An Introduction to Tunnel Engineering

5.4 Types of Road and Railway Tunnels

5.5 Components Parts of Tunnel and Tunnel Cross-section

5.6 Survey for Tunnel Alignment

5.7 Drainage, Lighting and Ventilation Requirements for Tunnel

5.8 Introduction of Tunneling in Firm Soil, Soft Soil and Rock

5.9 Tunnel Lining

 What is Tunnel?

Underground Passages Made Without Removing the

Overlying Rock or Soil.
An Artificial Underground Passage Constructed for
Transportation Purposes.
Required for Highways, Railways, Sewerage, Water Supply,
Public Utility and Canals.
 Advantages of Tunneling
Provides Shortest Route

Constructed when other Methods are not Available or if other

Methods are Not Economical

When Tunnel is the Essential Element of a Project

Security and Strategic Considerations of a Nation

All Weather-friendly Rather than Highways or Railways on Open

Cut ( Landslides during Rainy Seasons, Snow Cover during Winter
Seasons)

Save Fuel and Wear & Tear of the Vehicles

 Disadvantages of Tunneling

Very High Initial Cost of Construction

Special Construction Techniques are Required

Comparatively Long Time Required for Construction

Higher Degree of Specialization is Required

 Governing Factors of Tunnel Design
Purpose of Tunnel: Railway, Highway or Rapid-Transit

Water Channel, etc.

Clearance Prescribed

Method of Tunneling

Soil Characteristics

Method of Lighting and Ventilation

 As a General Rule

In the case of Highways, if the Open Cut Exceeds 15 m

Depth Tunneling may be Advantageous.

In the case of Railways, the Tunnel or Open Cut may be

the Same but as Compared to Choosing to Detour (long
way) Round the Hill Tunneling would Invariably
(Always) be Preferable.
 5.4 Types of Road and Railway Tunnels
(Classification of Tunnels)
According to their Purposes-

1) Traffic Tunnels
i) Railway Tunnels
ii) Highway Tunnels
iii) Navigation Tunnels
iv) Pedestrian Tunnels
v) Subway Tunnels
2. Conveyance Tunnels
i) Hydraulic Tunnels/ Hydro-electric Power Tunnels
ii) Water Supply Tunnels
iii) Sewer Tunnels
iv) Transportation Tunnels in Industrial Plants
 According to their Shape/ Cross-section-

1. Circular Shaped Tunnels

2. Horse Shoe Tunnels
3. D-Shaped Tunnels
4. Elliptical Tunnels
5. Square or Rectangular Tunnels
6. Egg-Shaped Tunnels
7. Segmental Roof Section Tunnels
 According to the Types of Material
1. Tunnels in Mud-stone Rocks
2. Tunnels in Sandy Soils
3. Tunnels in Hard-stone Rocks
4. Tunnels Under Sea or River Bed
5. Open-cut Tunnels
 According to the Alignments

1. Spiral Tunnels- To increase the length of the tunnel to

avoid steep slopes in narrow valleys.
2. Off-spur Tunnels- Are constructed to short-cut minor
obstructions.
 According to Supporting Arrangements-
1. Tunnels Supported by R.S.J. Sections
2. Tunnels Supported by Rock Bolts
3. Tunnels Supported by Shotcrete
4. Tunnels Supported by a Combination of (1), (2) and (3)
 Types of Tunnels for Transportation

Highway Tunnels
Rail-Road Tunnels
Rapid-Transit Tunnels or Subways
 Highway Tunnels
From Economic and Safety Point of View, it is Better to
have a Pair of Tunnels Each with a Roadway of Two
Lane in One Direction than to have a Large Tunnel
More than Two Lanes.

Provision of a Pair of Tunnels has the following

Advantages:
1. Cost of construction is economized.
2. Provides safer road and avoid head on collision.
3. Facilitates proper ventilation.
4. Exit and entrance of two streams can be separated
5. Easy repair and maintenance.
 Rail-Road Tunnels

For Rail-road Tunnels, the American Railway

Engineering Association (AREA) has prescribed the
standard dimension.
 Rapid-Transit Tunnels

Unless special provision is made for proper drainage, the

gradient provided should not be less than 5%.
5.5 Components Parts of Tunnel
and
Tunnel Cross-section
 5.5.1 Component Parts of a Tunnel

Roof
Crown
Walls
Roof Crown
Invert
Portals
Shafts Wall
Ventilation
Drainage

Invert
5.5.2 Typical Cross-section of a Tunnel
Circular tunnel with two traffic
lanes and one safety walk.
Also shown is an alternative
ceiling slab. Invert may be solid
concrete over liner or
a structural slab.
 Double box tunnel with two
traffic lanes and one safety walk
in each box for Highway Tunnels.

