to 4C (41 to 39F). The pressure is higher here, it can be up to 1,470 pounds
per square inch (10,100,000Pa) and increases with depth (NHPTV).
90% of the ocean lies in the bathypelagic (aphotic) zone into which no light penetrates. This is also called the
midnight zone. Water pressure is very intense and the temperatures are near freezing (range 0 to 6C (32 to
43F)).
Marine life:
Oceanographers have divided the ocean into zones based on how far light reaches. All of the light zones can
be found in the oceanic zone. The epipelagic zone is the one closest to the surface and is the best lit. It extends
to 200 meters and contains both phytoplankton and zooplankton that can support larger organisms like marine
mammals and some types of fish. Past 200 meters, not enough light penetrates the water to support life, and
no plant life exists (NHPTV).
There are creatures however, which thrive around hydrothermal vents, or geysers located on the ocean floor
that expel super heated water that is rich in minerals.These organisms feed off of chemosynthetic bacteria,

E
which use the super heated water and chemicals from the hydrothermal vents to create energy in place of
photosynthesis. The existence of these bacteria allow creatures like squids, hatchet fish, octopuses, tube worms,
OR
giant clams, spider crabs and other organisms to survive (Knight).
Due to the total darkness in the zones past the epipelagic zone, many organisms that survive in the deep oceans
do not have eyes, and other organisms make their own light with bioluminescence. Often the light is blue green
in colour, because many marine organisms are sensitive to blue light.
SC

Two chemicals, luciferin and luciferase that react with one another to create a soft glow. The process by which
bioluminescence is created is very similar to what happens when a glow stick is broken. Deep-sea organisms
use bioluminescence for everything from luring prey to navigation (Knight).
Animals such as fish, whales, and sharks are found in the oceanic zone.
GS
Notes

4
 Trending Topics www.iasscore.in

COLD WAVE
What is cold wave?
Cold wave is characterized by a rapid and marked fall of temperature. The term cold describes an unusual
fall in temperature that is triggered by the transport of cold air masses into a specific area.
The wave in cold wave is apparent in the upper-air flow (the jet stream), which is usually amplified into a
strong ridge-trough pattern during a major cold outbreak.
Cold waves affect much larger areas than blizzards, ice storms, and other winter hazards.
Formation of Cold Waves

E
The core requirement of a cold wave at the surface is a strong high pressure center that forms during winter

OR
in high latitudes.
SC
GS

Cold polar or Arctic air masses are relatively shallow, extending one to several kilometre above the surface.
What damage can arise?
The cold wave can negatively impact the safety of aviation operations.
Fatal accidents can occur if people fail to adapt their driving to road conditions.
Ice rain can cause ice fractures in trees and telephone wires.
Exposure to extreme and especially unexpected cold can lead to hypothermia and frostbite, which can
cause death and injury.
Cold waves can be forecast by modern weather forecasting. The weather forecasts can disseminate useful
warnings to prevent traffic accidents.
Contemporary examples of cold waves:
February 2016 North American cold wave
January 2016 East Asia cold wave
February 2015 North American cold wave
Notes

5
 www.iasscore.in

November 2014 North American cold wave

Early 2014 North American cold wave
January 2017 North India observed the cold wave.
Cold wave in context with India in 2017:
An active western disturbance is affecting Western Himalayan region and northern India,this disturbance
affects the states like, J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, West Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Chandigarh and
some part of north Rajasthan furthermore, a cold wave at a few places in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Vidarbha
and interior Odisha has been observed.
Effects and weather conditions:
In Himachal Pradesh -Shimla received heavy rainfall, likewise, cold wave intensified in Dharmashala. Uttar
Pradeshs Moradabad received light rain showers, lucknow has records decades coldest days; in Uttarakhand
the upper reaches of Nainital received snowfall. Srinagar- Jammu national highway was closed, virtually cutting
of the vally from rest of the country.

E
Avalanche prone areas of Baramulla, Kupwara, Bandipora, Kistawar, Rajauri, Doda, Poonch and Riyasi
district of J&K goes on high alert and classified as medium danger for peoples movement.
OR
SC
GS
Notes