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ENGINEERING
ENCYCLOPEDIA
A Condensed Encyclopedia and Mechanical
Dictionary for Engineers, Mechanics, Tech-
nical Schools, Industrial Plants, and Public
Libraries, Giving the Most Essential Facts
about 4500 Important Engineering Subjects
Edited by
FRANKLIN D. JONES
VOLUME 11
SECOND EDITION
1954 REVISIONS
788
L-734
a preserving action on the oil with which it is combined. It
Lang's Lay Rope. In the regular type of wire rope, the wires
of the strands are twisted in one direction and the strands them-
selves are laid into the rope in the other direction. In the Lang's
lay rope, both the wires in the strands and the strands in the rope
are twisted in the same direction. Such a rope is more easily
untwisted than one made in the ordinary or "regular-lay" man-
ner, and it is more difficult to tuck the strands securely in a splice,
but the Lang's lay rope is, nevertheless, used to some extent, be-
cause it resists external wear and grip action much better than
the regular-lay rope. This type of rope, however, should not be
used unless assurance has been given by the rope manufacturers
that it is adapted for the service for which it is intended. No
universal rule can be given regarding its application, but its use
is limited as compared with the regular-lay
rope.
Lantern Pinions. Lantern pinions are formed of two disks
between which are "rounds" of steel wire or rod to serve as
teeth or "leaves." This type of pinion has been used extensively
in clock mechanisms, and formerly was employed in connection
with primitive millwright work. Lantern pinions are not adapted
to driving, and in clock mechanisms they are the driven members.
735 -L
An accumulation of dirt that would stop the action of an ordinary
cut pinion is simply pushed through between the rounds of a
lantern pinion, which, therefore, continues to function. This is
an important advantage of this type of pinion as applied par-
ticularly to low-priced clocks which frequently operate under
unfavorable conditions.
.OUTSIDE LAP
point of cut-off in the case of a single slide valve depends upon the
amount of outside lap, the greater the lap, the earlier the cut-off,
and the greater the expansion of the steam. The inside lap is the
amount that the valve overlaps the inner edge of the steam port
when in mid-position. Increasing the inside lap increases com-
pression and delays the point at which the steam is released from
the cylinder, whereas diminishing the inside lap decreases
compression and hastens the point of release.
of lapping ma-
Lapping Machines. There are several types
chines. One special design used for lapping precision gage blocks
has two flat laps of circular form. The lower lap is attached to
the base of the machine, and the upper lap is secured to an arm
by a connection which permits the lap to move freely in any direc-
tion but not to revolve. This arm is pivoted at one end so that
the upper lap can be swung to one side to expose the lower lap and
the work. When a machine is in use, one lap is above the other,
and the gage blocks are between them, so that both the upper and
lower surfaces of the blocks are lapped simultaneously. When the
blocks are to be removed or inserted in the machine, the upper
lap is swung out of the way. Between these two cast-iron laps,
there is a steel plate or "spider" which contains holes into which
the blocks to be lapped are inserted. The upper and lower laps
remain stationary, while the spider receives a planetary motion
which brings each block into contact with the entire surface of
each lap.
Lapping Machine for Cylindrical Parts: A machine designed
for lapping cylindrical parts is equipped with two lapping wheels
between which there is a spider for holding a number of pins in
position. In operation, the upper lap is lowered on the parts to
be lapped, and the variation in the lapping wheel speeds causes
the parts to rotate and creep slowly in a circular path. There are,
in fact, three movements which insure accurate results.
being called the latent heat of fusion, and the latter, the latent
heat of evaporation. The heat which disappears in this manner
is converted into mechanical work, and is used in tearing apart
the molecules, and, hence, produces no change in the temperature
of the substance. When the gas changes back to a liquid, or the
liquid to a solid, the latent heat is again given out. The action
described may be illustrated by the melting of ice into water, and
the evaporation of the water into steam. When heat is applied
to a piece of ice in an open vessel, it gradually melts, but the
temperature of the water remains at 32 degrees until all of the
ice has been melted, the heat having been used in the process of
changing the ice into water. If heat is still applied, the tem-
perature of the water will rise until it reaches 212 degrees F., at
which point evaporation takes place, and although heat is con-
stantly applied, the temperature of the water remains constant
until it is all evaporated into steam. If the steam were collected
and condensed, and the water cooled to 32 degrees F. and frozen,
all of the heat which had been supplied would again be given out.
Latent heat plays an important part in the operation of a boiler
and the generation of steam. When it is said that the latent heat
of evaporation of water is 966.6, this means that it takes 966,6
heat units to evaporate one pound of water after it has been
raised to the boiling point, 212 degrees F.
b sinB
In a triangle, the square of any side is equal to the sum of the
squares of the other two sides minus twice their product times
the cosine of the included angle; or if a, &, and c be the sides and
the angle opposite side a be denoted A, then:
g2E=&2 +c 2 2&ccosA
and a
These two laws, together with the proposition that the sum of
the three angles equals 180 degrees, are the basis of all formulas
relating to the solution of triangles.
are sometimes formed of
Laying-Out Plate. Surface plates
large castings which are mounted
on a special bed. Large plates
of this kind are commonly used to provide a flat surface
for lay-
out machine parts rather than for testing the accuracy of flat
ing
surfaces and they are commonly known as laying-out plates.
Lay of Wire Rope. The lay of wire rope is the distance par-
to the axis of the rope in which a strand makes one complete
allel
turn about the axis of the rope. The lay of the strand, similarly,
isthe distance in which a wire makes one complete turn
about the
axis of the strand. According to U. S. Government specifications,
wire rope shall be regular lay; that is, the strands shall form
a
A.
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Lightning Conductor. A
lightning conductor is a metal rod
or wire intended to provide means by which a lightning discharge
may enter or leave the earth without passing through a non-
conducting part of the structure to which it is attached.
According to the Safety Code for Protection Against Lightning
prepared under the sponsorship of the National Bureau of Stand-
ards and the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the
following principles should be observed:
1. Structures should be examined and all
points or parts
most likely to be struck by lightning noted with the view of
erecting air terminals thereon for the reception of the discharge.
2. Conductors should be installed with the view to
offering
the least possible obstruction to the passage of a discharge,
avoiding sharp loops, bends, etc.
3. Ground connections should be distributed more or less
(A) Link so Applied that all Wear Is Internal or Inside of the Hook.
(B) With Link In this Position there Is Wear on the Outside
and Inside of the Hook and on the Sprocket
Logarithmic Scale. A
logarithmic scale is constructed so
that the distance is the same between all division numbers of the
same multiple. Thus, the distance on such a scale between divi-
sion numbers such, for example, as 3 and 9, 9 and 27, 30 and 90,
and 100 and 300 is exactly the same. Upon looking at a piece of
logarithmic cross-section paper, it will be observed that the pat-
tern of lines seems to repeat itself. Thus, as one progresses from
one end of the paper to the other, he finds at first that the lines
are quite far apart but each succeeding line is closer to the pre-
ceding one until the end of a "cycle" is treached and the same
pattern is repeated with lines at first far apart but getting closer
to each succeeding line. The points at which each pattern begins
are customarily given a value of some multiple of ten. Having
established the value of one of these major divisions (as 0.001; 1;
100; 10,000, etc.) then each succeeding main division or start of
a new "cycle" will have a value of ten times that of the one pre-
ceding. Thus, the major divisions of a logarithmic scale might
read 0.001; 0.01; 0.1; 1, etc., or 1000; 10,000; 100,000;
1,000,000 with corresponding intermediate values between the
major divisions.
ings, pressure, speed of the shaft, and the clearance are essential
factors. Bearings subject to high speeds and a low pressure re-
quire fairly light oil. Slow speeds and high pressures require
sufficient body in the lubricant to prevent metal-to-metal contact
in starting. At the same time, the lubricant should not be so
viscous that undue loss of power will result from the internal
friction of the lubricant itself; but too light an oil will not keep
the metal surfaces apart and undue wear will result.