Horseshoe tunnel with two traffic

lanes and one safety walk for Highway
Tunnels.
 Oval/egg tunnel with three traffic
lanes and two safety walks for
Highway Tunnels

Circular tunnel with a single track and one

safety walk for Rail Transit Tunnel
 Double box tunnel with a single track and
one safety walk in each box

Single box tunnel with a single track and

one safety walk.
 Single box tunnel with a structural slab
that provides space for an air plenum
below.

Horseshoe tunnel with a structural slab that

provides space for an air plenum below.
 5.6 Survey for Tunnel Alignment

First reconnaissance of the site area

Two or three alignments are selected
Final alignment is fixed considering feasibility and
economy
For the final alignment first both the ends of the tunnel is
fixed accurately on the hill and then the center line of the
tunnel is located on the ground and then correct the
length of the tunnel thus determined.
 Steps of Tunnel Surveying

1) Initial survey is carried out to

Align of tunnel based on the surface conditions
Prepare the detailed topographic map for preliminary setting of
tunnel
Conduct detailed tachometric survey of the site area to give
horizontal and vertical controls
Fix the tunnel obligatory points (portal points) on the topographic
maps
2) Setting out of the tunnel centre line on the surface
3) Precise Triangulation
4) Setting out inside tunnels
Triangulation
Tunnel Approaches
Transferring of tunnel center line
through the shafts
5.9 Tunnel Lining
 Types of Tunnel Linings/ Tunnel Liners

Unlined Rock
Rock Reinforcement Systems
Shotcrete
Ribbed Systems
Segmental Linings
Placed Concrete
Slurry Walls.
 Unlined Rock

As the name suggests, an unlined rock tunnel is one in

which no lining exists for the majority of the tunnel
length.
Linings of other types may exist at portals or at limited
zones of weak rock.
Common in older railroad tunnels in the western
mountains, some of which have been converted into
highway tunnels for local access.
 Rock Reinforcement Systems

Used to add additional stability to rock tunnels in which

structural defects exist in the rock.
Intent of these systems is to unify the rock pieces to
produce a composite resistance to the outside forces.
Include the use of metal straps and mine ties with short
bolts, untensioned steel dowels, or tensioned steel bolts.
To prevent small fragments of rock from spalling off the
lining, wire mesh, shotcrete, or a thin concrete lining may
be used in conjunction with the above systems.
 Shotcrete

Shotcrete is appealing as a lining type due to its ease of

application and short "stand-up" time.
Primarily used as a temporary application prior to a final
liner being installed or as a local solution to instabilities
in a rock tunnel.
Can be used as a final lining. When this is the case, it is
typically placed in layers and can have metal or
randomly-oriented, synthetic fibers as reinforcement.
The inside surface can be finished smooth as with
regular concrete; therefore, it is difficult to determine the
lining type without having knowledge of the construction
method.
 Ribbed Systems

Ribbed systems are typically a two-pass system for

lining a drill-and-blast rock tunnel.
The first pass consists of timber, steel, or precast
concrete ribs usually with blocking between them.
This provides structural stability to the tunnel.
The second pass typically consists of poured concrete
that is placed inside of the ribs.
Another application of this system is to form the ribs
using prefabricated reinforcing bar cages embedded in
multiple layers of shotcrete.
One other soft ground application is to place "barrel
stave" timber lagging between the ribs.
 Segmental Linings

Segmental linings are primarily used in conjunction with

a tunnel boring machine (TBM) in soft ground conditions.
The prefabricated lining segments are erected within the
cylindrical tail shield of the TBM.
These prefabricated segments can be made of steel,
concrete, or cast iron and are usually bolted together to
compress gaskets for preventing water penetration.
 Placed Concrete

Placed concrete linings are usually the final linings that

are installed over any of the previous initial stabilization
methods.
They can be used as a thin cover layer over the primary
liner to provide a finished surface within the tunnel or to
sandwich a waterproofing membrane.
They can be reinforced or unreinforced.
They can be designed as a non-structural finish element
or as the main structural support for the tunnel.
 Slurry Walls

Slurry wall construction types vary, but typically they

consist of excavating a trench that matches the
proposed wall profile.
This trench is continually kept full with a drilling fluid
during excavation, which stabilizes the sidewalls.
Then a reinforcing cage is lowered into the slurry or
soldier piles are driven at a predetermined interval and
finally tremie concrete is placed into the excavation,
which displaces the drilling fluid.
This procedure is repeated in specified panel lengths,
which are separated with watertight joints
 Materials for Tunnel Linings

