TRAINING REPORT

PROJECT: To Study The Air Brake System Of A

Diesel Locomotive
AmitPawar

Tadbhagya Kumar

Rajinder Singh

UmangRawat

2012-13
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that _____________________________ (Name) pursuing

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING from DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL
UNIVERSITY (formerly DCE) having roll number 2K10/AE/____ has done
his winter training at Diesel Loco Shed Tughlakabad, DELHI from
____________to____________.
The project work entitled
________________________________________________________
embodies the original work done by him at the end of his winter training.

Mr. Hari Om
(C.I., D.T.C., Diesel Loco Shed)
Tughlakabad, Delhi

[1]
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We take this opportunity to express our sincere gratitude to the people who have
helped us in the successful completion of our industrial training and the project.
We would like to show our greatest appreciation to the highly devoted technical
staff, supervisors and officials of the Diesel Locomotive Shed, Tughlakabad.
We are highly indebted to them for their tremendous support and help during
the completion of our training and project.

In particular, we are grateful to Mr Hari Om, C.I. (D.T.C.) of Diesel

Locomotive Shed, Tughlakabad and the Principal of the Training School, who
scheduled our training in the various departments and cells of the shed and
handed out this project to us. We would like to thank all those people who
directly or indirectly helped and guided us to complete our training and project
in the Diesel Training Centre and various sections.

[2]
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TOPIC PAGE NO.

Certificate 1

Acknowledgement 2

Table Of Contents 3

Introduction 4

Diesel Loco Shed Tughlakabad 6

Fuel Section 8

Control Room 9

CTA Cell 10

Turbo-Supercharger Section 12

Fuel Injection Pump Section 15

Bogie 22

Expressor Section 25

Speedometer Section 28

Cylinder Head 31

Pit Wheel Lathe 33

Metallurgical Section 36

Yearly Mechanical 40

Project Work 43

[3]
 INTRODUCTION

Indian Railways is the departmental undertaking of the Government of India. It comes under
the Ministry of Railways, Government of India. Indian Railways has one of the largest and
busiest rail networks in the world, transporting over 30 million passengers and more than 2.8
million tonnes of freight daily. Its net income (2009-10) was over Rs. 9500 crore. It is the
world's largest commercial employer, with more than 1.36 million employees. It operates
rail transport on 7,500stations over a total route length of more than 65,000 kilometres
(40,389 miles). About 40% of the total track kilometre is electrified & almost all electrified
sections use 25,000 V AC. The fleet of Indian railway includes over 240,000 (freight)
wagons, 60,000 coaches and 9,000 locomotives. It also owns locomotive and coach
production facilities. It was founded in 1853under the East India Company. Indian Railways
is administered by the Railway Board. Indian Railways is divided into 16 zones. Each zone
railway is made up of a certain number of divisions. There are a total of sixty-seven
divisions. It also operates the Kolkata metro. There are six manufacturing plants of the
Indian Railways. Indian Railways use four rail track gauges:-

The broad gauge (1670 mm)

The meter gauge (1000 mm)

Narrow gauge (762 mm)

Narrow Gauge (610mm)

[4]
CLASSIFICATION

Standard Gaugedesignations and dimensions:-

W = Broad gauge (1.67 m)

Y = Medium gauge ( 1 m)
Z = Narrow gauge (0.762 m)
N = Narrow gauge (0.610 m)

Type of Traction designations:-

D = Diesel-electric traction
C = DC traction
A = AC traction
CA=Dual power AC/DC traction

The type of load or Service designations:-

M= Mixed service
P = Passenger
G= Goods
S = Shunting

Horse power designations from June 2002 (except WDP-1 & WDM-2
LOCOS)

3 For 3000 horsepower

4 For 4000 horsepower
5 For 5000 horsepower
A For extra 100 horsepower
B For extra 200 horsepower and so on.

Hence WDM -3A indicates a broad gauge loco with diesel-electric traction. It
is for mixed services and has 3100 horsepower.

[5]
 DIESEL LOCO SHED TUGHLAKABAD

Diesel locomotive shed is an industrial-technical setup, where repair and

maintenance works of diesel locomotives is carried out, so as to keep the loco
working properly. It contributes toincrease the operational life of diesel
locomotives and tries to minimize the line failures. Thetechnical manpower of a
shed also increases the efficiency of the loco and remedies the failuresof loco.

The shed consists of the infrastructure to berth, dismantle, repair and test the
locoand subsystems. The shed working is heavily based on the manual methods
of doing the maintenance job and very less automation processes are used in
sheds,especially in India.The diesel shed usually has:-

Berths and platforms for loco maintenance.

Pits for under frame maintenance
Heavy lift cranes and lifting jacks
Fuel storage and lube oil storage, water treatment plant and testing labs
etc.
Sub-assembly overhauling and repairing sections
Machine shop and welding facilities

[6]
Diesel Shed, Tughlakabad of Northern Railway is located in NEW DELHI. The
shed was established on 22nd April 1970. It was initially planned to home 75
locomotives. The shed cater the needs of Northern railway. This shed mainly
provides locomotive to run the mail, goods and passenger services. No doubt
the reliability, safety through preventive and predictive maintenance is high
priority of the shed. To meet out the quality standard shed has taken various
steps and obtaining of the ISO-9001-200O& ISO 14001 OHSAS
CERTIFICATION is among of them. The Diesel Shed is equipped with modern
machines and plant required for Maintenance of Diesel Locomotives and has an
attached store depot. To provide pollution free atmosphere, Diesel Shed has
constructed Effluent Treatment Plant. The morale of supervisors and staff of the
shed is very high and whole shed works like a well-knit team.

[7]
 FUEL SECTION
The section is concern with receiving, storage and refilling of diesel and lube
oil. It has 3 large storage tanks and one underground tank for diesel storage
which have a combined storage capacity of 10,60, 000 litres. This stock is
enough to end for 15-16 days The fuel is supplied by truck from IOC - Panipat
refinery. Each truck diesel sample is treated in diesel lab and after it in
unloaded. Sample check is necessary to avoid water, kerosene mixing diesel.
Two fuel filling points are established near the control room It also handles the
Cardiamcompound , lube oil. Diesel is only for loco use if the diesel samples
are not according to the standard, the delivery of the fuel is rejected. Viscosity
of lube oil should be 100-1435 CST. Water mixing reduces the viscosity.
Statement of diesel storage and received is made after every 10 days and the
report is send to the Division headquarter. The record of each truck, wagons etc.
are included in it. The record of issued oil is also sending to headquarter. After
each 4 months. A survey is conducted by high level team about the storage,
records etc. 0.1% of total stored fuel oil is given for handling losses by the HQ.
The test reports of diesel includes the type of diesel (high speed diesel- Euro-3
with0.035 % S), reason for test, inspection lot no, store tank no, batch no. etc.

