Advances in Engineering Sojiware 28 ( 1997) 437-454

0 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved

Printed in Great Britain
PII:SO965-9978(97)00015-X 096%9978/97 $17.00
ELSEVIER

Computer-aided formwork design:

A detailed approach
J. H. M. Taha9* & A. D. F. Priceb
School of Construction, South Bank University, Wandsworth Road, London SW8 252 UK
bDepartment of Civil Engineering, Loughborough University of Technology, Loughborough, Leicestershire LEI I 3TU. UK

(Received28 June 1995;accepted31 December1996)

A rational approachto formwork design basedon simplified assumptionsand

approximatebeam formulas is sufficiently adequatewhen designingformwork
subjected to light loads. A detailed structural design may be required for extremely
heavy loadings, or where there is unusualdangerto life or property. A detailed
mathematical model for the analysis and design of formwork assemblies encountered
in practice is developed in this paper. The requirements for the detailed mathematical
modelarepresented.
The stiffnessmethodof analysisof structuralsystemsis usedfor
formulating the mathematical model. The use of existing software for solving the
stiffnessequationsis assessed.
A conceptualmodelfor implementingthe stiffness
methodin formwork design is proposed.This is usedto develop the detailed
formworkdesignprogram.The programscapabilitiesarefinally illustratedby means
of a casestudyexample.0 1997ElsevierScienceLtd.