In order to facilitate starting machines subjected to cold
weather, the oil should have a low pour-test. It is possible for
bearings to wear as much during the first few minutes of a warm-
ing-up period, as in weeks under normal operating conditions. As
the oil becomes warmer, the viscosity becomes lower and, in a
measure, adjusts itself, assuming, of course, that it has been
chosen to provide the correct body at normal operating tempera-
tures. In this connection, attention may be called to the fact that
a reduction in bearing temperatures may be obtained through
the use of an oil that has the right viscosity at operating
temperatures.
Most oils offered for industrial lubrication are straight refined
petroleum products. However, in some instances, it is desirable
to blend mineral oils with animal or vegetable oils. Cylinder oils,
for instance, are often compounded with from 4 to 6 per cent of
acidless tallow to make them adhere to metal surfaces. It is
erroneous to assume that any grade of oil or grease that has
L-768
proved satisfactory on certain types of equipment will serve
equally well on any other, especially where the operating condi-
tions are different In many plants perhaps a single grade of
steam-cylinder oil, a medium-viscosity machine oil, and a medium-
or light-consistency cup grease may suffice. Normally, however,
in the modern industrial plant, the equipment involved is so de-
signed as to include a considerable number of wearing elements
of widely differing construction. Just as this construction dif-
fers, so may it be expected that the lubricating requirements will
differ. In many cases, similar lubricants can be used; on the
other hand, every case should receive individual attention in de-
ciding upon the lubricants that will promote most efficient opera-
tion. In this way, production can be most surely maintained at
minimum cost.
Splash Lubrication for Gears: There arc two methods for sup-
plying and distributing lubrication in gear drives the splash and
the pressure systems. The splash system depends on the action
of the teeth in the gear as they pass through a reservoir of lubri-
cant in the base of the housing. To avoid excessive churning and
foaming, the gear should dip only a comparatively small amount
into the reservoir. Just how deep depends on the tooth velocity,
the pitch, the design of the gear, and the type of lubricant. Usu-
ally the teeth dip in a little more than their own depth. There
should be a large amount of lubricant in the reservoir. This
requires a large trough, which should be of almost rectangular
section and at no point close to the rotating gear teeth. Special
gages are available to show the depth of lubricant. Where the
splash from the gear teeth is to lubricate the bearings, often the
lubricant which is splashed on the inside of the cover is collected
in troughs which are cast as a part of the housing or cover, from
which it flows to the bearings through passages or ducts, The
return to the reservoir is through draining canals. Suitable
seals are provided to prevent leakage along the shafts. Some-
times baffle plates and drip fins are used to further direct the
lubricant.
Pressure System for Gears: The positive circulating or pres-
sure system supplies the lubricant under pump or gravity
pressure, through feed pipes, directly to the point of tooth en-
771 -L
ing the pressure angle and the relation of the tooth to its pitch
circle, to suit the conditions. It has long been the practice to
obtain an improvement of tooth shape by the enlargement of
small spur and bevel pinions but with the Maag system, the plan
is to so modify the relations between addenda, dedenda, and pres-
sure angle as to secure what is considered the best tooth form for
each particular ratio.
774
775 -M
Machinability and Hardness: In cutting steels, the allowable
cutting speed for a given tool life between grindings is, as a
general rule, inversely proportional to the hardness of a given
steel To illustrate, tests in turning an alloy steel with a high-
speed steel tool showed a cutting speed of 70 feet per minute
when the hardness of the steel was 180 Brinell; the cutting
speed had to be reduced to about 35 feet per minute when the
hardness was increased to 360 Brinell, the life between tool
grindings for these tests being 20 minutes in each case. The
machinability of other steels of the same hardness might vary.
For example, the tests just referred to showed more or less
variation in the cutting speeds for steels of the same hardness,
but having different compositions or properties. Thus, while
there is a constant relationship between the hardness of a steel
and its tensile strength, there is not the same constant rela-
tionship between steel hardness and machinability as applied to
different steels.
tap is a very simple design, but for some classes of work the
machine tap is more satisfactory. The machine tap is threaded
and relieved in a different manner, and is adapted for use in
tough material and for heavy duty.
Machine Screws, The term "machine screw" is generally
understood tomean a screw which enters a tapped hole in a
machine part and one having a head that is slotted to receive
a screw driver. Screws of this class are designated by numbers
instead of the actual sizes (the numbers increasing with the
a
diameter), excepting American Standard sizes /4-inch and
larger. See table. The basic form of thread is the American
Standard.
The American Standard is very generally used in the United
States, although there is still considerable demand for certain
sizes or pitches conforming to the older A.S.M.E. standard. This
continued use of the A.S.M.E. standard applies particularly to
the No. 4 size with 36 threads per inch. While the No. 4-36
machine screw may eventually be superseded largely or entirely
by the American Standard, at the present time, this No. 4-36
combination is used either largely or exclusively in many shops
and usually is found in hardware stores. Manufacturers of taps
M-776
Machine Screw Sizes and Standard Pitches
Machine Tool. A
machine tool is a power-driven machine
that used in building other machinery. However, there are
is
many other power-driven machines used for this purpose which
are not classed as machine tools. In order to obtain a more
specific definition, machine tools have been defined as machines
which, when taken as a group, will reproduce themselves. But
this definition also is quite general and does not clearly indi-
cate the proper classification for certain border-line machines.
A more specific definition follows:
Definition Based Upon Common Usage: A machine tool is
any power-driven non-portable machine designed primarily for
shaping and sizing metal parts, by the progressive removal of
chips or by abrasion, from raw materials in the form of cast-
ings, forgings, bars, tubes, plates, and stampings. The ma-
chines for producing such raw materials are not machine tools
according to the general usage of the term in the machine tool
and machine-building industries. For example, rolling mills,
forging machines, power presses, die-casting machines, molding
M-778
machines, brakes or other metal-bending machines, and power-
driven hammers are not classed as machine tools. Metal-cutting
machines, such as punching and shearing machines, are also
excluded from the machine tool classification.
Definition for Census: The Department of Commerce, in con-
nection with the Census of Manufactures, classifies the machine
tool industry for census purposes as follows: This industry "in-
cludes establishments primarily engaged in the manufacture of
power-driven complete metal-working machines not portable by
hand, having one or more tool and work-holding devices, used
for progressively removing the metal in the form of chips. It
also includes honing machines, lapping machines, and grinders.
Rolling mill machinery, presses, brakes, shears, punches, etc.,
and accessories for machine tools and other metal-working
machines are classified in other industries."