There are 3 storage tanks at Tughlakabad Diesel Loco Shed :-

1. Two 330 Kilolitres tanks

2. One 70 kilolitres underground tank

Lubricants Stored

S.no Lubricant Name Type Application and

Uses
1 RR-813 Engine oil WDM 3A, WDP
3A,WDP 1
2 RR-520 Engine oil WDP 4B, WDP
4B
3 RR-460 Compressor oil Compresssor
4 T-76,77,78 Governor oil Expressor,
Wickpad

[8]
 CONTROL ROOM
It controls and regulates the complete movement, schedules, duty of each loco
of the shed. Division level communications and contacts with each loco on the
line are also handled by the control room. Full record of loco fleet, failures,
duty, overdue and availability of locos are kept by the control room. It applies
the outage target of loco for the shed, as decided by the HQ. It decides the
locomotives mail and goods link that which loco will be deployed on which
train. It operates 116 Mail and 11Goods link from the shed locos. For 0-0
outage total 127 loco should be on line. The schedule of duty, trains and link is
decided by the control room according to the type of trains. If the loco does not
return on scheduled time in the shed then the loco is termed as overdue and
control room can use the loco of another shed if that is available.

The lube oil consumption is also calculated by the control room for each loco:-

Lube Oil Consumption (LOC) = Lube oil consumed in litres/ total kms
travelled 100

New and better operational loco have less LOC.

[9]
 CTA (Chief Technical Assistance) Cell
This cell performs the following functions:-

Failure analysis of diesel locos

Finding the causes of sub system failures and material failures
Formation of inquiry panels of Mechanical and Electrical engineers and
to help the special inquiry teams
Material failures complains, warnings and replacement of stock
communications with the component manufacturers
Issues the preventive instructions to the technical workers and engineers
Preparation of full detailed failure reports of each loco and sub systems,
components after detailed analysis. The reports are then sent to the
Divisional HQ.
Correspondence with the headquarters is also done by the CTA Cell.

The failures analysed are:-

Category 1 failures:- If the VIP trains loco fails or the train is delayed by
the failure of another trains loco failure. Failure of the single loco may
delay a number of trains.
Non- reported failures:- the failure or delay of the local passenger trains
for 2-3 hours is taken in this category. They are not reported to the higher
levels and can be adjusted in the section operations.
Foreign Railway-FR failures:- If the loco of one division fails in the other
division and affects the traffic seriously in that division. The
correspondence in this case is done by the cell.

Other failures are:-

1. Material failure: - may be due to poor quality, defective material and defects
in the manufacturing of the component. Component is replaced if fails
frequently.

2. Maintenance failures: - if lapse is by the maintenance workers. Inquiry is

done and punishment is set by CTA Cell on behalf of Sr. DME or instructions
are issued for better maintenance.

[10]
3. Crew lapse: - proper actions are taken or instructions issued to the crew of
locos.

After every 4 years IOH of loco is done in the shed. After 8 years POH of loco
is done at the Charbag loco shed Lucknow. After 18 years rebuilding of loco is
done at DMW-Patiala. Total life of a loco is 36 years.

[11]
 TURBO-SUPERCHARGER SECTION

A GE TURBO SUPERCHARGER

The diesel engine produces mechanical energy by converting heat energy

derived from burning of fuel inside the cylinder. For efficient burning of fuel,
availability of sufficient air in proper ratio is a prerequisite. In a naturally
aspirated engine, during the suction stroke, air is being sucked into the cylinder
from the atmosphere. The volume of air thus drawn into the cylinder through
restricted inlet valve passage, within a limited time would also be limited and at
a pressure slightly less than the atmosphere. The availability of less quantity of
air of low density inside the cylinder would limit the scope of burning of fuel.
Hence mechanical power produced in the cylinder is also limited. An
improvement in the naturally aspirated engines is the super-charged or pressure
charged engines. During the suction stroke, pressurised stroke of high density is
being charged into the cylinder through the open suction valve. Air of higher
density containing more oxygen will make it possible to inject more fuel into
the same size of cylinders and produce more power, by effectively burning it. A
turbocharger, or turbo, is a gas compressor used for forced-induction of an
internal combustion engine. Like a supercharger, the purpose of a turbocharger
is to increase the density of air entering the engine to create more power.
However, a turbocharger differs in that the compressor is powered by a turbine
driven by the engine's own exhaust gases.

[12]
WORKING PRINCIPLE

The exhaust gas discharge from all the cylinders accumulate in the common
exhaust manifold at the end of which, turbo- supercharger is fitted. The gas
under pressure there after enters the turbo- supercharger through the torpedo
shaped bell mouth connector and then passes through the fixed nozzle ring.
Then it is directed on the turbine blades at increased pressure and at the most
suitable angle to achieve rotary motion of the turbine at maximum efficiency.
After rotating the turbine, the exhaust gas goes out to the atmosphere through
the exhaust chimney. The turbine has a centrifugal blower mounted at the other
end of the same shaft and the rotation of the turbine drives the blower at the
same speed. The blower connected to the atmosphere through a set of cyclonic
filters, sucks air from atmosphere, and delivers at higher velocity. The air then
passes through the diffuser inside the turbo- supercharger, where the velocity is
diffused toincrease the pressure of air before it is delivered from the turbo-
supercharger.Pressurising air increases its density, but due to compression heat
develops. It causes expansionand reduces the density. This affects supply of
high-density air to the engine. To take care of this,air is passed through a heat
exchanger known as after cooler. The after cooler is a radiator, wherecooling
water of lower temperature is circulated through the tubes and around the tubes
airpasses. The heat in the air is thus transferred to the cooling water and air
regains its lost density.From the after cooler air goes to a common inlet
manifold connected to each cylinder head. Inthe suction stroke as soon as the
inlet valve opens the booster air of higher pressure densityrushes into the
cylinder completing the process of super charging.The engine initially starts as
naturally aspirated engine. With the increased quantity of fuelinjection increases
the exhaust gas pressure on the turbine. Thus the self-adjusting systemmaintains
a proper air and fuel ratio under all speed and load conditions of the engine on
its own.The maximum rotational speed of the turbine is 18000/22000 rpm for
the Turbo supercharger and creates max. Of 1.8 kg/cm air pressure in air
manifold of diesel engine, known as BoosterAir Pressure (BAP). Low booster
pressure causes black smoke due to incomplete combustion of fuel. High
exhaust gas temperature due to after burning of fuel may result in
considerabledamage to the turbo supercharger and other component in the
engine.