1BACKGROUND
Formwork is a significant aspect of concrete construction as
it usually represents a greater cost than the concrete itself.
There have been some interesting trends and developments
in the concrete construction industry concerning formwork
over the last few decades. It has progressed from highly
labour intensive traditional timber formwork, to sophisti-
cated machinery and proprietary equipment that allows
high output rates to be achieved. This has been achieved
through developments in the technical knowledge and
machinery that makes, large quantities of concrete readily
available at a consistent quality. Consequently, equipment
for lifting and handling the rapid placement of concrete was
developed. This further led to developments in new forming
materials such as aluminium, steel, plywood, plastics, glass-
fibre and proprietary systems. This has taken the design of
formwork further away from the foreman and carpenter on
site, and brought in the temporary works designer and an
improved engineering approach to design.*
The recent developments in equipment have been equally
matched by developments in formwork design. There have
been several innovations in formwork design since the intro-
duction of the draft BS code of practice for falsework in
*Corresponding
author.
437
1975.3 The joint efforts of the Concrete Society and the
Institution of Structural Engineers to produce guidelines to
the practice and design of formwork resulted in the publica-
tion of the Concrete Society Technical Report No. 13 in
1977.4 Later in 1982 the British Standard Institution (BSI)
published the Code of Practice for Falsework, BS~5975.~The
code only covered the support of soffit formwork and there
was a need for an all embracing text on formwork. Conse-
quently in 1986, the Concrete society and the Institution of
Structural Engineers produced a joint textbook entitled
Formwork: A Guide to Good Practice.* It gives guidelines
and recommendations to the design and use of formwork
with separate sections on materials, loadings and design. It
was written as a complementary document to BS5975 and
superseded Concrete Society Technical Report No. 13.
Another major development was the publication of the Con-
crete Pressure on Formwork CIRIA Report 1O86by CIRIA
in 1985, which superseded CIRIA Report 1 of 1965.7 These
documents have helped to quantify the design of formwork
so that safe and economic formwork can be designed more
accurately.
The formwork structure should be strong enough to hold
the concrete in the desired size and shape until the concrete
hardens and becomes self supporting. The design in the
preliminary stages generally involves some guesswork
backed by engineering judgement and experience. It is
438 J. H. M. Tah, A. D. F. Price
based on the known strength of materials and the estimated
loads that may be carried. Formwork is made from a number
of simple components or a system of components which
may be arranged in many different ways. Plywood sheets,
timber or metal soldiers and walings, ties, and tie plates are
examples of these components. In a typical design process, a
component is chosen and its arrangement within the form-
work assembly is assumed. A structural analysis is then
performed on the arrangement to verify that the resulting
forces and deflections are within the allowable limits of the
material. If not, an alternative component material is chosen
either based on the type or size of component. This process
is repeated until the component satisfies the structural
requirements as well as the safety and economic require-
ments. The design formwork is therefore a highly repetitive
process which can become very tedious. The design also
involves the use of information from various sources and
the abstraction of data from codes of practice. Computers
have a good information storage and retrieval ability. Sup-
pliers of formwork equipment offer many alternative
materials and proprietary formwork systems. The use of
computers should allow many alternatives to be considered
and the most safe and economic designs to be selected with
a minimum of effort. A greater amount of time in the design
of formwork is spent on the drafting function. The interac-
tive graphics capability of microcomputers offers a power-
ful tool for the production, storage, retrieval and editing of
drawings. In addition to the design and drafting function the
use of computers should allow for the integration of related
functions. These may include the scheduling of quantities,
preparation of cost estimates and stock control.
The advent of microprocessor technology has placed a
microcomputer within reach of virtually every construction
professional. With the recent power boosts, in terms of
accessible memory, coupled with the decreasing cost of
hardware and software, the microcomputer is fast becoming
a practical tool for even the smallest of engineering offices.
Software engineering has advanced, with commercially
available software such as Computer-Aided Design and
Drafting packages, Spreadsheets, and Database Manage-
ment Systems with interactive graphics. Civil Engineering
and Construction disciplines, such as structural analysis and
design, have benefited greatly and are in a more advanced
stage in terms of computer implementation. However, form-
work and temporary works in general have not received
equal attention.
The lack of software in temporary works was first
addressed by Neale and Boland in 1980. To support their
case for the use of computers in temporary works, they
developed a small set of computer programs for the
design of vertical falsework to support rectangular concrete
slabs. The programs produced plans and elevations of
vertical or horizontal members in any plane, a schedule of
materials required and a cost estimate. It was concluded that
the use of computers to design simple temporary works
appeared feasible, and could result in savings in design
time and hence costs. Further research by Neale et aL9
identified areas of temporary works that were most likely
to yield economic benefits and which were technically
feasible, practically sensible and humanly desirable. Form-
work was one of these areas. It was concluded that compu-
ters will be used more in this area. Since Neale and Boland
first addressed the use of computers in temporary works,
several innovations have occurred in both formwork and
computers as previously mentioned. At the start of this
work there were very few systems in use and construction
firms were reluctant to use computers for the following
reasons.
Formwork design was a practical subject, requiring
the use of the designers experience and a great deal
of engineering judgement. The computer solved the
mathematical problem but not the practical one.
Computers could impair the designers understand-
ing of the design, which could lead to failures.
Computers could inhibit the development of engi-
neering judgement.
There could be problems with the interpretation of
the computer output.
There were no standard procedures for the design of
most temporary works.
Computer technology was in a dynamic state in
both hardware and software, with a diversity of
systems on the market. They were concerned
about making faulty choices and had taken a wait
and see attitude.
The aforementioned reasons for not implementing com-
puters point to the fact that most construction companies
were resistant to the use of computers within the temporary
works design process, even though research had identified
areas within which computers could be beneficial. This
resistance is characteristic of that encountered where
changes are being introduced into an existing system within
an organization. Baldwin encountered similar resistance
in developing a computer aided estimating system for Civil
Engineering contractors, which are now widely used in
industry.
This background has so far pointed to the fact that there is
sufficient cause for research into the investigation of actual
software development and implementation of computers in
temporary works design. This research work has attempted
to redress the use of computers in temporary works from a
system development point of view. There are several
classes of temporary works, however, formwork design
was selected as it provided a greater and self-contained
problem area. A Formwork Integrated Computer-Aided
Design System (FICADS) was developed. The emphasis
was on the state-of-the-art in both formwork and microcom-
puter technology.
An integrated program network strategy was used in the
development of FICADS. This involved the coupling of
packaged Computer-Aided Drafting/Design and Database
Management Systems with formwork design applications.
Thus, providing a conceptual framework within which
 Computed-aided formwork
temporary works design systems can be developed with
confidence, flexibility, and a minimum of programming
effort. The functions integrated include the design, drafting,
scheduling of quantities, and cost estimating of formwork.
Formwork design covers vertical and horizontal construc-
tion in both timber and proprietary systems. Formwork
members are designed to BS59755 and the recommenda-
tions of the Concrete Societys text Formwork: A Guide
to Good Practice.2 Formwork can be designed using a
rational approach based on simplified assumptions com-
monly used in practice and/or a detailed approach based
on the stiffness method of structural analysis. The reader
is referred to Refs 1l-14 for the details of FICADS and
its individual modules. The paper presents a model
and system (DetForm) developed for the detailed analysis
and design of formwork.
2 THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE MODEL
The most commonly used formwork components such as
walings and soldiers may be considered as beams. In the
construction of a panel of formwork, such a member may
rest on three or more supports, forming a redundant contin-
uous beam system. In the rational design approach, where a
formwork member rests on more than three supports,
approximate beam formulas are used to compute safe sup-
port spans. Clearly, a continuous beam analysis would be
more realistic. Therefore, the detailed analysis model should
allow for a continuous beam analysis to be performed.
In addition to the commonly used beam type formwork,
there are the lattice or truss type strongbacks often used in
dam or mass concrete construction. Where these strong-
backs have been pre-fabricated and supplied as proprietary
items, the user is not concerned with the design of the indi-
vidual members in the lattice. The supplier gives the max-
imum bending moments and forces that must not be
exceeded. Formwork including such strongbacks are there-
fore, designed as beam type walings and soldiers. However,
where the strongbacks are to be constructed on site, the
individual members making up the lattice have to be
checked to ensure structural satisfaction. This may involve
truss analysis or a plane frame analysis or a hybrid of both,
depending on the method of construction. This implies an
analysis of 2-dimensional skeletal structures assembled
from different types of members. They may be pin jointed,
rigidly jointed or contain both types of joints. The model
should, therefore, allow for the analysis of hybrid structures
containing rigidly jointed and pinned connections.
The loads encountered in formwork design are usually
assumed to be uniformly distributed. In vertical formwork
design, the pressure from concrete is hydrostatically distri-
buted. When designing tie sizes and positions, walings produce
a series of discrete point loads. Therefore, the model should be
able to handle point, distributed and hydrostatic loads.
The effect of shear deformation is usually neglected
in most structural analyses, because the major part of
design: A detailed approach 439
deformation is caused by the bending moments. Where a
heavily loaded member has a relatively low ratio of span to
depth of beam, shear deformation effects become significant.
The significance of shear deformation on the design of metal
soldiers was first highlighted by Ash. He recommended that
shear deformation effects should be considered when design-
ing soldiers and that manufacturers of metal soldiers should
quote shear stiffness as well as bending stiffnesses. How-
ever, only one manufacturer was found to have taken this up
and provided shear stiffness values for soldiers. It was
decided that the effects of shear deformation should be
included in the model and should be made optional.
The design of formwork involves the computation of
bending moments, shear forces and deflections. These are
checked to be within the allowable limits for the component
under consideration. Limits are also placed on the allowable
bending moments at the joints where individual formwork
beams are jointed to make up a required length of formwork.
The model should, therefore, produce deflections, axial
forces, shear forces and bending moments at any point of
interest in the structure.
3 THE STIFFNESS METHOD OF STRUCTURAL
ANALYSIS
The major requirements of the model are that it should per-
form the analysis of continuous beams and two dimensional
skeletal structures. Also the effect of shear deformation
must be allowed for, and various load types are involved.
These requirements render the model complicated but with
some programing effort and using the right tools it can
easily be handled by a computer. The stiffness method of
structural analysis was considered the most appropriate tool
for the implementation of the model. It is used in the analy-
sis of highly redundant structures, for example, frames, gril-
lages of beams and trusses. This is a very versatile technique
and can include the effects of axial loading on a members
flexural stiffness, shear stiffness, large changes in geometry,
dynamic loads and material non-linearity. Naturally, it is the
advent of the computer that makes such methods practically
applicable. The details of such methods can be found in the
standard text books on the subject. However, a rather short
description is given here for the sake of completeness.
3.1 Theoretical background
The stiffness method consists of the following five basic
stages.
1. Structural idealization and identification.
2. Evaluation of the element matrix equations.
3. Assembling of the total structure stiffness matrix,
taking the boundary conditions into account.
4. Generation of the loading vector and the solution of
the structure equilibrium equations.
5. Evaluation of the element forces.
440 J. H. M. Tah, A. D. F. Price