Definition for Custom Duties: The United States Treasury
Department, in the collection of custom duties, defines machine
tools as any machines operated by other than hand power, which
employ a tool for working on metal. This is a very broad defini-
tion and includes many machines which are not classified as
machine tools by the builders and users of such machines.
Single-Purpose Machine Tools: Many modern developments
in the machine tool field pertain to designs that are more or less
special.These machines range from 'manufacturing types," re-
*
The power required for drilling is about double that given, due
largely to friction between the drill and the side of the hole.
Heavy cuts requiring high torques are usually taken at rela-
tively low speeds, while lighter cuts are taken at higher speeds.
Thus the load tends toward a constant horsepower characteristic.
Motor Characteristics: Machine tools are sufficiently varied in
their requirements so that several types of motors find applica-
tion in individual cases. A
considerable portion of the total field
requires a constant-speed drive with no unusual features. Here
M-780
the direct-current, shunt motor or the alternating-current, squir-
success. Either
rel-cage induction motor may be used with equal
belt drive from a
type will effect some gain over constant-speed
line-shaft.
Many machine tools require adjustment of speeds over varied
ranges, some as high as 30 to 1. Adjustable-speed direct-current
motors are inherently best suited to such machine tools. Some
machines, such as punches and shears, particularly when equipped
with flywheels, require high starting and pull-out torque, together
with drooping speed regulation. Here the compound-wound,
direct-current motor or the high-slip induction motor is applicable.
Owing to the fact that alternating current is more commonly
available, particularly in the smaller shops, the manufacturers of
machine tools have adopted extensively the use of the gear-box
for speed changes, thus adapting their tools for induction motor
drive. For reasons of standardization, the same tools are then
offered for use with constant-speed, direct-current motors, where
the latter current is available. From the viewpoint of the ma-
chine tool builder, this standardization is desirable. In many
cases, particularly for small machines, the practice is commend-
able. Where direct current is available, however, it will often
benefit the user toemploy adjustable-speed motors and eliminate
the gear-box, or greatly reduce the number of change-gears
required.
Adjustable-speed Direct-current Motors: The adjustable-speed
direct-current motor is excellently suited to the requirements of
many machine tools. Owing to varying diameters, materials, and
cuts, it is necessary to operate over a wide range of speeds. A
selection of speeds can be had by the use of cone pulleys, while
a greater number is available by the use of a gear-box. The ad-
justable-speed motor provides a finely graduated selection of
speeds over a range up to 4 to 1. If a wider range is desired,
a simple set of change-gears will suffice to extend the range.
The great advantage to be derived from the use of the adjust-
able-speed, direct-current motor lies in the fact that maximum
permissible cutting speeds may be maintained and the speed may
be readily manipulated. When speed changes must be made in
sizable increments, it is necessary to use a speed lower than but
approaching the desired rate. The margin represents a direct
loss of production. Increased production has the double aspect of
lower unit cost and less time required, lowering the overhead and
facilitating good deliveries and quick repairs.
Use of Induction Motors: It is not to be inferred that adjust-
able-speed, direct-current motors should be universally applied.
When speed control features are unnecessary and a constant speed
is satisfactory, the induction motor can be used to
advantage*
781 -M
Records indicate that induction motors are somewhat more free
from troubles and require less repairs than direct-current motors.
It is perfectly possible to have an equipment of direct-current
motors and control, if properly selected and applied and properly
maintained, that will require a few repairs. An induction motor,
improperly applied or neglected, will stand up better than a direct-
current motor under like conditions. It must also be considered
that more is usually expected of the direct-current motor and
control in the way of starting, stopping, reversing, and speed
control, and the machine itself is thereby simplified.
In some cases, both alternating- and direct-current power sup-
plies are available. In other cases, alternating current only or
direct current only is available. Under the latter conditions,
direct-current motors will be used exclusively. In a small shop
where alternating current only is available, it is ordinarily best
to use constant-speed, induction motors, foregoing the advantage
of adjustable speed to avoid conversion. For larger shops, it may
be advisable to install a converter or a motor-generator to supply
direct current for all or a portion of the machines. The use of
both alternating-current and direct-current motors in the same
shop may or may not be advisable. When a number of large,
constant-speed drives are required, alternating current should be
used if available, even if a mixed installation results. If there
are but a few constant-speed drives, direct-current motors may
well be used for the sake of uniformity and to avoid two systems
of current distribution. In some cases, direct-current motors have
advantages in controllability even for constant-speed drives.
Mackenzie Alloy. A white metal composition containing either
68 per cent of lead, 16 per cent of antimony, and 16 per cent of
bismuth, or 70 per cent of lead, 17 per cent of antimony, and
13 per cent of tin, is known as Mackenzie alloy. This alloy is
a good stereotype metal.
which, when pure, contains 72.4 per cent of iron. Many of the
commercial magnetite ores contain, as impurities, sulphur, phos-
phorus, and titanium, and sometimes the ore is mixed with an
excess of rock, making the actual percentage of iron for a given
weight comparatively small. Magnetite ore, when pure, is almost
black, but the commercial ore varies in color from black to blue
black, steel gray, or slightly green, having a hardness of from
5 to 6.5 on the Mohs hardness scale. See Iron in Iron Ore;
1
also Hematite.
cially for large ropes. For example, when the safe load for a
2-inch rope is 5000 pounds, the safe load on two parts of rope
may be 9000 pounds, and the safe load on four parts, 18,000
pounds.
a ess arc, the sine of which is a; (sin a)-1 ass reciprocal of sin a
= 1 -4- sin a.
Meltomatic. A
paste solder that can be brushed on any
metal and heated by any means to its
melting temperature, which
809 -M
is slightly above 400 degrees F. No preliminary cleaning or
tinning operations are necessary. Especially applicable where
soldering irons are difficult to use, as in inaccessible spaces and
on small parts.
ish deposits have been mined almost continuously since the early
Roman Empire, and have been owned and worked by the Spanish
Government since 1645.
Messenger Strand. A
messenger wire or strand Is a wire or
cable strung along with and supporting wires, cables, or other
conductors for electric current A seven-wire galvanized strand
is used for supporting lead-covered telephone cables* The heavy
lead-encased telephone wire cables are not, in themselves, suffi-
ciently strong to withstand the strain incidental to stringing
those cables between poles a considerable distance apart. wire A
rope of 5/16, %, or 7/16 inch diameter, known as "messenger
strand/' is, therefore, strung between the poles, and the heavy
telephone cable is suspended from this by means of clips, wire, or
cord at short intervals.
Extra-galvanized cables of Siemens-Martin steel strand, high-
strength crucible steel strand and extra-high-strength plow steel
strand are also used for the catenary suspension of electrical
conductors.
10 decagrams
ss 1 hectogram (Hg.) 10 hectograms = ;
1 kilogram
1000 kilograms = ;
tached to a common rod. The main valve and the cut-off valves
are driven by independent eccentrics. The latter are set so that,
at the time of cut-off, the rider valves are traveling in a direction
opposite to that of the main valve, thus producing a sharp cut-off
with but little "wire drawing." One of the other advantages of
this type of valve is the ease of regulation, the governor being
attached to the rider valves which are light weight and very
responsive, therefore requiring but little power to operate them.