[13]
Components of a turbo-supercharger

Turbo- supercharger consists of following main components:-

Gas inlet casing

Turbine casing
Intermediate casing
Blower casing with diffuser
Rotor assembly with turbine and rotor on the same shaft

List of turbo-superchargers used:-

TYPE POWER COOLING

ALCO 2600 hp Water Cooled
ABB TPL61 3100 hp Air Cooled
HISPANO SUIZA HS 3100 hp Air Cooled
5800 NG
GE 7S1716 3100 hp Water Cooled
NAPIER NA-295 2300/2600/3100 hp Water Cooled
ABB VTC 304 2300/2600/3100 hp Water Cooled

[14]
 FIP (Fuel Injection Pump) Section

All locomotive have individual fuel oil system. The fuel oil system is designed
to introduce fuel oil into the engine cylinders at the correct time, at correct
pressure, at correct quantity and correctly atomized. The system injects into the
cylinder correctly metered amount of fuel in highly atomized form. High
pressure of fuel is required to lift the nozzle valve and for better penetration of
fuel into the combustion chamber. High pressure also helps in proper
atomization so that the small droplets come in better contact with the
compressed air in the combustion chamber, resulting in better combustion.
Metering of fuel quantity is important because the locomotive engine is a
variable speed and variable load engine with variable requirement of fuel.Time
of fuel injection is also important for better combustion.

FUEL OIL SYSTEM

The fuel oil system consists of two integrated systems. These are -

FUEL INJECTION PUMP (F.I.P).

FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM.

[15]
FUEL INJECTION PUMP

It is a constant stroke plunger type pump with variable quantity of fuel delivery
to suit thedemands of the engine. The fuel cam controls the pumping stroke of
the plunger. The length of the stroke of the plunger and the time of the stroke is
dependent on the cam angle and camprofile, and the plunger spring controls the
return stroke of the plunger. The plunger movesinside the barrel, which has very
close tolerances with the plunger. When the plunger reaches tothe BDC, spill
ports in the barrel, which are connected to the fuel feed system, open up. Oil
thenfills up the empty space inside the barrel. At the correct time in the diesel
cycle, the fuel campushes the plunger forward, and the moving plunger covers
the spill ports. Thus, the oil trappedin the barrel is forced out through the
delivery valve to be injected into the combustion chamberthrough the injection
nozzle. The plunger has two identical helical grooves or helix cut at the topedge
with the relief slot. At the bottom of the plunger, there is a lug to fit into the slot
of thecontrol sleeve. When the rotation of the engine moves the camshaft, the
fuel cam moves theplunger to make the upward stroke.

It may also rotate slightly, if necessary through the engine governor, control
shaft, control rack, and control sleeve. This rotary movement of the plunger
along with reciprocating stroke changes the position of the helical relief in
respect to the spill port and oil, instead of being delivered through the pump
outlet, escapes back to the low pressure feed system. The governor for engine
speed control, on sensing the requirement of fuel, controls the rotary motion of
the plunger, while it also has reciprocating pumping strokes. Thus, the

[16]
alignment of helix relief with the spill ports will determine the effectiveness of
the stroke. If the helix is constantly in alignment with the spill ports, it bypasses
the entire amount of oil, and nothing is delivered by the pump.

The engine stops because of no fuel injected, and this is known as NO-FUEL
position. When alignment of helix relief with spill port is delayed, it results in a
partly effective stroke and engine runs at low speed and power output is not the
maximum. When the helix is not in alignment with the spill port throughout the
stroke, this is known as FULL FUEL POSITION, because the entire stroke is
effective. Oil is then passed through the delivery valve, which is spring loaded.
It opens at the oil pressure developed by the pump plunger. This helps in
increasing the delivery pressure of oil. It functions as a non-return valve,
retaining oil in the high pressure line. This also helps in snap termination of fuel
injection, to arrest the tendency of dribbling during the fuel injection. The
specially designed delivery valve opens up due to the pressure built up by the
pumping stroke of plunger. When the oil pressure drops inside the barrel, the
landing on the valve moves backward to increase the space available in the
high-pressure line. Thus, the pressure inside the high-pressure line collapses,
helping in snap termination of fuel injection. This reduces the chances of
dribbling at the beginning or end of fuel injection through the fuel injection
nozzles.

Fuel Injection Nozzle

The fuel injection nozzle or the fuel injector is fitted in the cylinder head with
its tip projected inside the combustion chamber. It remains connected to the
respective fuel injection pump with a steel tube known as fuel high pressure

[17]
line. The fuel injection nozzle is of multi-hole needle valve type operating
against spring tension. The needle valve closes the oil holes by blocking the oil
holes due to spring pressure. Proper angle on the valve and the valve seat, and
perfect bearing ensures proper closing of the valve. Due to the delivery stroke of
the fuel injection pump, pressure of fuel oil in the fuel duct and the pressure
chamber inside the nozzle increases. When the pressure of oil is higher than the
valve spring pressure, valve moves away from its seat, which uncovers the
small holes in the nozzle tip. High-pressure oil is then injected into the
combustion chamber through these holes in a highly atomized form. Due to
injection, hydraulic pressure drops, and the valve returns back to its seat
terminating the fuel injection, termination of fuel injection may also be due to
the bypassing of fuel injection through the helix in the fuel injection pump
causing a sudden drop in pressure.