The fundamental aspects of each of these steps are briefly H- 12(1 -o!)sc
discussed in the following sub-sections. z=2+p
L2
3.1.1 Structural idealization and identi#cation
p _ 12(c2 + crs2
This involves making a judgement on the structures geo- ) s=sin(o
metric characteristics and numbering the nodes for identifi- L2
cation purposes. A global reference system is selected to
which all the nodal quantities are referred. A local reference M=$ c=cosp
system is selected for each element or bar, to which all the
bar quantities are referred. Based on the node and element 12EIy
numbers, and taking into account the reference system M=; /3=-
selected, the structures data is prepared. As a minimum
the data should include the nodal co-ordinates, element con-
nectivity data, element properties, boundary or support con- AL?1 + P)
(Y=
ditions, and a description of the applied loads. 121
Note: (i) If shear deformations are to be ignored then y = 0.
3.1.2 Evaluation of the element matrix equations (ii) If the members are assumed to be axially rigid and
In this stage equations relating end forces and displacements if A is an unknown then set (Y = 0 for numerical
of a member are set up. The coefficients relating forces and convenience.
displacements of a member forms its stiffness matrix in
terms of its geometry and material properties. Their
derivation is described in standard texts on structural 3.1.3 Assembling of the total structure stifiess matrix
analysis.6-9 The matrix used in this paper takes the effects In this stage of the analysis, the stiffness matrix for the
of shear deformations into account and the derivation is whole structure is compiled from the member stiffness
found in Ref. 16. For a member ij of a rigid-jointed matrices. This is accomplished by forming equations of
frame, lying in the xy plane such that the member longitu- equilibrium at each member connection and by stipulating
dinal axis is inclined at an angle cp to the global x-axis that the members meeting at a connection, or joint, have the
(as shown in Fig. l(b)), the stiffness equation linking same displacement components as the joint. When the
member end forces in the global system, f, to the corre- global stiffness matrix has been assembled, displacement
sponding end displacements, d, is as follows: boundary conditions are imposed. This is done by setting
displacements at rigid supports to zero, or by adding stiff-
VI = mm (1) ness coefficients to simulate the action of the connecting
where structural system. The resulting structure stiffness matrix
[El is banded.
(f] = (Dip Vi, &Ii, Dji, Vj, lifj)

this is a vector of forces applied at the element nodes and

I,.. 3.1.4 Generation of the loading vector and solution of the
- T structure equilibrium equations
(2) = {iii, 3i, Bi* Uj, Vj, Oj)
Loading causes a structure to deflect, and an equilibrium
this is a vector of displacements at the element nodes and position is reached when the internal end forces produced
j; and k is the element stiffness matrix in the global axis by deflected members balance the external, applied load at
system including shear deformations effects and is given by each joint. The loading vector is computed in the third stage
of analysis. This is a vector of loads applied at each joint in
B -H -M -B H -M the structure. The equivalent joint forces are computed for
loads applied along the member length, and added to the
-H P N H -P N
nodal loading vector to generate the structure loading vector
El -M N Q M-N Z (F). The fixed end moments and reactions due to member
--
k- L(1 +P) B -H M loads are presented in Section 3.2.3. Once the structure
-B H M
stiffness matrix [El and the structure loading vector (F}
H -P -N -H P -N are known, the displacements (D), in the global axis
system can be computed from the structure equilibrium
-M N Z M-N Q
equation
(2)
where [P] = [k]{b) (3)

12(s2 + ac2) using a Gaussian elimination method. The displacements

Q=4+/3
B= L2 [D] in the local axis system are obtained by transforming
 Computed-aided formwork design: A detailed approach 441

Fig. 1. (a) Planeframemember(memberaxis system);(b) planeframemember(globalaxis system).

[D] into the local axis system using the equation where
(f) = (ui, Vi, Mi, uj, 59 Mjl'
this is the member load vector in the local axis.
where
d=(ui, vi,0i, uj, vi, 0j}
this is the displacement vector in local axis, where k is the
member local axis stiffness matrix given by
-ax 0 o-ax 0 o-