Micrometer Graduations
Mill File. Mill files are parallel in thickness from the heel to
the point and usually tapered so that the width at the end equals
about three-fourths the width of the stock. The mill file is also
made "blunt" or of equal width and thickness throughout its
length. Quite a number of mill files having one round edge are
used, and some are provided with two round edges. The teeth are
ordinarily single-cut, bastard. This file is used in machine shops
for lathe work, draw-filing, and, to some extent, for filing brass
and bronze. It is also employed for sharpening metal saws, etc.
The mill files of the round edge type are used for filing the gullet
or space between saw teeth.
~ 10 =
:= 9Q 000
'
tf 30,000,000.
0.030
The elongation is assumed to be proportional to the load up to
the elastic limit; hence, the modulus of elasticity of a material
may be used for finding the elongation e produced by any load
per square inch, S, by the formula: e S -r- E. =
The modulus of elasticity for steel is usually 29,000,000 to
30,000,000. While steels vary greatly in regard to tensile strength,
the modulus of elasticity is about the same in all cases. Since
modulus of elasticity is an indication of stiffness or rigidity, it
is evident that the strength of steel is not a measure of rigidity,
In other words, a part made of low-carbon steel having an ulti-
mate strength of, say, 60,000 pounds per square inch, may be
just as rigid as a part made of alloy steel and having double this
strength, assuming that the stresses in both cases are below the
elastic limit of the material. The modulus of elasticity in tension
and in compression is practically the same for most metals. The
term "modulus of elasticity" is generally understood to mean the
tension modulus.
Modulus of Elasticity in Shear; The modulus of elasticity in
shear, or shear modulus, is also known as the modulus of rigidity
and as the modulus of transverse elasticity. The shear modulus
(G) is about 0,40 times the modulus of elasticity (E) In tension
E
or G = in which m equals Poisson's Ratio.
2(l + m)
Modulus, Section. See Section Modulus,
Mohs's Hardness Scale. Hardness, !n general, is determined
by what is known as Mohs's scale, a standard for hardness which
is mainly applied to non-metallic elements and minerals. In this
hardness scale there are ten degrees or steps, each designated by
a mineral, the difference in hardness of the different steps being
determined by the fact that any member in the series will scratch
any of the preceding members. This scale, which was devised in
1820 by P. Mohs, for the purpose of expressing the hardness of
minerals by numbers, is as follows :
852
853 -N
1 2/3 times the pressure of the gaseous medium into which steam
may be discharged, and the formula has been extensively verified
and is accepted as substantially correct for such conditions. In
the formula, W
is the number of pounds of steam discharged per
second from an aperture; P is absolute pressure (absolute pres-
sure is taken, because the physical properties of steam depend
upon absolute pressure and not upon gage pressure, which is
accidental and depends on the variable pressure of the atmos-
phere) ; Athe area in square inches of the aperture.
is
Needle Valve. A
needle valve is provided with a long taper-
ing point in place of the ordinary valve disk. The tapering point
permits fine gradation of the opening. At times called a needle
point valve.
Example: + 8 + 10 = 2 20
(3) + (6) + (4) =18
(2) When adding
a positive and a negative number, their sum
isequal to the difference of their absolute values and has the
same sign as the number having the larger absolute value, thus :
Example: +2= 6 4
9 + (3) =6
(3) When adding several positive and negative numbers, first
add the positive and negative numbers separately and then add
their respective sums. Follow Rule 2 for this last operation.
Example:
4 + (6) + 8 + (2) = 12 + (8) = 4
(-6) (-9)
(5) When subtracting a negative number from a positive num-
ber or vice versa, the remainder is equal to the sum of their
absolute values and has the same sign as the minuend.
Examples: 8 ( 2) =10
(2) 3 = 5
Examples: 18 X 16 = 288
(_9) X (27) = 243
Example:
196 -f-= 28 7
(1064) -j- (76) = 14
averages 0,108 between 60 and 212 degrees F., and increases with
an increase in the temperature. The thermal conductivity of
nickel equals 14.2 (silver = 100) and the electrical conductivity,
12.9 (silver = 100). The linear expansion per unit length, per
degree F., equals 0.00000695. Nickel is magnetic, but loses its
magnetism when heated, and becomes entirely non-magnetic at a
temperature of about 650 degrees F.
Nickel Alloy for Resisting Acids. The resistance of nickel to
acids is considerably increased by an addition of tantalum. Or-
dinarily from 5 to 10 per cent may be added, but the resistance
increases with an increasing percentage of tantalum. An alloy
of nickel with 30 per cent tantalum, for example, can be boiled in
aqua regia or any other acid without being affected. The alloy
is claimed to be tough, easily rolled, capable of being hammered
or drawn into wire. The nickel loses its magnetic quality when
alloyed with tantalum. The alloy can be heated in the open air at
a high temperature without oxidizing. The method of producing
the alloy consists in mixing the two metals in a powdered form,
compressing them at high pressure, and bringing them to a high
heat in a crucible or quartz tube in a vacuum. For general pur-
poses, the alloy is too expensive.
Nickel-Chromium Steel. Nickel-chromium steel has, by both
laboratory and practical tests, proved to be a very high grade
steel. It is used on various classes of machinery that require a
steel of high tensile strength, high elastic limit, and a great
resistance to shock and torsional stresses. The properties which
are given to steel by nickel and chromium, when used separately,
are accentuated when nickel and chromium are added at the same
time. A steel is then produced that possesses the very highest
qualities that can be obtained with regard to strength, hardness,
and ductility. The different combinations or percentages of the
components of nickel-chromium steels are as varied as their mak-
ers. Thus nickel is used in percentages of from 1 to 5; chromium,
from from 0.25 to 0.45; silicon, when used, from
0.5 to 5; carbon,
0.5 to 3manganese,
; from 0.25 to 1.
Nickel-chromium steel must always be heat-treated in order to
bring out the latent qualities of the annealed steel. It should be
annealed after it has been worked and before heat-treatment, in
order that it may return to its natural state of repose, as machin-
ing, forging, hammering, etc., is liable to throw it out of its
N-862
homogeneity. The well-known Krupp armor-plate steel is a nickel-
chromium steel containing about 3.25 per cent of nickel, 1.5 per
cent of chromium, and 0.4 per cent of carbon. The value of this
steel lies particularly in the fact that it does not crack even when
deeply penetrated by a projectile. It is also used, to a great ex-
tent, for gears, and is the highest grade of steel on the market
for this purpose. Another use is for automobile parts which re-
quire great strength and reliability.
S.A.E. Nickel-chromium Steels: Nickel-chromium steels repre-
sent an important class in the automotive industry. The S.A.E.
specifications include four different groups of compositions,
according to the nickel-chromium content.
Nickel in Cast Iron. See Cast-iron Wearing Properties.
Nickel Plating. See Electro-plating.
Nickel Silver. See German Silver.