CALIBRATION OF FUEL INJECTION PUMPS

Each fuel injection pump is subject to test and calibration after repair or over
haul to ensure that they deliver the same and stipulated amount of fuel at a
particular rack position. Every pump must deliver regulated and equal quantity
of fuel at the same time so that the engine output is optimum and at the same
time running is smooth with minimum vibration. The calibration and testing of
fuel pumps are done on a specially designed machine. The machine has a 5 HP
reversible motor to drive a cam shaft through V belt. The blended test oil of
recommended viscosity under controlled temperature is circulated through a
pump at a specified pressure for feeding the pump under test. It is very much

[18]
necessary to follow the laid down standard procedure of testing to obtain
standard test results. The pump under test is fixed on top of the cam box and its
rack set at a particular position to find out the quantum of fuel delivery at that
position. The machine is then switched on and the cam starts making delivery
strokes. A revolution counter attached to it is set to trip at 500 RPM or 100
RPM as required. With the cam making strokes, if the pump delivers any oil, it
returns back to the reservoir in normal state. A manually operated solenoid
switch is switched on and the oil is diverted to a measure glass till 300 strokes
are completed after operation of the solenoid switch. Thus the oil discharged at
300 working strokes of the pump is measured which should normally be within
the stipulated limit. The purpose of measuring the output in 300 strokes is to
take an average to avoid errors. The pump is tested at idling and full fuel
positions to make sure that they deliver the correct amount of fuel for
maintaining the idling speed and so also deliver full HP at full load. A counter
check of the result at idling is done on the reverse position of the motor which
simulates slow running of the engine. If the test results are not within the
stipulated limits as indicated by the makers then adjustment of the fuel rack
position may be required by moving the rack pointer, by addition or removal of
shims behind it. The thickness of shims used should be punched on the pump
body. The adjustment of rack is done at the full fuel position to ensure that the
engine would deliver full horse power. Once the adjustment is done at full fuel
position other adjustment should come automatically. In the event of
inconsistency in results between full fuel and idling fuel, it may call for change
of plunger and barrel assembly.

The calibration value of fuel injection pump as supplied by the makers is

tabulated in table 2 at300 working strokes, rpm -500, temp.-100 to 1200F &
pressure 40 PSI:

Calibration Value of different FIPs

Dia. of element(mm) Rack(mm) Required volume of fuel(cc)

15 mm 30 mm(full load)351cc +5/-10

9 mm (idling) 34 cc +1/-5

17 mm 28mm (full load) 401 cc +4/-11

9mm (idling) 45 cc +1/-5

[19]
Errors are likely to develop on the calibration machine in course of time and it
is necessary tocheck the machine at times with master pumps supplied by the
makers. These pumps areperfectly calibrated and meant for use as reference to
test the calibration machine itself. Twomaster pumps, one for full fuel and the
other for idling fuel are there and they have to be verycarefully preserved only
for the said purpose.

FUEL INJECTION NOZZLE TEST

The criteria of a good nozzle are good atomization, correct spray pattern and no
leakage ordribbling. Before a nozzle is put to test the assembly must be rinsed
in fuel oil, nozzle holescleaned with wire brush and spray holes cleaned with
steel wire of correct thickness.The fuel injection nozzles are tested on a
specially designed test stand, where the following testsare conducted.

SPRAY PATTERN

Spray of fuel should take place through all the holes uniformly and properly
atomized. While theatomization can be seen through the glass jar, an impression
taken on a sheet of blotting paper ata distance of 1 to 1 1/2 inch also gives a
clear impression of the spray pattern.

SPRAY PRESSURE

The stipulated correct pressure at which the spray should take place is 3900-
4050 psi for new and3700-3800 psi for reconditioned nozzles. If the pressure is
down to 3600 psi the nozzle needsreplacement. The spray pressure is indicated
in the gauge provided in the test machine. Shimsare being used to increase or
decrease the tension of nozzle spring which increases or decreasesthe spray
pressure.

DRIBBLING

There should be no loose drops of fuel coming out of the nozzle before or after
the injections. Infact the nozzle tip of a good nozzle should always remain dry.

[20]
The process of checking dribblingduring testing is by having injections
manually done couple of times quickly and checks thenozzle tip whether
leaky.Raising the pressure within 100 psi of set injection pressure and holding it
for about 10 secondsmay also give a clear idea of the leakage.The reasons of
nozzle dribbling are:-

(1) Improper pressure setting

(2) Dirt stuck up between thevalve and the valve seat

(3) Improper contact between the valve and valve seat

(4) Valve stickinginside the valve body.

[21]
 BOGIE

A Bogie is a wheeled wagon or trolley. In mechanics terms, a bogie is a chassis

or framework carrying wheels, attached to a vehicle. It can be fixed in place, as
on a cargo truck, mounted on a swivel, as on a railway carriage or locomotive,
or sprung as in the suspension of a caterpillar tracked vehicle. Bogies serve a
number of purposes:-

To support the rail vehicle body.

To run stably on both straight and curved track.
To ensure ride comfort by absorbing vibration, and minimizing
centrifugal forces when the train runs on curves at high speeds.
To minimize generation of track irregularities and rail abrasion.

Usually two bogies are fitted to each carriage, wagon or locomotive, one at each
end.

Key Components of Bogie

The Bogie frame.

Suspension system.
At least two wheel set, composed of an axle with a bearing and wheels at
each end.
Axle box suspension to absorb shocks between axle bearings and frame.
Brake equipment: Brake pads are applied on tread of the wheels.
Traction motors for transmission in each axle.

[22]
Classification

Bogie is classified into the various types described below on the basis of their
configuration in terms of number of axles and the design and structure of the
suspension. According to UIC classification two types of bogies in Indian
Railways are:-

1. BO-BO
2. CO-CO

A Bo-Bo is a locomotive with two independent four-wheeled bogies with all

axles powered by individual traction motors. Bo-Bo is mostly suited for express
passenger or medium-sized locomotives.

Co-Co is a code for a locomotive wheel arrangement with two six-wheeled

bogies with all axles powered, with a separate motor per axle. Co-Co is most
suited to freight work as the extra wheels give them good adhesion. They are
also popular because the greater number of axles results in a lower axle load to
the track.

Failure and remedies in the bogie section:-

Breakage of coiled springs due to heavy shocks or more weight or

defective material. They are tested time to time to check the compression
limit. Broken springs are replaced.
14 to 60 thou clearance is maintained between the axle and suspension
bearing. Lateral clearance is maintained between 60 and 312 thou. Less
clearance will burn the oil and will cause the seizure of axle. Condemned
parts are replaced.

[23]
 RDP tests are done on the frame parts, welded parts, corners, guide links
and rigid structures of bogie and minor cracks can be repaired by
welding.
Axle suspension bearings may seizure due to oil leakage, cracks etc. If
axle box bearings roller is damaged then replaced it completely.