s = sin+9 and c = coscp. 0 x Y o-x Y

EI 0 Y R O-Y s
3.1.5 Evaluation of the elementforces k= w+P) --ax 0 0 ax 0 0
Lastly, the end forces acting on individual members are
determined by multiplying the local stiffness matrices by 0 -x -Y 0 X-Y
the determined joint displacements as follows 0 Y s 0 -Y R
VI = WlI4 (5) (6)
442 J. H. IV. Tah, A. D. F. Price
Table 1. Shape factors for typical shapes
Shape type Description
q solid rectangle
solid circle
0 thin circle tube
0
I, T andbox sections
ET
101
where
+ R=4+/3
Y=; s=2-p
and /3 and (Yhave the samedefinitions as in eqn (2).
3.2 Effects of shear deformation
The effects of sheardeformationsare not usually included in
most structural analyses.In this section, the effects of shear
deformations and the relative significance of shear deflec-
tions to bending deflections are discussed.Shapefactors are
presentedfor various shapesof beam cross-sections.
3.2.1 The significance of shear effects
Shearingforces usually have only a secondaryeffect on the
behaviour of beams and rigid frame structures, since the
major part of the deformation is caused by the bending
moments. Consequently, the effects of shear are usually
neglected from most analyses.However, occasionssome-
times arise where a heavily loaded memberhasa relatively
low ratio of span-to-depth of beam, or where the material
has a shearingmodulus of elasticity which is smaller than
the modulusin tension.* In ordinary caseswhere the span-
to-depth ratio is 10 or more the shear deflection is insig-
nificant in relation to the bending deflection.20
The derivation of the stiffness matrix including shear
effects is well covered in the text of Bhatt.16 The derivation
of some fixed end moments and shear forces in simple
beamsincluding sheareffects is well treated in the text of
Gere.* Therefore, only the data required for use with the
formwork model and the derivation of fixed end moments
and forces including shear effects, not covered in these
texts, are presentedin this paper.
3.2.2 Shapefactors
The global stiffnessmatrix for a 2-dimensionalrigid-jointed
Shape factor
1.2
1.1
2.0
Major axis bending= 1.2 X (total area)/
(webarea) Minor axis bending= 1.2 X
(total area)/(flangearea)
frame memberis presentedin Section3.1.2. The stiffnesscoef-
ficients included a factor, y, known asthe shapefactor. It is a
dimensionlessproperty of the cross-sectionalareaof a beam
element.Table 1 showssomevaluesfor typical shapes.Details
of the derivation of shapefactors can be found in Gere.
3.2.3 Fixed end momentsincluding shear deformation
effects
When using the stiffness method, member loads are con-
verted to equivalent joint forces (or fixed end momentsand
forces). These are addedto the nodal loading vector as dis-
cussedin Section 3.1.4. The fixed end momentsand forces
excluding sheareffects are given in most texts on structural
analysis. When shear effects are considered,obtaining the
fixed end forces become tedious. Fixed end moments and
forces for various types of loadings encountered in form-
work are presentedin this section. The derivation of these
values is presented in Ref. 12. The formulas have been
presented in a form, such that, the fixed end moments
neglecting shear effects can be obtained by setting the
shape factor, y, to zero. Where loading is symmetrical
over a members spanshearhas no effect on the fixed end
momentsand forces. The fixed end forces are presentedin
Table 2.
3.3 Member with pin connections
The stiffness matrix presented in Section 3.1.2 is for 2-
dimensional structures consisting entirely of rigidly con-
nected members.Most structuresusually are either entirely
pin jointed or rigid jointed. However, one of the require-
ments in the formulation of the formwork model was to
allow for hybrid structures containing rigidly jointed and
pinned connections. This affects the stiffness matrix, and
the effect of including pins can be accounted for by the
application of suitable factors to the elements of the
matrix. The derivation of thesefactors are well covered in
the text of Balfour. Four types of memberswith or without
pins have been consideredas shown in Table 3.
 Computed-aided formwork design: A detailed approach 443

Table 2. Fixed end moments and forces for member loads including shear effects

Code Load type Fixed end moments and forces

3
(0 .
a E
!!iz!P
b MA = , 2( 1 +w2R)L2 (6L+? - 0) - 8L(h - a) + 3(b - aJ) R,=F(+,)+ c,tMB)

+ 2g(3L2(bZ - rr?) - 2L(b3 -a?)))

MB=-12( I +w2g)L- ,(4L?(h7-a)-3(b4-[II)

+ 2~(3L(h - u2) - 2L(h - u3))]

M,, = 60(, + 2;;(b _ a)L2 (30bL?b? - 02) - 40bL(b3 - tr?) RA=!@+L&~)+%$?!$

- 20L2(b - a) + 30L(b - rrJ)

+156(b4-a4)-12(b-a5)

+ 5g(6bL(b -0) - 4bL(b -a)

- 4LZ(b -cl) + 3L(bJ - (14)))

,+$f(;+,)-?!$!?!d
- 15b(b - <I) - I 5L(b4 - d) + I2(hS - u5)

+ 5g(6bL2(b2 - a) - 4bL(b - a)

5 .-aEy., -4L?(b?-tr?)$-3L(bJ-ul))]

wb M,, = 60(, +2;;(b-a)L!120w

- 30L(b4 - ~1) - 30aL(b2
--LI)

- u2) + 40aL(b3 - ~1~)

+ I 2(b4 - a4) - I Sa(bj - u4)

+ 5g(4L2(b3 - u3) - 3L(bJ - a4)