Nickel Steel. Nickel steel usually contains from 3 to 3.5 per
cent of nickel (seldom over 5 per cent) and from 0.20 to 0.40 per
cent of carbon. It combines great tensile strength and hardness
with a high elastic limit and ductility. When properly heat-
treated, it is much stronger than tool steel, but should not be used
without heat-treating. Because of its combination of ductility,
strength, and hardness, it is extensively used for armor plate,
because it does not crack when perforated by a projectile. It is
also used for ammunition, bridge construction, rails, etc., and in
automobile building. An advantage claimed for nickel steel for
rails is its increased resistance to abrasion. On sharp curves, it
is estimated that a nickel-steel rail will outlast four ordinary
rails. The combination of ductility with a high elastic limit makes
this steel also valuable for shafting, especially for marine pur-
poses where high and sudden stresses are frequently imposed
upon the propeller shafting. It it suitable for parts requiring
great strength, ductility, elasticity, abrasion and corrosion re-
sistance for example, axles, spindles, light-weight frames (such
as for bicycles), rivets, gun barrels, armor plate, etc. It is easily
cast and forged. When alloyed with chromium or vanadium, it
is largely used for crankshafts, special spindles, automobile axle
parts, etc. The strongest nickel steels are made from low-carbon
steels.
Nickel steel can be purchased in almost any percentages of
nickel up to 85 per cent, and with the carbon component varying
between 0.10 and 1 per cent. If nickel is added to steel in any
percentage not exceeding 8 per cent, the tensile strength and the
elastic limit of the steel will increase with the percentage of
nickel. If the percentage of nickel is above 8 per cent, but less
than 15 per cent, its effect on the steel becomes entirely neutral-
863 -N
ized and brittieness
is produced. If the nickel percentage, how-
ever, isabove 15 per cent, then the strength and elasticity become
practically equal to that of the nickel steels with percentages of
nickel less than 8 per cent. If the nickel percentage is increased
above 20 per cent, the strength and elastic limit gradually de-
crease, but the elongation increases. The nickel in S.A.E. com-
positions varies from 3.25 to 5.25 per cent.
Nut Taps. A tap designed for the use of machine shops which
tap their own nuts, generally from blanks supplied by a nut man-
ufacturer. It is customary practice to give the entering threads
for approximately 75 per cent of the thread length a slight taper
in both pitch diameter and root diameter to insure tapping a nut
with a full form of thread. The length overall, length of thread,
and length of shank are appreciably longer than on a regular
(standard) hand tap.
Straight Shank Tapper Taps: A tap used by nut manufacturers
in tapping nuts in vertical spindle machines. They are made
12 or 15 inches long and the nuts are allowed to accumulate on
the shank during the tapping operation. Shanks are machined
to fit the various spindles in ordinary use. Made in both frac-
tionaland machine screw sizes.
Bent Shank Tapper Taps: A tap designed for use in an auto-
matic tapping machine. The nuts are fed to the tap by means of
a hopper, and there is a continual production of tapped product
without stopping or reversing. Made in both fractional and ma-
chine screw sizes.
R I
in which, = current
/ in amperes; E = electromotive force in
volts ; R= resistance in ohms.
Oil Bonding Process. With the oil bonding process for grind-
ing wheels, an oxidizing oil is mixed with the abrasive grains.
After this mixture has thickened from exposure to the air, it is
formed into wheels, by compressing it into molds by means of
hydraulic presses. The molded wheels are then baked slowly at
a low temperature. Oil wheels are similar in action to elastic
wheels, but less dependable as to grade and uniformity.
type.
Oil Shale. There are large deposits of oil shales in the west-
ern and southern parts of the United States, Colorado alone, ac-
cording to an estimate, having enough oil shales to produce
20,000,000,000 barrels of oil and 300,000,000 tons of ammonium
in 1694
sulphate. The oil shale industry originated in England
but the chief commercial operations are in Scotland. One ton
of shale yields from 1 gallon to 90 gallons of oil. In Scotland
the average is about 23 gallons per ton. Gasoline obtained from
shale oil contains large amounts of olefins and aromatic com-
pounds and is inferior in quality as compared with gasoline
obtained from petroleum.
O-880
Oils, Slushing. See Slushing Oils.
magnetic roller turns on its axis it follows the cam shape and
carries the straight-head torch with it, cutting the shape below.
Only one shape can be cut with a cam hence, this is a repetitive
;
899
P-900
upon the class of service and also upon the preference of the de-
signer or engineer. Whatever the composition may be, the es-
sential qualities are elasticity, durability, and, in the case of
packing for a moving part, a low coefficient of friction and
practically no wearing or abraiding effect.
1. If a parenthesis is preceded by a +
sign, it may be removed,
if the terms within the parentheses retain their signs.
a -f (6 c) a 6= + c.
a parenthesis is preceded by a
2. If sign, it may be removed,
if the signs preceding each of the terms inside of the parentheses
are changed (+ changed to , and to +). Multiplication
and division signs are not affected.
a (6 c) t= a b -f-
c.
a ( 6 -f- c) 6= a -j-
6 c.
upon the skill with which the application has been prosecuted
through the Patent Office.
per foot; and steel casting, 3/16 inch per foot. The amount of
shrinkage, in any case, depends to some extent upon the shape
and size of the casting. A
plain casting that is long in
proportion to its width will contract differently from one that is
more compact, even though both castings have the same weight
and were cast from the same material A
heavy iron casting may
shrink only 1/10 inch per foot or even less, whereas a lighter
casting of the same material may shrink Vs inch per foot. A
cylindrical or column-shaped casting will contract more in a
lengthwise direction than radially. Hence, when making patterns
for rather large castings of this kind, the allowance should be
about 1/10 inch lengthwise and from 1/20 to 1/16 inch per foot
radially. For pipes or other hollow castings, the lateral shrinkage
is very much less than for solid castings or those having thick
walls. A general rule for columns of comparatively small diam-
eter but great length, such as are used for building purposes, is
to allow %
inch per foot for shrinkage lengthwise and make no
allowance on the diameter. The "one-tenth" shrinkage rule is the
standard (for cast iron) in most machine pattern-shops. Al-
though this is not the proper allowance for all forms of casting,
the adoption of a standard eliminates the confusion that would
follow the use of a number of rules for different classes of work.
There is no fixed rule governing shrinkage allowance.
Pea Coal. Pea coal is small coal of such size that the pieces
willnot pass a screen of %-inch mesh, but pass a screen of %-inch
mesh. Pea coal is often used for power plant purposes.
Pentagon. A
pentagon is a plane figure or surface bounded
by straight lines. If the five lines are of equal length and
five
the angles between the sides are equal, the figure is known as a
regular pentagon. The angles between the sides of a regular
pentagon are 108 degrees.
Pentavalent. Pentavalent, also known as quinquevalent, is a
term used to indicate that an atom of one element will combine
with five atoms of another element.
280
If by a new process 100 pieces can be made in the same time as
60 could formerly be made, what is the gain in output of the new
process over the old, expressed in per cent?
Original number, 60 gain 100 ; 60 40. Hence, =
40
X 100 = 66.7 per cent.
60
Care should be taken always to use the original number, or the
number of which the percentage is wanted, as the divisor in all
I
which is in effect a dif-
ferent way of arriving at the same answer. For the specific ex-
25,000 pounds per square inch; yield point, 12,000 pounds per
square inch; elongation in two inches or proportionate gage
length, 8 per cent.