[24]
 EXPRESSOR

In Indian Railways, the trains normally work on vacuum brakes and the diesel
locos on air brakes. As such provision has been made on every diesel loco for
both vacuum and compressed air for operation of the system as a combination
brake system for simultaneous application on locomotive and train.

In ALCO locos the exhauster and the compressor are combined into one unit
and it is known as EXPRESSOR. It creates 23" of vacuum in the train pipe and
140 PSI air pressure in the reservoir for operating the brake system and use in
the control system etc.

The expressor is located at the free end of the engine block and driven through
the extension shaft attached to the engine crank shaft. The two are coupled
together by fast coupling (Kopper's coupling). Naturally the expressor crank
shaft has eight speeds like the engine crank shaft. There are two types of
expressor are, 6CD, 4UC & 6CD, 3UC. In 6CD, 4UC expressor there are six
cylinder and four exhauster whereas 6CD, 3UC contain six cylinder and three
exhauster.

[25]
WORKING OF EXHAUSTER

Air from vacuum train pipe is drawn into the exhauster cylinders through the
open inlet valves in the cylinder heads during its suction stroke. Each of the
exhauster cylinders has one or two inlet valves and two discharge valves in the
cylinder head. A study of the inlet and discharge valves as given in a separate
diagram would indicate that individual components like (1) plate valve outer (2)
plate valve inner (3) spring outer (4) spring inner etc. are all interchangeable
parts. Only basic difference is that they are arranged in the reverse manner in
the valve assemblies which may also have different size and shape. The retainer
stud in both the assemblies must project upward to avoid hitting the piston.

The pressure differential between the available pressure in the vacuum train
pipe and inside the exhauster cylinder opens the inlet valve and air is drawn into
the cylinder from train pipe during suction stroke. In the next stroke of the
piston the air is compressed and forced out through the discharge valve while
the inlet valve remains closed. The differential air pressure also automatically
opens or closes the discharge valves, the same way as the inlet valves operate.
This process of suction of air from the train pipe continues to create required
amount of vacuum and discharge the same air to atmosphere. The VA-1 control
valve helps in maintaining the vacuum to requisite level despite continued
working of the exhauster.

Compressor

The compressor is a two stage compressor with one low pressure cylinder and
one high pressure cylinder. During the first stage of compression it is done in
the low pressure cylinder where suction is through a wire mesh filter. After
compression in the LP cylinder air is delivered into the discharge manifold at a
pressure of 30 / 35 PSI. Workings of the inlet and exhaust valves are similar to
that of exhauster which automatically open or close under differential air
pressure. For inter-cooling air is then passed through a radiator known as inter-
cooler. This is an air to air cooler where compressed air passes through the
element tubes and cool atmospheric air is blown on the outside fins by a fan
fitted on the expressor crank shaft. Cooling of air at this stage increases the
volumetric efficiency of air before it enters the high- pressure cylinder. A safety
valve known as inter cooler safety valve set at 60 PSI is provided after the inter
cooler as a protection against high pressure developing in the after cooler due to
defect of valves.

[26]
After the first stage of compression and after-cooling the air is again
compressed in a cylinder of smaller diameter to increase the pressure to 135-140
PSI in the same way. This is the second stage of compression in the HP
cylinder. Air again needs cooling before it is finally sent to the air reservoir and
this is done while the air passes through a set of coiled tubes after cooler.

[27]
 SPEEDOMETER

The electronic speedometer is intended to measure traveling speed and to record

the status of selected locomotive engine parameters every second. It comprises a
central processing unit that performs the basic functions, two monitors that are
used for displaying the measured speed values and entering locomotive drivers
identification data and drive parameters and a speed transducer. The
speedometer can be fitted into any of railway traction vehicles. The monitor is
mounted on every drivers place in a locomotive. It is connected to the CPU by
a serial link. Monitor transmits a driver, locomotive and train identifications
data to the CPU and receives data on travel speed, partial distance traveled, real
time and speedometer status from the CPU A locomotive driver communicates
with the speedometer using the monitor: a keyboard and alphanumeric displays
are used for authorization purposes, travel speed values are monitored on analog
and digital displays, whereas alphanumeric displays, LEDs and a buzzer signal
provide information on speedometer and vehicle status.

WORKING MECHANISM

Speedometer is a closed loop system in which opto-electronic pulse generator is

used to convert the speed of locomotive wheel into the corresponding pulses.
Pulses thus generated are then converted into the corresponding steps for
stepper motor. These steps then decide the movement of stepper motor which
rotates the pointer up to the desired position. A feedback potentiometer is also
used with pointer that provides a signal corresponding to actual position of the

[28]
pointer, which then compared with the step of stepper motor by measuring and
control section. If any error is observed, it corrected by moving the pointer to
corresponding position. Presently a new version of speed-time-distance recorder
cum indicator unit TELPRO is used in the most of the locomotive. Features and
other technical specification of this speedometer are given below.

Block Diagram for speedometer Pulse

Salient features

Light weight and compact in size

Adequate journey data recording capacity
Both analog and digital displays for speed
Both internal and external memories for data storage
Memory freeze facility
Step less wheel wear compensation
Dual sensor opto electronic pulse generator for speed sensing
Over speed audio visual alarm
7-digit odometer
User friendly Windows-based data extraction and analysis software
Graphical and tabular reports generation for easy analyzing of recorded
data
Cumulative, Trip-wise, Train-wise, Driver-wise and Date-wise report
generation
Master-Slave configuration

[29]
Applications

Speed indication for driver.

Administrative control of traction vehicle for traffic scheduling.
Vehicle trend analysis in case of derailment/accident.

[30]
 CYLINDER HEAD

The cylinder head is held on to the cylinder liner by seven hold down studs or
bolts provided on the cylinder block. It is subjected to high shock stress and
combustion temperature at the lower face, which forms a part of combustion
chamber. It is a complicated casting where cooling passages are cored for
holding water for cooling the cylinder head. In addition to this provision is
made for providing passage of inlet air and exhaust gas. Further, space has been
provided for holding fuel injection nozzles, valve guides and valve seat inserts
also.