- 6aL(b -a) + 4aL(h3 - <?))I

 J. H. M. Tah, A. D. F. Price
Table 3. Member types coding
Code End i End j Member type
Fixed Fixed i a
1
O/j
/, 0
B j
2 Fixed Pinned 4 0
0 4 THE COMPUTER
3 Pinned Fixed
4 Pinned Pinned 0 0
3.4 Software for the solution of equations
Many software packages have been developed for the solu-
tion of the system of equations involved in the stiffness
method of structural analysis. They differ in their complex-
ity, capabilities, cost, and availability. Two main types of
such systems are available. The first type are packages
which comprise of stand-alone programs that can be used
directly by the user. All that is required from the user is the
input data. The second type are libraries which contain sub-
routines that can be called from a program. The advantage
of using a package over libraries is that, the latter require
programing knowledge, whereas a package user need not
perform any programing. The advantage of using libraries is
that they are more flexible. They can be modified by the
users or used to build more sophisticated software. In other
words they can be customized by the user. This is not the
case with packages.
The use of existing libraries was considered appropriate
for the implementation of the detailed analysis model dis-
cussed in this chapter. Existing libraries were developed
mainly for the main-frame computers, whereas the system
was developed for the microcomputer. Furthermore, these
libraries were developed in the FORTRAN programing
language, while the PASCAL programing language was to
be used in developing the system. However, most structural
computation text books, include proven program codings of
algorithms for the solution of problems involving the stiff-
ness method. All the algorithms found were coded in either
FORTRAN or BASIC. Also, none of them included shear
deformation effects which was one of the requirements of
the system to be developed. The excellent text book by
Balfour17 proved to be the most useful. Although it provided
algorithms developed in BASIC it also provided detailed
explanations on their implementation. A greatly enhanced
version of the coding was developed in the PASCAL pro-
graming language. Enhancements included the use of a
stiffness matrix including the effects of shear deformation
and the inclusion of hydrostatically distributed loads as
discussed previously. Once the algorithms for handing the
stiffness computations were developed they were tested on
example problems found in various text books. These algo-
rithms tested positively as the solutions were reproduced as
in the texts. They were then ready for implementation in the
detailed formwork design program, which is the subject of
the following section.
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE
DETAILED FORMWORK DESIGN MODEL
There are various methods of implementing the stiffness
method of structural analysis in a computer program. The
differences in methods are mainly due to the nature of inter-
action with the program during data entry and presentation
of the final design results. However different the method of
interaction used, the five basic stages of the stiffness method
presented previously will almost certainly be used. All five
stages constitute separate procedures in a computer pro-
gram. The conceptual model considered for the imple-
mentation of the stiffness method of analysis in this paper,
is shown in Fig. 2. It consists of three main phases. These
are the pre-processing phase, the analysis core, and the post-
processing phase.
The pre-processing phase represents stage one of the
stiffness method. The result of stage one, i.e. the structural
idealization and identification, is a datafile composed of data
about a structures nodal co-ordinates, connectivity, bound-
ary or support conditions and a description of applied loads.
This datafile can be created in a number of ways. It can be
created by a text editor, a database management system or
pre-processors which are specialized programs developed to
ease the creation of the datafile for particular structural
configurations.
The second phase of the conceptual model has been
termed the analysis core, as shown in Fig. 2. The analysis
core represents stages two to five of the stiffness method.
They are the analysis routines that utilize the data obtained
from the pre-processing phase. These stages, therefore, form
the heart of the detailed formwork design model. The results
produced by the analysis core include nodal displacements,
bending moments, shear forces and reactions. These can be
presented in various ways.
The third phase of the conceptual model is the post-pro-
cessing phase. This phase is concerned with the presentation
of the results of analysis produced in phase two. The results
can be presented in tabular text formats and graphically as
deflection, bending moment, and shear force diagrams. This
is achieved by the use of special purpose programs called
post-processors.
The conceptual model shown in Fig. 2 depicts three pos-
sible methods of creating a data file in the pre-processing
phase. These include the use of text editors, pre-processor
programs, and through graphical interfaces provided by
general purpose CAD packages. The use of text editors is
the most flexible method of creating the datafile. This is
 Computed-aided formwork
ost-processor
E ro ams
s
z @
Fig. 2. The conceptual view of the detailed formwork design model.
because the user is not constrained to a specific structural
configuration by the specification of a pre-processor pro-
gram. The disadvantage is that it can be very tedious and
error prone. In some structures, e.g. formwork beams such
as walings and soldiers, the stiffness of the beam is constant
throughout its length. The element properties are, therefore,
the same for all elements. This implies typing the same
information for a number of records where a text editor is
used, and can be very tedious. Pre-processor programs are,
therefore, developed to speed up the creation of the data file.
In this paper, the detailed analysis model which forms
the analysis core, was formulated to handle both beam
and 2-dimensional frame type structures. However, beam
design: A detailed approach 445
type formwork is frequently encountered in practice. Con-
sequently, the pre-processors and post-processors developed
for the detailed formwork designed program were designed
to handle beam type formwork. A text editor can, however,
be used for creating the datafile for the design of frame type
formwork. The following sections describe DetForm, the
detailed formwork design program developed.
4.1 The program specification
Based on discussions with expert temporary works
designers on the weakness of current formwork design pro-
grams and the shortcomings of the rational formwork design
446 J. H. M. Tah, A. D. F. Price
+ I
Da3
interface
t
3 DCtFOIlll
FICADS -@ (analysis core)
local
Fig. 3. The architectureof the detailedformworkdesignsub-system.
approach; the following features were seento be necessary
in a detailed formwork design program:
1. The program should be able to designboth horizontal
and vertical formwork.
2. It should allow the use of traditional and proprietary
formwork components.
3. Graphics should be used to generate the geometric
model of the formwork structure to be analysed.
This shouldprovide a visual check on the correctness
of the model to be analysed.
4. The results of analysis should be presented in both
tabular text format and graphically as bending
moments, shearforce, and deflection diagrams.
5. The program should be easy to use.
These requirements require a lot of imagination on the
part of the programmer, particularly providision of a gra-
phical interface for the generationof the formwork model. It
wasa major requirement of FICADS that the systemshould
allow the formwork designer to use his/her engineering
judgement. In the case of the detailed formwork analysis,
engineeringjudgement is required mainly in the structural
idealization of the formwork arrangement (or generation
of a geometric model). Therefore, it implies that the pre-
processorshouldbe flexible enoughto allow the designerto
define the structural model asdesiredwithin the capabilities
of the analysis core. Another important consideration was
the fact that most formwork designers have been using
simple analytical methodsfor designing formwork. There-
fore, for the detailed analysis approach to be accepted, it
must be easy to use. The programmer is, therefore, faced
with the dilemma of not only providing a flexible tool for
formwork design,but alsomaking it easy to useat the same
time. The detailed formwork design program developed in
this thesis provided a solution to these problems. Its archi-
tecture is discussedin the following section.
4.2 The architecture of DetForm
The designof the detailed formwork analysisprogram was
basedon the conceptual model presentedearlier. The archi-
tecture of DetForm is shown in Fig. 3. The program consists
of three individual modules representing the three phases
described in the conceptual model. These modulesconsti-
tute a pre-processorprogram, an analysis program, and a
post-processorprogram. Each program was developed to
run independently. The link between individual programs
was provided by the ProCad* package, a general purpose
CAD package.A program was developed to representeach
phasefor the following reasons:
l The nature of each phasewas suchthat specific soft-
ware tools were suitablefor use.The pre-processing
and post-processingphasesrequire a graphics inter-
face, whereasthe analysisphaseis concernedwith a
considerableamount of number crunching. There-
fore, taking advantage of special state-of-the-art
software tools that were suitable for handling the
requirementsof each phase, should allow the pro-
gram specification to be achieved. This resultedin a
reduction of the program development time.
 Computed-aided formwork design: A detailed approach 447

r KQ
I Soldier

0 arbitrary nodes

X nodes at supports
- pressure envelope. control poinl

1
tS

-+ Tie positions

15-y Pressure envelope

-4 20 615 kNh2

Fig. 4. The geometric model.

options

Select component from menu

Enter and validate control data

to retreive co-ordinates from ProcADs database

1 Enter and vabdate boundary condmons

.
Enter nodal loads if any

I
c c c
+ A
Enter individual
Set max. pressure for all Compute pressure values
loaded elements automatically at node points automatically loads and positions
I I I
+
Save ail data to the input data file

Fig. 5. Flow chart of FormPrep.