Phosphor gear-bronze according to S.A.E. specification No. 65
is composed as follows.: Copper, 88 to 90 per cent; tin, 10 to
12 per cent; phosphorus, 0.10 to 0.30 per cent; lead, zinc and other
impurities, maximum, 0.50 per cent. Good castings made of this
alloy should give the following minima in physical characteristics :
tion, and vibration unless the pipe is very heavy. It is not suit-
able for superheated steam or for temperatures above 575 de-
grees F. The cast-iron pipe used for underground work generally
has the bell-and-spigot ends which are leaded and calked to secure
a tight joint. Exposed cast-iron pipes usually have flanged ends.
See also Brass Pipe.
Pipe
Center Reamer. This is a conical reamer used for
reaming the ends of large holes usually cored so that they will
fit upon a center in a lathe. The cutting part of these reamers
is generally in the shape of a frustum of a cone.
fine rust particles get suspended in the water, causing the familiar
"red," or rusty water.
Brass Piping: The effect of corrosive waters upon brass piping
takes the form of dissolving the zinc from the copper-zinc alloy.
This action is known as "dezincification" and appears to be caused
by the combined action of the oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
water. The net result of this action is the removal of the zinc,
leaving porous brittle copper which eventually causes pipe fail-
ure. Leaks usually occur first at the root diameter of the threaded
joints where the metal is thinnest. Moreover, the pipe breaks
easily at these points when repairs are attempted.
Yellow Brasses: Dezincification has been found to be confined
to the so-called yellow brasses. There are three brass alloys com-
monly used. A "low" brass, or Muntz metal (60 per cent copper,
40 per cent zinc) and a "high" brass (67 per cent copper, 33 per
,
cent zinc) are called yellow brasses. The use of these low copper
content alloys has proved disappointing as compared with the
previously used iron piping in many localities. In fact, many
municipal authorities discourage the use of the yellow brasses and
in some instances have gone so far as to actually forbid their
use. The third brass alloy is referred to in the next paragraph.
Red Brass and Copper: Red brass (85 per cent copper and
15 per cent zinc) and copper are considered to be the most gen-
erally resistant to corrosion. Their increasing use, following the
poor experiences with the yellow brasses, has indicated, however,
that even these materials should be used with discretion. When
a corrosive water acts on copper, it may dissolve a sufficient
amount to produce green staining of white plumbing fixtures and
laundered articles. When soap or any other alkaline material is
added, the water will turn blue. The indiscriminate choice of
copper pipe or tubing without regard for the composition of the
local water has produced many such complaints. Many munici-
palities are chemically treating their water supplies in order to
reduce corrosion. However, there are many limiting factors to
this municipal practice, two of which are the cost of chemicals to
treat the entire supply and the effect of the changed water char-
acteristics upon existing industrial processes and power plant
operation.
are quite complicated, and all are, and must of necessity be, ap-
proximate. It is impossible to derive one formula that will fit
every case. The pipe, or conduit, is made of various materials,
and the friction of the moving water varies greatly with the ma-
terial of which the pipe is composed. Even for a particular
material, the discharge will not be the same for a pipe that has
been in use a long while as for a new pipe. The impurities car-
ried by the water stick to the pipe, causing it to become foul ; this
reduces the diameter and discharge, and also alters the resistance
due to friction. If the slope is not gradual and even, air will ac-
cumulate at different points; this also reduces the discharge, since
the area of the cross-section at those points is less. Bends, espe-
cially those of short radius, reduce the velocity and, consequently,
941 -P
the discharge. Contractions and enlargements, likewise, exert
a deterrent effect.
As a result of the examination and comparison of a large num-
ber of experiments, the following formula has been derived; it is
simple in form, is said to give good results, and is adapted to
v = per second; d
velocity, in feet =
diameter of pipe, in inches;
h =head, in feet; I =
length of pipe, in feet; and c a con- =
stant the value of which depends on the material of which the pipe
is composed. For new, smooth, wrought-iron pipe, laid straight
and without bends, c may be taken as 160. Since the actual in-
ternal diameter of a 1%-inch pipe is 1.61 inches, the velocity of
\2640/
= 2.508 feet per second. The number of cubic feet per minute
,. ,
discharged
, .
is
60X2.508X0.7854X1-612
-T-:
144
= o<iory
2.127;
oior?
2.127
Pipe Flange Faces. Pipe flanges which have the entire face
of the flange faced straight across, and use either a full face or
ring gasket, are commonly employed for pressures less than
125 pounds on steam and water lines. The best results are ob-
943 -P
tained by using a fairly thick gasket, so that the gasket will have
sufficient pressure exerted on it by the bolts to make a tight joint
before the outside edges of the flanges meet. The full-faced gasket
is preferred by some, because it may be installed more
readily and
is more likely to be concentric with the bore of the flange than
that of a ring gasket, but it has no other advantages. A ring
gasket, properly proportioned and correctly applied, will make just
as tight a joint as a full-faced gasket, at considerable less expense
and with less pulling up on the bolts.
Raised Face, Smoothly Finished for Gaskets: This type of face
is made by raising the face of the flange between the bore and
inside of the bolt holes from 1/32 to 1/16 inch above that of the
remainder of the flange. This type of joint is most satisfactory
on high-pressure steam lines, and is the most generally used. With
this style of face, ring gaskets are employed, and a greater pres-
sure per square inch of gasket is obtained by pulling up on the
bolts than would be obtained with similar bolts on a full-faced
gasket. The raised face prevents the touching of the outside
edges of the flanges, and the entire pressure exerted by the bolts
is transmitted to the gasket, which gives a maximum efficiency
and resistance against leakage.
Raised Face, Ground Joints: This style of face is identical with
that employed when gaskets are used, excepting that the raised
face is ground to an absolute metallic joint. This eliminates the
use of gaskets. This style of joint was popular before a satis-
factory gasket material was found, and was employed consider-
ably on superheated steam lines. There are now on the market
gaskets which are employed for temperatures as high as 800 de-
grees F. ; the successful use of these gaskets has to a considerable
degree reduced the number of ground joints used in steam lines.
See also Corrugated Flanges, and Tongue-and-groove Flanges.
Pipe for Acids. Pipes for carrying acid liquids, when made
from for a short time only. Wrought-iron
steel, will usually last
pipes will last somewhat longer, but are not satisfactory. A steel
to which 0.5 per cent of copper has been added has given good
results for pipes of this kind. Valves made from f erro-silicon will
resist the corrosive action of acid liquids to a considerable extent.
Their first cost is higher, but their resistance to the action of the
acid warrants their use.
ness may then be selected to suit the value computed to fulfill the
conditions for which the pipe is desired. The thicknesses repre-
sented by schedules 30 and 40 are identical with thicknesses for
"standard weight" pipe in former lists, whereas thicknesses
945 -P
Pipe Taps. A
taper pipe tap is a hand tap used for tapping
all kinds of American Standard taper pipe fittings, either by
machine or by hand.
Straight Pipe Taps: A hand tap exactly the same in every way
as the taper pipe tap except that the threaded portion is straight
and of proper size for tapping American Standard straight pipe
threads.
Combined Pipe Tap and Drills: A taper pipe tap having an
extended point suitable for drilling and a taper square shank.
Used for drilling and tapping holes in range boilers and similar
work in one operation.
