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Abstract
A model is presented to simulate the behaviour of an axisymmetric volatile liquid droplet impacting on a hot solid
surface in the lm boiling region. A volume of uid (VOF) algorithm is used to model the gross deformation of the
droplet. This algorithm is coupled to a separate one-dimensional algorithm used to model uid ow within the viscous
vapour layer existing between the droplet and solid surface. Heat transfer within the solid, liquid and vapour phases is
solved, and a kinetic theory treatment is used to calculate conditions existing at the non-equilibrium interfaces of the
vapour layer. 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Film boiling; Droplet impacts; Volume of uid (VOF); Leidenfrost; Spray cooling
0017-9310/01/$ - see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 1 7 - 9 3 1 0 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 3 0 3 - 3
2634 D.J.E. Harvie, D.F. Fletcher / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 44 (2001) 26332642
characteristics of actual impacts [4]. It was demonstrated has been studied by numerous researchers further de-
by Harvie that the Buyevich et al. model is unsuccessful tails can be found in [13].
because the cylindrical droplet form assumed is not able A greater number of analytical droplet studies have
to reproduce the continuous deformation of an actual been concerned with the Leidenfrost phenomenon, or
droplet as it approaches a solid surface. As the Inada steady-state droplet lm boiling. Such studies include
and Yang model also assumes that the droplet form is those by Gottfried et al. [14], Wachters et al. [15], Sen
cylindrical, and uses similar thermal assumptions to the and Law [16], Nguyen and Avedisian [17] and Zhang
Buyevich et al. model, similar conclusions regarding the and Gogos [18]. These studies generally assume a geo-
validity of the Inada and Yang model can be drawn [4]. metrical form for the evaporating droplet, and in a
Fujimoto and Hatta [5] have simulated the basic similar fashion to the model presented here, determine
hydrodynamics of transition boiling droplet impinge- the pressures existing within the vapour layer by solving
ment using a single phase two-dimensional MAC-type the NavierStokes equations. These studies have been
solution method. In their study, the droplet was as- successful in predicting droplet heat transfer rates and
sumed to contact the solid surface during the expansion droplet evaporation times, especially for small diameter
phase of the impact, but in the later half of the impact droplets where the droplet form is stable and nearly
when the droplet began to recollect, they assumed that a spherical.
vapour layer formed beneath the droplet. Computa- This paper forms the rst of two papers on the sub-
tionally, these assumptions were implemented using rst ject of lm boiling droplet impacts. In this paper, the
a no-slip boundary condition at the lower surface of the theory and assumptions used in the development of an
droplet, followed by a slip boundary condition. Several impact model are presented. In Part II, simulations of
impacts of water droplets whose initial diameter was less droplet impacts are compared against real droplet im-
than 0.5 mm were simulated, and the hydrodynamic pacts, to validate the impact model, and also to examine
comparison against previously performed experimental aspects of this lm boiling process [19].
impacts [6] was reasonable. The droplet impact model presented in this work is
Other droplet impact models include the semi- composed of two main parts. To model the gross
empirical transition impact boiling models of Bolle and movement of the liquid droplet, a volume of uid (VOF)
Moureau [7] and Toda [8], and the analytical nucleate uid dynamics model has been developed. To model the
boiling model of Savic [9]. Droplet impact and spreading behaviour of the vapour between the liquid and solid
under isothermal conditions has been simulated pre- phases, and to model the heat transfer occurring within
viously by Harlow and Shannon [10], Hatta et al. [11] the solid, liquid and vapour phases, a separate uid
and Rieber and Frohn [12], amongst others. The simu- dynamics model has been developed, termed the vapour
lation of droplet impact and subsequent solidication layer model. The computational coding used to execute
D.J.E. Harvie, D.F. Fletcher / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 44 (2001) 26332642 2635
these two models is called `BOUNCE'. In this study we 3. Viscous vapour layer code
will detail rstly the VOF algorithm, followed by the
vapour layer algorithm. Flow within the vapour layer is calculated using a
computational code separate to the main droplet dy-
namics VOF code. Specically, this is because the di-
2. The volume of uid droplet code mensions of the vapour layer are several orders of
magnitude smaller than the dimensions of the droplet,
The BOUNCE VOF code is based on the well-doc- and as a result, attempting to use the same computa-
umented SOLA-VOF code of Nichols et al. [20], how- tional mesh for both would result in an impractically
ever the algorithm has been extensively modied to expensive computational code. Also, by developing a
reect advances that have been made in computational new code for the viscous vapour layer, model as-
free surface ows over the past two decades. sumptions specic to the layer can be employed, thus
The BOUNCE VOF code solves the full incom- allowing greater eciency and exibility of the code
pressible NavierStokes equations on an orthogonal compared with more standard uid dynamics algo-
cylindrical two-dimensional mesh. Momentum advec- rithms.