448 J. H. M. Tah. A. D. F. Price

Datafile for detailed analysisof formwork beams

{no.ofncdesl (no.ofmembers) (no.ofrestrainedncules) (no.ofnodal1oad.s) (no.ofmembfzloads)
19 5 0 16
{NOdE!O.I {x - co-ordinate) { y - co-ordinate)
1 4.99655EMO 8.17759E+W
2 4.9%55E+OO 7.47759E+OO
3 4.9%55E+OO 7.32759E+OO
4 4.99655E-t-00 6.77759E+OO
5 4.99655E+OO 6.22759E+OO
6 4.99655E+OO 5.67759E+OO
7 4.9%55E+OO 5.20259E+OO
8 499655E+OO 4.72759E+OO
9 4.99655EtOO 4.40259E+OO
10 4.99655E+OO 4.07759EM.l
11 4.96655E+OO 3.72759E+OO
12 4.96655E+oo 3.37759E+OO
13 4.96655E+OO 3.02759E+OO
14 4.96655E+oo 2.67759E+OO
15 4.96655E+Oo 2.32759E+OO
16 4.96655E+OO 1.97759E+OO
17 4.96655E+OO 1.62759E+OO
18 4.96655E+oo 1.27759E+OO
19 4.96655E+OO l.l2759E+OO
20 4.96655E+OO 9.77586E01
{Node no. ) {Restraint code)
2 12
6 12
10 12
14 12
18 12
(Node?) (Ncdej) (Loadtype) (L.oadY) (Load j) {Distance i) (Distance 3)
3 4 7 O.OOOOOE& -1.375OOE+Ol O.ooOE+OO 5.5OOE-01
4 7 -1.375OOE+Ol -2.75WOE+Ol O.OCKlE+OO 5.5OOE-01
7 -2.75OOOE+Ol -4.125OOE+Ol O.OOOE+OO 5.5OOE-01
: 7 7 -4.125OOE+Ol -5.3125OE+Ol O.OOOE+OO 4.75OE01
7 7 -5.3125OE+Ol -6.5OOOOE+Ol O.OOOE+OO 4.75OE-01
8 ii 7 -6.5OOOOEtO1 -6.5OOOOEtOl O.OOOE+OO 3.25OE-01
9 10 1 -6.5OOOOE+Ol -6.5OOtME+Ol O.OOOE+OO 3.25OE-01
10 11 1 -6.5OOOOEtOl -6.5OOOOE+Ol O.OOOE+OO 3.25OE-01
11 12 1 -6.5OOOOE+O1 -6.5oooOE+Ol O.OOOE+OO 3.25OE-01
12 13 1 -6.5OOOOE+O1 -6.5OOOOE+Ol O.OOOE+OO 3.25OE-01
13 14 1 -6.5OtXME+Ol -6.5OOOOE+Ol O.OOOE+OO 3.25OE-01
14 15 1 -6.5OOOOE+Ol -6.5OOOOE+Ol O.OOOE+OO 3.25OE-01
15 16 1 -6.5OOOOE+Ol -6.5OWOE+Ol O.OOOE+OO 3.25OE-01
16 17 1 -6.5OOOOE+Ol -6.5OfMOE+Ol O.OOOE+OO 3.25OE-01
17 18 1 -6.5OOOOE+O1 -6.5oooOE+O1 O.OOOE+OO 3.25OE-01
18 19 1 -6.5OOOOE+Ol -6.5OOOOE+Ol O.OOOE+Otl 1.5OOE-01

Fig. 6. The input datafile created by the preprocessor program.

l This approach was considered flexible enough to
adapt to future changes. Further pre-processors
and post-processors could be developed with time
to replace existing ones as the need arose without
any major changes to the complete system. The pre-
processors and post-processors need not be devel-
oped to run within the ProCAD package. Any other
package, for example the now popular AutoCAD
package, may be used without affecting the analysis
program.
The program architecture shown in Fig. 3, shows the links
and the inter-communications between individual program
modules. A case study is used to demonstrate the detailed
functions of the three sub-systems.
4.3 A case study
A contractor requires formwork for the construction of walls
to a reservoir. The height of the wall pour is 6200 mm and
the length of pour is 6500 mm. The wall thickness is
450 mm and the height of the kicker is 150 mm. The con-
tractor has computed the design concrete pressure to be
65 kN/m. It has been described that the facing is to be in
 Computed-aided formwork design: A detailed approach 449

Search and display max.

displacement, forces. and moment

Fig. 7. Flow chart of DetForm.

plywood and the walings in timber as these are available in
stock. The contractor requires a detailed design solution
from a supplier on proprietary formwork.
4.4 Creating the geometric model
Prior to the use of the pre-processor program, the ProCAD
drafting package is used to create a geometric model of the
anticipated soldier system for the wall, as shown in Fig. 4.
The geometric model shows the topology and characteris-
tics of the arrangement of the soldier system. The loading is
indicated by the pressure envelope. The thick vertical line
depicts the solider as a beam. The triangular supports indi-
cate the positions of the ties. The designer has used his
engineering judgement and experience to make an initial
guess of the tie spacings indicated. Notice how the designer
has taken advantage of the reduction of concrete pressure at
the upper section of the wall to increase the tie spacing in
that region. The length of the soldier must be greater than
6350 mm, that is, the combined length of soldier and kicker.
There are no soldiers of this height and the designer decided
to use two 3600 mm soldiers to make up the soldier. The
designer wishes to perform an analysis to check that this
system of arrangement is structurally safe and economic.
This implies checking that the resulting bending moments,
deflections, and tie loads are within the allowable limits for
the components. These values are required at critical posi-
tions along the entire length of the beam arrangement.
Nodes (represented by points) are placed at several positions
(e.g. at the quarter points within each span) and at the joint
between the two soldiers. Nodes at points of support (e.g. tie
positions) are represented by crosses, as shown in Fig. 4.
Nodes are also placed at three other positions representing
control points on the pressure envelope. These are at the top
of the wall, at the point where maximum pressure begins,
and at the top of the kicker. These points are to be used by
the pre-processor to automatically compute the loading
within each element of the beam. All node points are then
numbered sequentially from the top to the bottom. The
creation of the geometric model has been completed and
pre-processing can therefore commence.
4.5 The pre-processor program
The term pre-processor has no definite definition as it is used
in computing and other fields of study. the term pm-processor
in the context of this paper means a subprogram that is used to
aid in preparing data required by the analysis program. The
450 J. l?. M. Tah, A. D. F. Price