Pipe, Test for Wrought-Iron and Steel. Wrought-iron pipe
may be distinguished from steel pipe by testing the material in
the pipe for manganese, which is present in the steel pipe, but is
not present, except possibly as a trace, in wrought iron.A method
of making the manganese test is as follows Place a clean, bright
:
**=/ X ^-4-0.1
F t= B B E =F + X
=+
(0.05 1.1) P; 0.0625 *>/
C (0.8 X*+ P
6.8)
in which F =
pitch diameter at end ; E=
pitch diameter at gag-
ing notch; B=
outside diameter of pipe; D =
normal engage-
ment, by hand, between external and internal threads; C s=
effective length of external thread; P =
pitch of thread. The
American Briggs Standard tapered pipe thread is cut so that
the thread is at right angles to the pipe axis; this now is also the
accepted practice for British tapered pipe threads, although for-
merly it was the usual British practice to cut the thread at right
angles to the surface of the cone.
Straight Pipe Thread: The straight pipe thread is the same as
American Standard taper pipe thread in regard to pitch and
depth of thread. The basic pitch diameter for straight pipe
threads equals the pitch diameter at the gaging notch of the
taper plug gage. The straight pipe thread is gaged with a taper
threaded plug gage and should gage flush at the face with the
gaging notch, allowing a maximum variation of one turn plus or
minus from the notch.
jected to about the same stress when being expanded over the
piston as when it is compressed in the cylinder, because, under
these conditions, a ring exerting a certain pressure per square
inch against the cylinder will be subjected to the least total
strain, and the chance of breakage will be reduced to a minimum.
When expanding a ring over the piston, and also when compress-
ing it, the stress will be greatest at a point opposite the joint;
hence, the thickness at this point should be considered in the case
of an eccentric ring.
For a concentric ring, a thickness equal to approximately 1/32
of the cylinder diameter is, according to one rule, about the maxi-
mum thickness that the ring can have and still be inserted over
the piston without breakage. An eccentric ring may be made
somewhat thicker than cylinder diameter -+- 32, because of the
gradual reduction in the thickness toward the joint. A ring hav-
ing a thickness equal to cylinder diameter -f- 27.5 should, if made
of a good cast iron, be thick enough to give the necessary pressure
against the cylinder wall and yet not be so thick as to result in
over-straining the ring when the latter is expanded over the
piston.
Ring Width: The proportions of piston rings of the types
shown in Pig. 1 vary more or less among different engine manu-
facturers. The concentric ring A usually has a width that slightly
exceeds the thickness, although rings of square section are often
used and, in some cases, the thickness exceeds the width. When
rings are properly made, so that they have an even bearing all
around the circumference, nothing is gained by making the width
greater than 1% X maximum thickness. It is considered good
practice to make the width equal to the cylinder diameter x0.05.
Amount toCut Out of Ring: The amount to cut out of the ring
to permit contracting it to the cylinder diameter (or to this diam-
eter plus a grinding allowance) equals the circumference of the
ring before splitting minus the circumference when the ring is
compressed, plus a small clearance to allow for expansion when
the ring is in the engine cylinder and its temperature rises. When
the ring is compressed to the cylinder diameter plus the amount
allowed for grinding, the ends should be a distance apart equal
to the cylinder diameter X 0.004 to allow for expansion. It will
be assumed that the ring, before being compressed, has a diam-
eter equal to 1.027 Xthe cylinder diameter, and that the grinding
allowance for truing the outer surface after compression, is 0.008
953 -P
X the cylinder diameter; then the outside diameter of the turned
ring would equal 1.035 Xcylinder diameter, and the outside di-
ameter of an unground ring compressed to the cylinder diameter,
plus the grinding allowance, would equal 1.008 X cylinder diam-
eter. In order to cut enough out of the ring to obtain this latter
dimension, the reduction along the outer circumference of the
ring should equal 0.085 Xcylinder diameter. Therefore, the total
amount to cut out of the ring equals 0.085 X cylinder diameter
+ a clearance allowance between the ends equal to 0.004 x cy*'
inder diameter. Aresult accurate enough for practical purposes
will be obtained by the following rule:
The amount to cut out of the piston ring as measured along the
outer circumference = cylinder diameter X 0.09.
Width of Cutter for Diagonal Joint: The amount to cut out of
a ring, as determined by the foregoing rule, applies to either a
concentric or eccentric ring, since it is the amount in a circum-
ferential direction. In the case of a diagonal joint, however, the
width of the cutter will be less than this amount. In the diagram
B, Fig. 2, the length x represents the cylinder diameter X 0.09,
and w, the required width of the cutter. To obtain this cutter
width w, multiply the dimension x by the sine of the joint angle a.
The angle a between the diagonal joint and the side of the ring
varies between 30 and 45 degrees, and is usually 30 degrees. For
30 degrees w = x X
0.5; for 45 degrees, w= x X0.707.
Grinding the Outside of Rings: It is very important to make
piston rings so that they are truly cylindrical after being com-
pressed to the size of the cylinder bore. In order to make accu-
rate rings, it is necessary to turn or grind them to the required
diameter while compressed the same as they will be when in the
cylinder. The split rings to be ground are compressed and in-
serted in a locating sleeve or cylinder; they are then clamped in
place between a shoulder and nut or between clamping flanges.
Then the locating sleeve is removed. The inside diameter of this
sleeve should be equal to the cylinder diameter plus the amount
left on the rings for grinding.
8*.
The following rules for rivet spacing apply to bridge and struc-
tural work. The minimum center-to-center distance or pitch
should not be less than three times the rivet diameter. In bridge
work, the pitch should not exceed six inches, or sixteen times the
thickness of the thinnest outside plate, except in special cases.
957 -P
The distance between the edge of any piece and the center of the
rivet hole should not be less than l 1^ inch for
%- and %-inch
rivets, except in bars less than2% inches wide; when practicable,
this distance should be at least two rivet diameters for all sizes
and should not exceed eight times the plate thickness. For flanges
of girders and chords carrying floors, the
pitch should not exceed
four inches. For plates in compression, the pitch in the direction
of the line of stress should not exceed sixteen times the thickness
of the plate, and the pitch in a direction at right angles to the
line of stress should not exceed thirty-two times the thickness,
except for cover plates or top chords and end posts, in which the
pitch should not exceed forty times the thickness.
using this machine, there is no idle return period, and the planer
table moves at the same speed in both directions, the tools being
constantly in operation.
Pit Planer: Planers of this class are intended for very large
unwieldy work, such as armor plate planing, etc. They are so
arranged that the work remains stationary and the tool-heads,
together with the cross-rail and its supporting columns, are given
a traversing movement. The vertical columns between which the
cross-rail is held are mounted upon parallel beds, one of which
extends along each side of the work-table. One make of pit planer
intended for armor plate work is equipped with a cross-rail which
swivels 90 degrees each way from the vertical, and carries two
tool-heads. For cross-planing, one of the two heads can be
traversed along the cross-rail.
Breast Planer: Breast planers are a special type used for plan-
ing the edges of armor plate or other work that could not readily
be done, if at all, on a regular planing machine. They are usually
built for cross-planing, the planing operation being done by a
tool-head which is traversed along a cross-rail. Power may be
applied, however, for longitudinal motion, in which case the work
can be planed lengthwise, as well as crosswise.