tion and viscous stress terms are treated implicitly, using
an iterative solution procedure [4], and the momentum 3.1. Theory and assumptions
advection terms are evaluated using a linear combina-
tion of upwind and central dierencing [20]. The conti- Fig. 1 shows the basic variables used to analyse the
nuity and momentum equations are combined to form viscous vapour layer. The problem is dened in two-
the so-called Pressure Poisson Equation, which is solved dimensional cylindrical coordinates, with r representing
throughout the computational domain using an In- the radial direction and z the vertical or axial direction.
complete Cholesky Conjugate Gradient (ICCG) inver- The droplet is separated from the solid surface by a
sion algorithm [21,22]. distance d, which is a function of r. The vapour has
The location of the droplet-free surface is calculated velocity components u and v in the r and z directions,
using a volume of uid (VOF) method [20]. Under this respectively.
method, a VOF function is dened which has the value The atmosphere surrounding the droplet is assumed
of one within the droplet, and zero in the surrounding to contain a mixture of the vapour form of the droplet
atmosphere. As the VOF function does not vary in a liquid, and air, with the initial proportions chosen so
continuous fashion between uid phases, advection of that the atmosphere is saturated with droplet vapour.
the function requires a special technique. The technique Thus, a droplet held in the assumed atmosphere and
chosen for these simulations was that of the Dened away from any hot solid surface would not change in
Donating Region VOF advection algorithm [4,23], this volume, and a droplet initially heated to saturation
being a volume conservative algorithm ideally suited to temperature corresponding to atmospheric pressure
computationally expensive problems which require both would be surrounded by an atmosphere containing only
high spatial accuracy and advection stability. droplet vapour.
Surface tension is applied using the Continuum
Surface Model (CSF) model of Brackbill et al. [24].
Under this method surface tension surface forces are
replaced by surface tension volume forces, which act in
a small number of computational cells surrounding the
free surface interface transition region. Surface curva-
tures are calculated using the method outlined by Kothe
et al. [21], with a correction included to account for the
position of the actual uid interface relative to the cell in
which the force is applied [4]. The surface tension co-
ecient is assumed to be constant and equal to the
coecient evaluated at the initial temperature of the
uid.
The pressure force resulting from the viscous vapour
layer, which is calculated by the separate vapour layer
code, is applied using an interface region surface force
[4]. The method of application is analogous to the
method used to apply the surface tension force, although
the vapour layer force is applied only to the lower sur- Fig. 1. The basic variables used in the viscous vapour layer
face of the droplet. analysis.
2636 D.J.E. Harvie, D.F. Fletcher / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 44 (2001) 26332642
the vicinity of the liquidvapour and solidvapour in- 3.1.1.3. Vapour mixture solution. For the purposes of
terfaces, respectively. The viscous ow Eq. (4) can now determining the proportions of droplet vapour and air
be integrated twice in the vertical direction to yield within the vapour layer, the total vapour pressure be-
neath the droplet is specied by the ideal gas assumption
1 dP z2 z hs
ur; z r P Pv Pa ; 12
lm dr 2 d hs hl
d dP d where Pv is the partial droplet vapour pressure, and Pa is
ul r r hl : 8
lm dr 2 the partial air pressure.
BOUNCE uses an incompressible gas assumption
By averaging the vapour velocity across the height of
when solving the NavierStokes equations, but an ideal
the vapour layer, and by dening Sr to be the volume
gas assumption when determining the vapour layer
ow rate of vapour mixture within the layer, Eq. (8) can
constitution. Incompressible ow within the vapour
be manipulated to yield
2 layer has been assumed when solving the momentum
1 dP d hl d2 hs d2 equations because total gauge pressures generated
Sr 2prd r d
lm dr 6 d hl hs within the vapour layer are small compared with at-
d
mospheric pressure, so variations in constituent vapour
hs 2
ul r ; 9 densities within the layer are only small.