Brick Lining
Stone Masonry Lining
Timber Lining
Concrete Lining
Cast Iron Lining
Structural Lining
Timber Lining
Structural (Steel Ribs) Tunnel Lining
 Tunnel Finishes

The interior finish of a tunnel is very important to the

overall tunnel function. The finishes must meet the
following standards to ensure tunnel safety and ease
of maintenance:
Be designed to enhance tunnel lighting and
visibility
Be fire resistant
Be precluded from producing toxic fumes during a
fire
Be able to attenuate noise
Be easy to clean.
 Types of Tunnel Finishes

Ceramic Tile
Porcelain-Enameled Metal Panels
Epoxy-Coated Concrete
Miscellaneous Finishes
(1) Coated Cement board Panels
(2) Pre-cast Concrete Panels
(3) Metal Tiles
5.7 Drainage, Lighting and Ventilation Requirements for Tunnel

5.7.1 Drainage for Tunnel

 5.7.1 Drainage for Tunnel

Classification of Tunnel Drainage

1. Pre-drainage
2. Dewatering
3. Permanent Drainage
 Pre-drainage

Before Starting the Construction Work of the Tunnel.

Diverting Surface Drainage from Entering the Tunnel.
 Dewatering

Effectively Removed Either by Gravity Flow or by

Pumping.
If the Tunnel is Driven Upgrade with Sufficient Slope, the
Water may be Removed from the Tunnel Through Drains
Normally Excavated on the Sides of Tunnel.
Extra Quantity Should Not be Excavated for Forming
Drain. The Drain Should be Placed in the Side Only so
that the Road way can have Proper Chamber.
If the Tunnel is Being Driven on Flat or Downward
Gradient, the Accumulated Water Should be Pumped.
 Permanent Drainage

Permanent Drainage would Depend on Nature of the

Tunnel, Type of Soil, Quantity of Water Involved in
Drainage and Type of Lining Used.
Commonly Used Methods are-
1. Provision of Longitudinal Drains
2. Continuous Open Gutter
3. Concrete Lining
4. Grouting with Cement or Chemicals
5.7.2 Lighting for Tunnel
 According to IS Code

Adequate Lighting should be Provided at the Face and at

the Other Point where Work is Progress.
A Minimum Illumination of 100 lux should be Provided at
the Tunnel and Shaft Heading During Drilling and
Mucking.
A Minimum of 50 lux should be Provided for Efficient and
Safe Working.
Any Obstructions (Formworks, etc.) Inside the Tunnel
should be Well Lighted to Avoid Accidents When Hauling
Units are Moving.
No Single Light should be So Powerful as to Cause
Temporary Blinding Effect.
Voltage of Supply Line may be Reduced in the Tunnel
from 230 V- 110 v for Lighting Purpose.
 According to IS Code

For Motor of 440 V, Waterproof Cables should be Laid in

Tunnel.
Lamps should be Fixed in the Center of the Roof of
Tunnel.
The Electric Circuit of the Lighting in Tunnel should be
Divided into a Number of Independent Circuits with Their
Isolations and Fuse Boxes Separate.
In Addition to the Fixed Lighting System, All hauling
Equipment should have Own Lighting System.
In Addition to the Normal Lighting Provision of
Floodlights should be Made at Suitable Intervals for
Detailed Inspection for Any Particular Length of Spot.
Lighting System in Tunnel
 5.7.2 Ventilation for Tunnel
Objective of Ventilation:

To make the working space safe for workers by providing

fresh air which is free from harmful gaseous and dust.

To exhaust the rise temperature inside the tunnel while

operating engines.
Requirements of Good Tunnel Ventilation
System
A good tunnel ventilation system should satisfy the
following requirements:
1) Smoke and fumes should be exhaust as soon as
possible from the working face so that the work can be
restarted without serious delay
2) Dust should be removed within the permissible safe
limits
3) Should provide safe and comfortable working
environment to the workers
4) Should prevent the hazardous fumes at any point along
the length of the tunnel.
 Tunnel Ventilation

Types Ventilation
Tunnel ventilation systems can be categorized into
five main types or any combination of these five. The
five types are as follows:
Natural Ventilation
Longitudinal Ventilation
Semi-Transverse Ventilation
Full-Transverse Ventilation
Single-Point Extraction
Mechanical Ventilation (based on IS Code)
Natural Ventilation
Longitudinal Ventilation
Semi-transverse Ventilation
Full-Transverse Ventilation
 Single-Point Extraction