Components of cylinder head

In cylinder heads valve seat inserts with lock rings are used as replaceable
wearing part. The inserts are made of stellite or weltite. To provide interference
fit, inserts are frozen in ice and cylinder head is heated to bring about a
temperature differential of 2500F and the insert is pushed into recess in cylinder
head. The valve seat inserts are ground to an angle of 44.50 whereas the valve is
ground to 450 to ensure line contact. (In the latest engines the inlet valves are
ground at 30 and seats are ground at 29.5). Each cylinder has 2 exhaust and 2
inlet valves of 2.85" in dia. The valves have stem of alloy steel and valve head
of austenitic stainless steel, butt-welded together into a composite unit. The
valve head material being austenitic steel has high level of stretch resistance and
is capable of hardening above Rockwell- 34 to resist deformation due to

[31]
continuous pounding action. The valve guides are interference fit to the cylinder
head with an interference of 0.0008" to 0.0018". After attention to the cylinder
heads the same is hydraulically tested at 70 psi and 1900F. The fitment of
cylinder heads is done in ALCO engines with a torque value of 550 Ft. lbs. The
cylinder head is a metal-to-metal joint on to cylinder.

ALCO 251+ cylinder heads are the latest generation cylinder heads, used in
updated engines, with the following feature:

Fire deck thickness reduced for better heat transmission.

Middle deck modified by increasing number of ribs (supports) to increase
its mechanical strength. The flying buttress fashion of middle deck
improves the flow pattern of water eliminating water stagnation at the
corners inside cylinder head.
Water holding capacity increased by increasing number of cores (14
instead of 11)
Use of frost core plugs instead of threaded plugs, arrest tendency of
leakage.
Made lighter by 8 kgs (Al spacer is used to make good the gap between
rubber grommet and cylinder head.)
Retaining rings of valve seat inserts eliminated.

Benefits:-

Better heat dissipation

Failure reduced by reducing crack and eliminating sagging effect of fire
deck area.

[32]
 PIT WHEEL LATHE

Various type of wear may occur on wheal tread and flange due to wheel skidding and
emergency breaking. Four type of wear may occur as follows:-

Tread wear
Root wear
Skid wear and
Flange wear

For maintaining the required profile pit wheel lathe are used. This lathe is installed in the
pit so that wheel turning is without disassembling the axle and lifting the loco and hence
the name pit wheel lathe

Wheel turning

Wheel turning on this lathe is done by rotating the wheels, both wheels of an axle are
placed on the four rollers, two for each wheel. Rollers rotate the wheel and a fixed turning
tool is used for turning the wheel.

[33]
Different gages are used in this section to check the tread profile. Name of these gauges
are:-

Star gauge
Root wear gauge
Flange wear gauge
J gauge

j-gauge is used to calculate the app. Dia of wheel.

Dia. Of wheel = 962 + 2 (j-gauge reading) mm

CAUSES OF WHEEL SKIDDING-

On excessive brake cylinder pressure (more than 2.5 kg/cm).

Using dynamic braking at higher speeds.
When at the time of application of dynamic braking, the brakes of loco would have
already been applied (in case of failure of D-1 Pilot valve).
Continue working, when C-3-W Distributor valve P/G handle is in wrong position.
Due to shunting of coaches with loco without connecting their B.P./vacuum pipe.
Shunting at higher speeds.
Continue working when any of the brake cylinders of loco has gotten jammed.
The time of application/release of brakes of any of the brake cylinder being larger
than the others.
When any of the axles gets locked during on the line.

[34]
 METALLURGICAL LAB

Specifications for carbon steels

Metallurgical lab concerns with the study of material composition and its
properties. Specimens are checked for its desired composition. In this section
various tests are conducted like hardness test, composition test e.g
determination of percentage of carbon, swelling test etc.
Functions of some alloying materials

[35]
Swelling test

Swelling test is performed for rubber in this test percentage increase in weight
of the rubber after immersing in solution is measured and increase in weight
should not be more than 20%. Two type of swelling test viz low swelling and
high swelling are performed in the lab. Three type of oil solution are used for
this purpose listed below:-

ASTM 1
ASTM 2
ASTM 3

Procedure

1. Select specimen for swelling test.

2. Note the weight of the specimen.

3. Put in the vessel containing ASTM 1 or ASTM 3.

4. Put the oven at 100 C.

5. Put the vessel in the oven for 72 hrs.

6. After 72 hrs. Weigh the specimen.

Rubber

Broadly there are two types of rubber:

1. Natural rubber- this has very limited applications. It is used in windows and
has a life of 1 year.

2. Synthetic rubber- this is further subdivided into five types.

VUNA-N (2 year life)

Polychloroprene or Neoprene (2 year life)
SBR (3 year life)
Betel (3 year life)
Silicone (3 year life).

[36]
VUNA-N rubber is used in oily or watery area; neoprene is used in areas
surrounded by oil and air while betel and silicone are used in areas subjected to
high temperatures such as in pistons.

When the fresh supply of rubber comes from the suppliers it is tested to know
its type. The test consists of two solutions, solution 1 and solution 2, which are
subjected to the vapors of the rubber under test and then the color change in
solution is used for determination of the type of rubber. The various color
changes are as follows:-

Violet- natural rubber

Pink- nitrile
Green-SBR

When no color change is observed the vapours are passed through solution 2.
The colour change in solution 2 is: Pink- neoprene.

Silicone produces white powder on burning. If there is no result on burning then

the rubber is surely betel.

ULTRASONIC TESTING

In ultrasonic testing, very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with center frequencies

ranging from 0.1-15 MHz and occasionally up to 50 MHz are launched into
materials to detect internal flaws or to characterize materials.

Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and other metals and alloys,
though it can also be used on concrete, wood and composites, albeit with less
resolution. It is a form of non-destructive testing.

ZYGLO TEST

The zyglo test is a nondestructive testing (NTD) method that helps to locate and
identify surface defects in order to screen out potential failure-producing
defects. It is quick and accurate process for locating surface flaws such as
shrinkage cracks, porosity, cold shuts, fatigue cracks, grinding cracks etc. The
ZYGLO test works effectively in a variety of porous and non-porous materials:

[37]
aluminum, magnesium, brass, copper, titanium, bronze, stainless steel, sintered
carbide, non-magnetic alloys, ceramics, plastic and glass. Various steps of this
test are given below:-

Step 1 pre-clean parts.