d hl hs
Utilising Eq. (12), and assuming that the gases are
which is the nal form of the momentum equation used well mixed across the small height of the vapour layer,
in the vapour layer ow solution. the volume fractions of air and droplet vapour within
Note that if we assume that the mean free path of the the layer can be expressed as, respectively,
vapour mixture is large compared with the height of the Pa r Pv r
vapour layer and apply a no slip velocity boundary ya r and yv r 1 ya r: 13
P r P r
condition, assume that the vapour layer contains only
droplet vapour, and further assume that the velocity of The vapour layer density is given by,
the uid on the underside of the droplet is zero, then Eq.
qm r ya rqa 1 ya rqv ; 14
(9) can be manipulated to give the average vapour layer
velocity within the vapour layer as where the air density, qa , and droplet vapour density, qv ,
2
d oP are determined at atmospheric pressure and at the av-
ur r: 10 erage vapour layer temperature of
12l or
Ts;i Tsat Patmos
This equation was used by Gottfried et al. [14] in their Tv : 15
2
work on quasi-steady droplet evaporation, and Buye-
vich and Mankevich [2] in their work on droplet im- The vapour layer thermal conductivity, km , and vapour
pacts. layer dynamic viscosity, lm are dened similarly.
To determine the volume fraction of air within the
3.1.1.2. Total vapour conservation. Continuity require- vapour layer, a conservation analysis similar to that
ments within the vapour layer are solved by considering presented in the previous section is used, yielding the
conservation of uid volume on a cylinder of radius r0 , integral transport equation [4],
contained within the layer. Noting that the height of the Z 0
2p r ddr dya r
vapour layer is not constant, and that vapour is pro- ya r0 y a r dr r dr: 16
S r 0 0 dt dt
duced at the lower surface of the droplet, the analysis
yields the integral continuity equation [4], The initial air volume fraction is determined by as-
Z r0 suming that the atmosphere surrounding the droplet is
od
Sr0 2p _
wr r r dr: 11 saturated and at the initial temperature of the droplet.
0 ot
To determine the pressures generated within the
The dierential term contained within the integral of vapour layer, Eqs. (9), (11) and (16) are solved simul-
Eq. (11) is responsible for calculating vapour volume taneously using an iterative solution method. Note
ow rates resulting from changes in the vapour layer that when integrating equation (9), the pressure at the
height. This term was not included in the analysis of extremity of the vapour layer is assumed to be at-
Buyevich et al. [1], despite the studied problem being mospheric.
fully transient. The term can signicantly aect droplet
dynamics by increasing vapour layer pressures as the 3.1.2. Droplet vaporisation velocity model
droplet nears the solid surface, and decreasing vapour The droplet vaporisation velocity, w, _ is dened as
layer pressures as the droplet moves away. the velocity at which vapour is produced at the lower
2638 D.J.E. Harvie, D.F. Fletcher / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 44 (2001) 26332642
surface of the droplet. In order to calculate this velocity, 2 mm, simulations indicate that the droplet is in resi-
heat transfer rates within the solid, vapour mixture and dence with the surface for a time period of the order of 5
liquid phases must be calculated. ms. Thus p the
thermal diusion length, conservatively
Fig. 2 shows temperature variables dened for the dened as at, is of the order of 0.2 mm. This length is
vaporisation velocity calculation. Note that tempera- considerably less than the diameter of the droplet.
tures are dependent on r as well as z this gure illus- Consequently, heat transfer within the solid is domi-
trates temperatures at only one radial location. The nated by conduction in the axial rather than in the radial
temperatures of the solid and liquid phases are repre- direction, and the heat diusion Eq. (17) can be sim-
sented by Ts r; z and Tl r; z, respectively, and the initial plied to give,
temperatures of the solid and liquid phases are Ts;i and
oTs o2 Ts
Tl;i , respectively. The temperature of the solid at the as 2 : 18
ot oz
solid-vapour interface is Tss r, and the temperature of
the vapour at the solidvapour interface is Tsv r. Simi- In order to integrate Eq. (18) to nd the temperature
larly, the temperature of the liquid at the liquidvapour distribution within the solid, boundary conditions are
interface is Tll r, and the temperature of the vapour at required to describe conditions at the solidvapour in-
the liquid-vapour interface is Tlv r. terface, and within the body of the solid.