RESULTSOF FORMWORK ANALYSIS : THE DETAILED APPROACH

***************************************************************

SOLDIERANALYSIS
*******************

Membertype

Membercode = S3lll36OO
Tradename = MK3 3600mmsoldier

Proprietarymemberproperties

Length = 3600 mm
Weight = 82.00 kg
Depth = 230 mm
Breadth= 170 mm
Cross-sectionalarea = 21.000 Cm2
Secondmomentof area = 1940.000 cm4
Sectionmodulus = 168.000 cm3
Modulusof elasticity = 208.000 GN/m2
Max. bendingmoment = 30.000 kNm
Max. bendingmomentat joint = 25.000 kNm
Max. tie load(reaction) = 160.000 kN
Max. shearcapacity = 120.000 kN
Modulusof elasticity(E) = 208.000 GN/m2
Shearmodulus(G) = 83.000 GNm2
Shapefactor = 1.800
Bearingstress = 190.000 MN/m2
*********************************

Checks!!!

Constraint Permissible Comment

Deflection(mm) 0.396 3.000 O.K.

Bendingmoment(kNm) -12.766 30.000 O.K.
Shearforce WI 54.096 120.000 O.K.

Fig. 8. Results of the analysis produced by DetForm.

pre-processorprogram, FormPrep, was developed to handle
this task. FormPrep is a highly-interactive menu driven
program developed as a ProCAD design module. It allows
the user to enter information about the geometric model by
meansof the keyboard and the mouse.The programs logic
is shown in Fig. 5 and the resulting data file for the case
study is shown in Fig. 6. In running the program, the user
startsby selectingthe componentunder considerationfrom a
menu. The menu options are the facing, studs, walings,
soldiers,secondariesand primaries.This is usedfor naming
the data file to be created. The control data is then entered.
This consists of the number of nodes, the number of
restrained nodes, the number of nodal loads, and the
number of member loads. The next data of interest is the
nodal co-ordinates.Theseare entered by digitizing the node
points with the mouse. The restrained node numbers and
their corresponding restrained codes are also entered. If
there are loads at any nodes, the node numbers and the
corresponding load values are entered. The pre-processor
allows the member or element loads to be consideredin
three options. In the first option, the loading on the whole
arrangementmay be consideredto be uniformly distributed.
In this case,the useris required to enter the load value and
the pre-processorthen setsthe loadingson all elementsto be
of the enteredvalue. In the secondoption, the loading on the
whole arrangementmay be consideredas consisting of the
 Computed-aided formwork design: A detailed approach 451

TIE LOADS FROM SOLDIERS ANALYSIS

***********************I**************
Tie Hogging Shear forces
Tie Height spacing reactions moments (above) (below)
No. m mm w kNm kN kN
--- ----- ------ _-__---- --_----- ----_-- -_______
-
Top of soldier
700
1 6.500 5.028 0.000 0.000 5.028
800
2 4.700 71.113 -10.290 29.003 42.110
1600
3 3.100 95.492 -11.904 50.508 44.884
1400
4 1.700 100.212 -12.766 46.116 54.096
1400
5 0.300 46.654 -0.731 36.904 9.750
300
Bottom of soldier

RESULTS OF SOLDIER ANALYSIS

*******************************
Height Deflection Moment Shearforce
m mm kNm kN
___--- ____----- ------_-- ---------
Top of soldier
7.200 0.198 0.000 0.000
6.500 0.000 0.000 0.000

6.500 O.OOb 0.000 5.028

6.350 0.042 0.754 5.028
5.800 0.132 2.618 1.247
5.250 0.052 0.323 -10.097
4.700 0.000 -10.290 29.003

4.700 0.000 -10.290 42.110

4.225 0.270 4.478 19.696
3.750 0.346 7.260 -8.358
3.425 0.180 1.111 -29.483
3.100 0.000 -11.904 50.608

3.100 0.000 -11.904 44.884

2.750 0.016 -0.176 22.134
2.400 0.057 3.590 -0.616
2.050 0.009 -0.607 -23.366
1.700 0.000 -12.766 46.116

1.700 0.000 -12.766 54.096

1.350 0.221 2.186 31.346
1.000 0.396 9.176 8.596
0.650 0.312 8.204 -14.154
0.300 0.000 -0.731 36.904

0.300 0.000 -0.731 9.750

0.150 0.152 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.303 0.000 0.000
Bottom of soldier
Fig. 8. Continued