Step 2 apply penetrant
Step 3 remove penetrant
Step 4 dry parts
Step 5 apply developer
Step 6 inspection

RED DYE PENETRATION TEST (RDP)

Dye penetrant inspection (DPI), also called liquid penetrant inspection (LPI), is
a widely applied and low-cost inspection method used to locate surface-
breaking defects in all non-porous materials (metals, plastics, or ceramics).
Penetrant may be applied to all non-ferrous materials, but for inspection of
ferrous components magnetic particle inspection is preferred for its subsurface
detection capability. LPI is used to detect casting and forging defects, cracks,
and leaks in new products, and fatigue cracks on in-service components.

Principles

DPI is based upon capillary action, where low surface tension fluid penetrates
into clean and dry surface-breaking discontinuities. Penetrant may be applied to
the test component by dipping, spraying, or brushing. After adequate
penetration time has been allowed, the excess penetrant is removed, a developer
is applied. The developer helps to draw penetrant out of the flaw where a visible
indication becomes visible to the inspector.

[38]
 YEARLY MECHANICAL
In this section, major schedules such as M-24, M48 and M-72 are carried out.
Here, complete overhauling of the locomotives is done and all the parts are sent
to the respective section and new parts are installed after which load test is done
to check proper working of the parts. The work done in these sections are as
follows:

Repeating of all items of trip, quarterly and monthly schedule.

Testing of all valves of vacuum/compressed air system. Repair if
necessary.
Replacement of coalesce element of air dryer.
Reconditioning, calibration and checking of timing of FIP is done.
Injector is overhauled.
Cleaning of Bull gear and overhauling of gear-case is done.
RDP testing of radiator fan, greasing of bearing, checking of shaft and
keyway. Examination of coupling and backlash checking of gear unit is
done.
Checking of push rod and rocker arm assembly. Replacement is done if
bent or broken. Checking of clearance of inlet and exhaust valve is also
done.
Examination of piston for cracks, renew bearing shell of connecting rod
fitment. Checking of connecting rod elongation is done.
Checking of crankshaft thrust and deflection. Shims are added if
deflection is more than the tolerance limit.
Main bearing is discarded if it has embedded dust, or gives evidence of
fatigue failure or has worn.
Checking of cracks in water header and elbow. Install new gaskets in the
air intake manifold. Overhauling of exhaust manifold is done.
Checking of cracks in crankcase, lube oil header, jumper and tube
leakage in lube oil cooler. Replace or dummy of tubes is done.
Lube oil system- Overhauling of pressure regulating valves, by pass
valve, lube oil filters and strainers is done.
Fuel oil system- Overhauling of pressure regulating valve, pressure relief
valve, primary and secondary filters.
Checking of rack setting, governor to rack linkage, fuel oil high-pressure
line is done.

[39]
 Cooling water system- draining of the cooling water from system and
cleaning with new water carrying 4 kg tri-phosphate is done. All water
system gaskets are replaced. Water drain cock is sealed. Copper vent
pipes are changed and water hoses are renewed.
Complete overhauling of water pump is done. Checking of impeller shaft
for wear and lubrication of ball bearing. Water and oil seal renewal.
Complete overhauling of expressor/compressor, pistons rings and oil seal
renewed. Expressor orifice test is carried out.
Complete overhauling of Turbo supercharger is done. Dynamic balancing
and Zyglo test of the turbine/impeller is done. Also, hydraulic test of
complete Turbo supercharger is done.
Overhauling of after-cooler is done. Telltale hole is checked for water
leak.
Inspection of the crankcase cover gasket and diaphragm is done. It is
renewed if necessary.
Rear T/Motor blower bearing are checked and changed. Greasing of
bearing is done.
Cyclonic filter rubber bellows and rubber hoses are changed. Air intake
filter and vacuum oil bath filter are cleaned and oiled.
Radiators are reconditioned; fins are straightened by hydraulic test to
detect leakage and cleaning by approved chemical.
Bogie- Checking of frame links, spring, equalizing beam locating roller
pins for free movement, buffer height, equalizer beam for cracks, rail
guard distance is done. Refilling of center plate and loading pads is done.
Journal bearings are reconditioned.
Axle box- cleaning of axle box housing is done.
Wheels- inspection for fracture or flat spot. Wheel are turned and gauged.
Checking of wear on horn cheek liners and T/M snubber wear plates.
Checking of brake parts for wear, lubrication of slack adjusters is done.
Inspection for fatigue, crack and distortion of center buffers couplers, side
buffers are done.
Traction motor suspension bearing- cleaning of wick assembly, checking
of wear in motor nose suspension. Correct fitment of felt wick lubricators
is ensured. Axle boxes are refilled with fresh oil. Testing of all pressure
vessels is carried out.

[40]
Examination while Engine is running.

Expressor orifice test is performed. Engine over speed trip assembly

operation, LWS operation are checked. Checking of following items is
done:
Water and oil leakage at telltale hole of water pump, turbo return pipes
for leakage and crack, air system for leakage, fuel pump and pipes for
leakage, exhaust manifold for leaks, engine lube oil pressure at idle, turbo
for smooth run down as engine is stopped. Difference in vacuum between
vacuum reservoir pipe and expressor crankcase & and pressure difference
across lube oil filters at idle and full engine speed are recorded.
Brakes at all application positions are checked. Checking of fast and
flexible coupling is done and the expressor is properly aligned. Inspection
of camshaft, lubrication of hand brake lever and chain.
Speedometer- Overhaul, testing of speed recorder and indicator, pulse
generator is done.

Additional items for WDP1:-

Overhauling and operation of TBU is done, center pivot pin is checked, and
CPP bush housing liners are checked for wear, inspection of vibration dampers
for oil leakage and their operation. RDP test is done to check for cracks at
critical location in the bogie frame. Checking of coil springs for free height.

Additional items for WDP2 locos:-

Check for cracks in bogie frame and bolster. Checking of hydraulic dampers for
oil leakage. Check coil spring for free height. Zyglo test of guide link bolts is
performed. Examination of taper roller bearing for their condition and clearance
is done. Check and change center pivot liners. Checking of tightness of nuts on
brake head pin. Disassembly, cleaning, greasing, repairing, replacement of
brake cylinder parts is done. Ultrasonic test of axles is performed. Visual
Examination of suspension springs for crack and breakage. Checking of free
and working height of spring. Inspection of bull gear for any visible damage is
done and the teeth profile is checked. Test loco on load box as per RDSO
standards.