Also shown in Figure 2 are heat transfer rates exist- At the solidvapour interface, the rate of heat loss to
ing at both the liquidvapour and solidvapour inter- the vapour phase is given by Fourier's Law as
faces. The heat transfer rate out of the solid is qs , the
oTs
heat transfer rate into the bulk of the liquid is ql , and the qs r ks r; 0: 19
oz
heat transfer rate across the vapour region is qv . These
heat transfer rates are all functions of r. For the internal solid boundary condition, we assume
that the solid has a thickness which is large compared
3.1.2.1. Solid phase heat transfer. In two-dimensional with the thermal diusion length, so that
cylindrical coordinates, the heat diusion equation de-
Ts r; 1 Ts;i : 20
scribing conduction within the solid is [26],
Eq. (18), combined with (Eqs. 19) and (20), and a
oT 1 o oT o2 T
as r 2 ; 17 knowledge of the heat loss rate from the solid, qs r,
ot r or or oz
provide a solution for the temperature distribution
where a constant thermal conductivity, ks , for the solid within the solid phase.
has been assumed. The thermal diusivity for the solid is
as ks =cs qs , where cs is the specic heat and qs is the 3.1.2.2. Vapour phase heat transfer. In two-dimensional
density of the solid. cylindrical coordinates, the equation for conservation of
During hot surface droplet impacts, solid tempera- thermal energy in an incompressible uid, assuming
ture variations in the radial direction are typically small constant thermal conductivity, is given as [27],
compared with variations in the axial direction. To il-
oT oT oT k 1 o oT o2 T
lustrate this point, for solids which are examined in this u v r 2
ot or oz cp q r or or oz
study, the thermal diusivity is typically of the order "
1 10 5 m2 /s. For a droplet with a diameter of around l ou
2 u 2
2
cp q or r
2 2 #
T (r ) ov 1 ov ou
: 21
qs qv ql oz 2 or oz
T s, i
Ts (z , r )
Tss (r )
w Eq. (21) can be greatly simplied to represent heat
transfer within the vapour layer, by examining the
magnitude of each of the constituent terms:
Tsv (r ) Tlv (r )
1. Using the assumptions that were made in Section
3.1.1 regarding the geometry of the vapour layer,
Tll (r ) Tl (z , r ) we conclude that all terms in Eq. (21) which represent
(r ) Tl ,i changes in the radial direction are small compared
with terms representing changes in the axial direction,
z
as the height of the vapour layer is considerably
solid vapour mixture liquid
smaller than the radius of the vapour layer.
Fig. 2. Liquid, vapour mixture and solid temperatures at radius 2. Comparing the convection and conduction terms in
r used in the calculation of the vaporisation velocity, w.
_ Eq. (21), the non-dimensional ratio vd=am is small,
D.J.E. Harvie, D.F. Fletcher / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 44 (2001) 26332642 2639
and thus, the axial convective term in Eq. (21) can be where F is the local VOF fraction. Note that for liquids
neglected. commonly involved in hot surface droplet impacts,
3. Similarly, comparing the conductive and viscous gen- thermal energy generation by viscous dissipation is
eration terms in Eq. (21), we note that the thermal negligible, as the dimensionless parameter 2lu2 =kT is
conductivity, k, for gases of interest in this study is small.
several orders of magnitude larger than the absolute As in the solid conduction analysis of Section
viscosity, l, for these same gases. Thus, the non-di- 3.1.2.1,pwe
evaluate the characteristic thermal diusion
mensional ratio 2lu2 =kT is small, and consequently, time, at, for a typical droplet liquid. The thermal
the viscous dissipation terms in Eq. (21) may be diusivity of liquids used in droplet impacts is typically
neglected. of the order 2 10 7 m2 /s. For an approximate impact
4. Finally, droplet and solid surface temperature varia- time of 5 ms for a 2 mm diameter droplet, this gives a
tions in time are small compared with temperature thermal diusion length of the order of 0.03 mm. As
variations across the vapour layer in the axial direc- this diusion length is considerably smaller than the
tion, and consequently, the temporal term in dimensions of the droplet, we can again assume that
Eq. (21) can be neglected. the eect of conduction in the radial direction is neg-
Utilising these assumptions, Eq. (21) reduces to the ligible compared with conduction in the axial direction,
one-dimensional steady-state conduction equation, and the radial conduction term in Eq. (25) can be
neglected.
o2 Tv Eq. (25) provides a solution to the temperature dis-
0: 22
oz2 tribution within the droplet in terms of absolute coor-
dinates coordinates that are relative to the solid
Integrating twice in the axial direction, using the solid
surface. For the computational solution, it is more
surface and liquid surface temperatures as boundary
convenient to work with a combination of absolute co-
conditions gives the temperature distribution within the
ordinates, and coordinates which are relative to the
vapour layer as
lower surface of the droplet.
z Dening a relative coordinate system using dashed
Tv Tsv Tlv Tsv : 23
d variables,
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