concrete pressure envelope only. In this case, the user is
required to enter the maximum design and concrete pressure
value and the pre-processor computes the individual member
loads based on the pressure envelope distribution. In the third
option, if the loading is none of the previous two options, then
all loads are entered individually. A data file is then created
automatically. The datafile for the case study is shown in Fig. 6.
In this figure any text enclosed in curly brackets are not part of
the data but are headings for a block of data. A detailed
description of the use of FormPrep is presented in Ref. 11.
4.6 The analysis program
The input datafile created by the pre-processor program is
452 J. H. M. Tah, A. D. F. Price
FY
Y-uh
Ents Y-axis
spccifutim
Fig. 9. Flow chart of FormPost.
used by the formwork detailed analysis program, DetForm,
to compute the displacements and forces resulting from the
formwork arrangement. The program is highly interactive
and uses the standard window and menu interface devel-
oped for FICADS. The programs flow chart is shown in
Fig. 7. The program begins by allowing the user to select
the formwork component for analysis from the main menu
options. The material to be used is then selected from the
database. This could be plywood in the case of the facing,
and timber or a proprietary beam in the case of the sup-
porting members. The material and sectional properties of
the selected item are retrieved from the database. The
program then reads the data file created by the pre-
processor and creates the element properties records for
all elements. The stiffness analysis is then performed
and the resulting displacements and forces are then
saved to an output file for use by the post-processor pro-
gram. The program then searches and displays the maxi-
mum displacement and forces for visual inspection. It then
checks the maximum computed deflection, bending
moment, and shear fprce against the allowable values for
the selected material. If any check fails, a stronger material
may be selected or t spacings of the supports may be
reduced by altering th ,,geometric model. The results of
analysis are obtained in the first instance as shown in
Fig. 8. The bending moment, shear force, and deflection
diagrams may be obtained by running the post-processor
program.
4.7 The post-processor program
The term post-processor is used here to represent a subpro-
gram that is used for presenting the results of analysis in a
graphical form. The post-processor program FormPost, was
developed to handle this task. The flow chart of this program
is shown in Fig. 9. FormPost is a highly-interactive menu
driven program developed as a ProCAD design module. It
spec
reads the output datafile created by the analysis program
and allows the user to plot bending moment, shear
forces, and displacement diagrams in the form of graphs
within the ProCAD database. The program is very flexible.
It allows the user to select the origin of each graph at any
point on the screen by indicating with a mouse. The user has
control over the size of the graph, the axis labeling, and the
scaling. The graphs for the case study example are shown in
Fig. 10.
5 CONCLUSIONS
A rational approach to formwork design is adequate when
designing formwork which involves light loads. Where
extremely heavy loadings are involved, or where there is
an unusual danger to life or property a detailed structural
design of formwork may be necessary. The requirements of
the model for detailed analysis of formwork, as presented in
this paper, are that it must: perform a continuous beam
analysis; perform the analysis of 2-dimensional skeletal
structures containing both rigid and pin joints; include the
effect of shear deformation; produce deflections, axial
forces, shear forces and bending moments at any point of
interest in the structure.
The stiffness method of structural analysis was con-
sidered as the most appropriate tool for implementing the
detailed analysis model, if all the requirements were to be
satisfied. The stages involved in the stiffness method are
briefly discussed in this paper. The effects of shear deforma-
tions can be significant where deep proprietary beams are
used and should not be neglected. Expressions have been
derived for the fixed end moments and forces including
shear deformation effects, for various loading cases com-
mon in formwork design.
Many software packages and libraries have been devel-
oped for the solution of equations involving the stiffness
Computed-aided formwork design: A detailed approach
453
454 J. H. M. Tah, A. D. F. Price

method of structural analysis. None of these were found to Building Technology and Management, June/July 1988, 5-
be suitable for use in the work undertaken. Algorithms were 10.
2. The Concrete Society, Formwork: A Guide to Good Practice.
developed for the implementation of the stiffness method to
The Concrete Society and The Institution of Structural Engi-
satisfy the requirements of the detailed design model. neers, London, August 1986.
A program has been developed for the detailed design of 3. British Standards Institution, Draft Code of Practice for
formwork. The program requires detailed information on Falsework. BSI, London, 1975.
the formwork member under analysis including the posi- 4. The Concrete Society, Formwork, Report of the Joint Com-
mittee. Technical Report No. 13, The Concrete Society and
tions of nodes, nature of applied restraints, and positions Institution of Structural Engineers, London, March 1977.
and magnitudes of loads. A pre-processor subprogram was 5. British Standards Institution, Code ofpracticefor Falsework,
developed to ease the entry of this information. A post- BS5975. BSI, London, 1982.
processor subprogram was also developed for the graphical 6. CIRIA, Concrete pressure on formwork. CIRIA Report 108,
display of the results of analysis including bending Construction Industry Research and Information Association,
London, 1985.
moments, shear forces and deflections.
I. CIRIA, The pressure of concrete on formwork. CIRIA Report
The pre-processor and post-processor programs were I, Construction Industry Research and Information Associa-
developed to interface with the ProCAD package. This tion, London, 1965.
allowed a geometric model of the formwork assembly to 8. Neale, R. H. and Boland, J. N., Research into the application
be created within the drafting package. The pre-processor of small computers to the design of scaffold falsework. Pro-
ceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, 1980,68,463-
program was then used to retrieve co-ordinate data from
476.
ProCADs database. Thus, providing a highly interactive 9. The University of Technology Loughborough and CICA,
environment that allows the designers to use their intuition Computers in Temporary Works, reported by R. H. Neale,
and engineering judgement to create different geometric I. Hamilton and K. A. Sane. Construction Industry Comput-
models of the formwork assembly for analysis. ing Association (CICA), Cambridge, August 1986.
IO. Baldwin, A. N., Computer aided estimating for civil engi-
The detailed approach is much more involved, thus is neering contractors. Ph.D. Thesis, Loughborough University
slower than the rational approach, but it provides more of Technology, UK, 1982.
accurate results. Optimized solutions can be obtained by II. Tah, J. H. M., Integrated microcomputer applications in
increasing waling or tie positions towards the top of a formwork design. Ph.D. Thesis, Loughborough University
wall, where the concrete pressure is less. This is not possible of Technology, UK, 1989.
12. Tah, J. H. M. and Price, A. D. F., Interactive computer-aided
with the rational approach which assumes equal spacings
formwork design. Computers and Structures, 1991, 41,
and uniform loadings. 1157-l 167.
13. Tah, J. H. M. and Price, A. D. F., A database management
system for formwork design. Microcomputers in Civil
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Engineering, 199 I, 5.
14. Tah, J. H. M. and Price, A. D. F., Computer-based modelling
The authors express their thanks to Mr Peter F. Pallet for- of concrete pressures on complex shaped wall formwork.
Building and Environment, I99 I, 26, 223-229.
merly of Rapid Metal Developments Ltd for his most useful 15. Ash, J. E., Design, testing and performance of metal soldiers.
comments, constructive criticisms, generosity in supplying Concrete, 1978, 12.
information and attending a lengthy demonstration session 16. Bhatt, P., Problems in Structural Analysis by Matrix
during the development and testing of DetForm. This Methods. The Construction Press, London, I98 I.
17. Balfour, J. A. D., Computer Analysis of Structural Frame-
research was supported by a Cameroun Government BS
works. Collins, London, 1986.
grant. 18. Gere, J. M., Moment Distribution. Van Nostrand, New
Jersey, 1963.
19. Wang, C. K., Intermediate Structural Analysis. McGraw-
REFERENCES Hill, New York, 1983.
20. ProCAD Systems, BillMat: Training and Reference Manual.
I. Bennet, D. F. H., Chicago-based construction technology. ProCAD Systems Inc., 1985.