[41]
 Project Work
To Study the air brake system in a Diesel Locomotive

Layout of an air brake system

Types of Braking System

Air brake system is for replacing the vacuum break system. New air break
wagons are introduced in the Indian railways, resulting in need to design
locomotive brake system, which can operate the older vacuum braked wagons
as well as newly introduce air brake ones. This has led to the design of the 28
LAV-1 dual Break system which is adopted by the Indian railway for
indigenously build diesel locomotive WDM2c for hauling both graduated
release air braked stock as well as standard vacuum braked train.

[42]
Advantages of Air Brakes over Vacuum Brakes

Easy to maintain
Lesser weight
Main cost low (about 1/5th of vacuum brake Stock)
Pre departure delays less (about 50 to 60 secsvs 4 mins for vac. Br.)
Possibility of longer train formation (about 2000 meters without pr. Drop
in brake van) vs ( max. 600 meters long for vacuum train due to vacuum
drop > 30% at brake van)
Brake power drop is negligible in every 400 kms for air brake train
(significant in case of vacuum brake stock)
No brake fade in down grades due to inherent inexhaustibility ( in
vacuum brake stock it is significant and require additional loco in down
grades)
Braking distance is quite low (about 550 to 870 m at 75 kmph) vs In
vacuum brake stock it is quite long (about 1150 to 1780 mtrs at 75 kmph)
Percentage ineffectiveness is 10 times lesser than vacuum brake stock.

[43]
INDEPENDENT BRAKING SYSTEM

Independent Brake/loco Brake handle (SA9) has 3 position - Application,

Release, Quick release.When (SA9) handle is brought in application
position,SA9 port 30 connects port 20 and starts supplying pilot air to C2-Relay
air valve.The pilot air passes through MU2B Valve port no. 2 & 20 and inters to
C2-Relay at port no.2.

The pilot air pressure depends upon the handle position; in full application it is
3.5kg/cm2. The C2-relay air valve actuates after getting pilot air and connects
MR pressure to brake cylinders of locomotive through port no.1 & 3. The brake
cylinder pressure depends upon pilot air pressure, supplied into C2-Relay
chamber through port no.2.

The locomotive brake can be graduated on and off with either the automatic
(A9) or the independent brake valves (SA9). It is always possible to release the
locomotive brakes with the SA9 valve. Gauge line connection is taken from BC
pipe near front truck of locomotive to the drivers control stand for indicating
brake cylinder pressure.

[44]
[45]
SA-9 Independent Valves

The SA9 Independent Brake Valve maintains 3.5kg/cm2-air pressure in the

independent brake system against normal leakage through C2-Relay valve. It is
suppose to maintain graduated application and release according to its handle
position.The SA9 Independent Brake Valve consists of a selflapping regulating
portion, which supplies or exhausts air pressure for piloting the graduated
application or release of brake cylinder pressure on the locomotive. This brake
valve also includes a quick release valve.

[46]
C2 Relay Valves

The C-2 Relay Valve is a diaphragm operated, self-lapping valve which

functions to supply and exhaust brake cylinder air pressure during brake
applications and release.

The C2-Relay valve maintains 3.5kg/cm2-air pressure in locomotive brake

system against normal leakage.

[47]
Classification Of Types Of Brakes In 28 LAV-1 Brake System

1. A9 brake
2. SA 9 brake

SA9 braking system is used only for loco and is purely air brake. It is used
when loco is run ideally without train. A9 braking system is used for train as
well as loco. It may be air brake or vacuum brake according to the type of train
attached to loco.
These braking systems are used on loco model 28LA V dual brake system.
L-Loco, A-air, V-vacuum.
The compressed air or vacuum needed for a device called expressor mounted on
engine extension shaft produces braking.
Expressor = exhauster + compressor
The expressor contains 6 cylinders, 3 of which produced compressed air and 3
of them are used for creating vacuum. These are 2 low-pressure cylinders and
one high-pressure cylinder.

SALIENT FEATURES

The salient features of 28 LAV-1 dual brake system are as under

Locomotive brake may be applied with any desired pressure between

the maximum and minimum and this pressure automatically maintained
in the locomotive brake cylinder against normal leakage from then until
released by the driver brake value.

To locomotive brakes can be applied to any level between release and

full application with either the automatic or independent brake values.

Emergency brake application to vent directly brake pipe and vacuum

drain pipe simultaneously is possible.

It is always possible to release the locomotive brakes with the train

brakes remained applied.

Dynamic brake interlock to prevent simultaneously application of

automatic air brakes and dynamic brakes on loco.

[48]
 Visual indication in drives lab through airflow indicator device during
train parting or low parting or guards emergency valve operation during
heavily of air brake stock.

Vacuum Brake

Keeping the differences between top and bottom chamber of the brake
cylinder, Very gradually brakes can be applied. This type of brakes was used
in locomotives. Force applied and the brake shoe can be calculated by area
of piston and length of stroke.

Area of piston was = 18 sq.

Length of stroke of piston = 4 to 4 for maximum difference of vacuum.

Utilization time of brake was 30 into 45min.

Maximum produce for applying brake

Create vacuum in top and bottom chambers of piston.

Apply brake means distributing the vacuum in the bottom chamber,.

From the levers brake are applied

Neutralized the vacuum in top and bottom chamber.

Again create the vacuum and again the brake will be applied.

Disadvantages:

Not suitable for high speed operations.

Brake cylinder and piston are very heavy.
Occupying large space, it used pneumatic 18 cylinder, which
can be replaced by 8 cylinder.
Application and replace time of brakes is large.

[49]
 1st wagon will get braking effort 1st and last will get when all
the brake are applied.
Vacuum will be very high at 1st wagon and very low at the lastvehicle or
wagon.
Do not have uniform braking thorough out the trains.

Pneumatic or air brake system:-

Air brake system use compressed air at 70 PSI for the application
of brake.
Used for high-speed train operation and uses very low amount of
air in the system.

Advantages:
Light in weight.
Uniform pressure throughout the length Of the train and apply
brakes equally in all the wagon or vehicles.

Advantages of Air Brake System over Vacuum System

In AB system the application of breaks the required air pressure is

build quickly and hence the brake can be applied again in almost no
time but in VB system after the vacuum has been destroyed during
braking it takes a little time foe again generating the vacuum. So the
brakes if needed to apply after very less time cant be activated.

In AB system the whole of the pressure generated for application of

brakes is not used during braking. Only a portion of the applied
pressure is used, hence its quick action.Any kind of accident can rip
open vacuum pipe hence destroying the vacuum and instant
application of brakes is there.

[50]