In conjunction with semi- and full-transverse ventilation

systems, single-point extraction can be used to increase the
airflow potential in the event of a fire in the tunnel.
The system works by allowing the opening size of select
exhaust flues to increase during an emergency.
This can be done by mechanically opening louvers or by
constructing portions of the ceiling out of material that would
go from a solid to a gas during a fire, thus providing a larger
opening.
Both of these methods are rather costly and thus are seldom
used.
Newer tunnels achieve equal results simply by providing
larger extraction ports at given intervals that are connected to
the fans through the ductwork.
Fans Used for Ventilation

Centrifugal Fan
 Mechanical Ventilation
(Based on IS Code)
a) Blowing of Fresh Air
Supply the fresh air by the ducts to the working face

a) Exhausting Foul Air by Ducts

Foul air and dust are drawn into an exhausting duct
near the working faces, creating the flow of fresh air
into the tunnel from the entrance.
Useful after blasting

a) Combination of Blowing In and Exhaust System

 Dust Control

It may cause serious health hazards to the workers

inside the tunnel.
During drilling, blasting, loading the muck and hauling
the muck, the dust may form.
Dust controlling steps
1) Wet drilling, not dry drilling
2) Sprinkling the muck piles with water to settle down the
dust
3) Provide adequate and sufficient ventilation
4) Use of vacuum hood
5.8 Introduction of Tunneling in Firm Soil, Soft Soil and Rock
 Types of Ground
Soft Ground Roof Requires Instant Support After
Doing Excavation Side Walls can Remain Standing
Without Any Support for Small Duration of Time. e.g.
Clayey Soils
Firm Ground Roof can Also Remain Unsupported for
Few Minutes and Sides can Remain without Support for
1-2 hours. E.g. Dry Earth, Firm Clay
Running Ground Sand, Gravel and Other Cohesion
less Soil Comes in this Category of Ground. These Soils
Require Support During Excavation Work and Cannot
Remain Unsupported in Any Case.
Self-supporting Ground These are Soft Stones such
as Sand Stones, Cemented Sand, Mudstones, etc. These
Grounds can Remain Unsupported for Short Lengths of
1.5 to 3.5 m for Short Periods, but After that They Require
Support.
 Main Operations in Tunneling
Construction of Shafts
Transferring Center Line to the Inside the Tunnel
Deciding Method of Excavation
Setting Up and Drilling Holes for Blasting
Loading Holes with Explosives and Blasting
Ventilation and Removing Dust After Blasting
Providing Supports and Strutting
Carting Excavated Material Outside the Tunnel
Pumping and Removing Ground Water from the Inside of
the Tunnel (if any)
Lining
 5.8.1 Tunneling in Firm Ground

Full Face Method

Top Heading and Benching Method

Drift Method
Drift Method
 5.8.2 Tunneling in Soft and Running
Ground
Fore Poling Method For Tunneling in Soft Ground
Needle Beam Method
Liner Plate Method For Tunneling in Running Ground
Shield Method
Compressed Air Method
English Method
Italian Method
Army Method
Belgian Method
American Method
German Method
Austrian Method
Case Method
Shield Method
 5.8.3 Tunneling in Hard Rock

Full Face Method

Top Heading and Benching Method

Bottom Heading and Stopping

Drift Method

Pilot Tunnel

Perimeter Method
Full Face Method

First of all No.I portion of

top is removed then No.II
and III are removed and
the tunnel is excavated up
to its full face.
 Top Heading and Benching Method
First of all top portion of the tunnel is excavated by drilling
holes and then blasting or excavating with other tools.
After it, some of the lower portion is removed.
Top portion is known as Heading and it always remains
ahead about 4 to 5 me than the lower portion known as
Benching.
Bottom Heading and Stopping
 Drift Method

One drift is
excavated in the
centre of the tunnel
and then it is
widened in all sides
by drilling holes and
excavating.
 Pilot Tunnel
Used when the tunnel is to be constructed in very short time.
Small tunnel called Pilot Tunnel is first constructed parallel to the
main tunnel.
Short tunnels are constructed to reach the centre of the main tunnel
at different sections.
In this way workers can reach the main tunnel in different sections
and start the excavation work in all the sections simultaneously.
Perimeter Method

Excavation is done
along the perimeter in
order of stages No.
1,2,3,4 and 5.
Called German Method
 Shapes of Tunnels

Circular
Horse-shoe
Rectangular
Elliptical
Egg-shaped/Oval
Segmental Roof Section