961 -P
Frog and Switch Planer: Frog and switch planers are so named
because they are intended primarily for shops manufacturing
switch parts and rail crossings or frogs for railways. They are
also adapted for other work, especially of a heavy
nature, such
as planing large steel castings, etc. Great driving
steel^forgings,
power and extreme rigidity under maximum duty are character-
istic features of these planers. Planers of this class usually have
an adjustable cross-rail, the same as a standard planer, although
some are so designed that the cross-rail can only be located in one
of three fixed positions. See also Kotary Planers.
Plant Factor. The ratio of the average load to the rated ca-
pacity of the power plant, i.e., to the aggregate ratings of the
generators, is the plant factor.
Plaskon. A
urea-base synthetic plastic molding material ob-
tainable in all colorsfrom white to lustrous black. Infusible and
inflammable, tasteless, odorless, resistant to the action of grease
and oils, and to the common organic solvents. Compressive
strength, 25,000 to 35,000 pounds per square inch; tensile
strength, 8000 to 13,000 pounds per square inch. Used for prac-
tically all purposes where a synthetic plastic material might be
applied, and especially where color is of importance. Covers and
cases as large as 15 by 15 by 18 inches have been made.
5. Aceto-Butyrate; 6. Cel-
Heat-Resistant Phenolic, Polystyrene;
lulose-Acetate, Acid and Alkali-Resistant Phenolic.
Tensile Strength: 1. Urea; 2. Vinyl (No FiUer) ; 3.
General
Plug Fuse. The most common type of fuse is the plug fuse
which is generally used to provide protection against overloading
of 110- to 125-volt lighting circuits. These fuses are very com-
pact and consist of a cylindrical porcelain or composition body
in which the fuse strip is placed. They fit into lamp-type recep-
tacles in a porcelain cutout base. Most types are non-renewable,
but at least one design provides for renewed use by switching a
succession of new fusible elements into the circuit. They are
limited to a 250-volt, 30-ampere rating.
Pole Lathe. The pole lathe, which was a primitive form, con-
sisted of two poppets supported on a wooden bed, and suspended
from the ceiling was a wooden spring-pole, to the free end of
which was attached a strong cord. This cord was wound once
around the piece to be turned, and the loose end was carried down
to the floor where it was formed into a loop for the workman's
foot. In improved forms of the pole lathe, a rude treadle was
provided instead of the loop. When the foot was depressed, the
work-piece was turned by the cord against the cutting tool, the
spring-pole depressing at the same time. With the upward lift
of the foot, the spring-pole raised the cord and turned the work
in the opposite direction. The pole lathe had the serious objec-
tion that the work did not turn continuously, but was turned
alternately in opposite direction. A very high degree of skill
was required to do satisfactory work, as the turning tool had to
be lifted the moment the work began to turn backwards, and had
again to be brought to the cutting position when the reverse
movement began ; hence, the application later of a driving wheel
connected by a cord to drive the work continuously in one direc-
tion. The driving wheel, which was turned by a crank, was
mounted on a separate stand or base placed to one side of the
lathe, and was usually provided with three grooves. This type
975 -P
of machine required two workmen, one to turn the crank and the
other to handle the cutting tool.
S r
2 sin a cos a
S = 2R X sin a = 2r X tan a
= SX cot
= RD X
vx a
r cos a
t
Prism. A prism is a solid body in which the two end faces are
parallel and in which the lines along which all the other faces in-
tersect or meet are parallel. If all the sides of a prism are rec-
tangles and the end faces are either squares or rectangles, the
prism is called a square prism. In a square prism, the opposite
surfaces or faces are parallel and all the angles are right angles.
Prismlac. A
lacquer for obtaining unusual finishes, used either
clear on polished metal surfaces or in combination with colors or
bronze powders. The unusual finish is obtained by spraying the
surface with a coat of colored lacquer enamel, followed by a coat
of Prismlac, which becomes ornamented with crystals, when dry-
ing, that will cover the entire surface.
The average of these two readings is the zero reading. If, for
any reason, it is not convenient or possible to make these two
readings, the nuts on the tie-rods may be loosened until a section
of round iron or steel of small diameter can be placed between
the rim of the pulley and the friction surface of the upper block,
parallel to and vertically over the axis of the pulley. The weight
registered by the scale in this case is the zero reading of the
brake. The power absorbed by the brake may be determined by
the formula :
2*LNW
HR _
'
~~
33,000
'
Machinery
Proportional Dividers
which isa good insulator for low-voltage current. When the cov-
ering isno longer needed, it can be readily peeled off with the
Kraft paper, or, if paper is not used, it can easily be pulled off
by itself. Metal thus protected can be stamped or pierced with-
out removing the coating. Applied to highly polished, painted,
plated, or duco-finished surfaces to protect them from scratches,
tarnish, etc. ; also sprayed or brushed on parts or assembled ma-
chines in storage to prevent rust or corrosion ; also used as a coat-
ing for equipment in a plant that is not to be used for some time.
Proton. See Electron Theory.
Protractor. The protractor is used by draftsmen either for
locating lines at a given angle or for measuring angles between
lines. A simple form is shown by the illustration. Some pro-
tractors are provided with an arm pivoted at the center and
swinging around the circle. The smaller protractors are divided
into degrees, while larger ones show half or quarter degrees.
Those with a swinging arm are usually provided with a vernier
scale by means of which small fractions of degrees, three or five
minutes, for example, are read. The type generally used by ma-
chinists and toolmakers is known as the bevel protractor. It has
a straight edge or blade which can be set at any angle with the
base or stock; the angle for any position is shown by degree
graduations. ,
stock. These pulleys are of the split type and combine lightness
with strength. The weight of one well-known make is about
45 per cent of the weight of a cast-iron pulley of corresponding
diameter.
leakage while the valves are closing; the valves should close rap-
idly, be tight when closed, durable, and easily replaced. Evi-
dently there must be a compromise in the design of valves. For
instance, stiff springs would close the valves quickly, but increase
the pressure required for opening them; a high lift would be
conducive to a free flowing movement of the water, but a low
aft is desirable to prevent excessive losses through slip; large
conical seats would provide straight passages for the water and
reduce the frictional resistance to the flow, but would require
1013 -P
large heavy valves and high lift. The general practice is to use
a number of small valves and flat seats instead of the conical
form, in order to reduce the amount of lift, although conical
seats are sometimes used in connection with wing valves, etc.
The lift of disk valves is usually about% inch, regardless of the
diameter. Awing valve having a 45-degree seat requires 40 per
cent more lift than a flat valve to obtain a corresponding area oi
opening. The total valve area usually varies from 45 to 50 per
cent of the plunger area, although it may be as low as 30 per cent
and as high as 60 per cent, depending upon the speed at which
the pump is to operate. The maximum velocity of the water while
passing through the valves should be about 225 feet per minute.
By "valve area" is meant the area of the unobstructed opening
or free passageway through the seats.
Quartering Machine. A
quartering machine is a special de-
sign of horizontal boring machine that is employed exclusively
for boring the crankpin holes in pairs of locomotive driving
wheels. The holes in each pair of wheels must be 90 degrees apart
and they are bored after the wheels are forced on the axle. The
pair of wheels is placed between the centers of the quartering
machine, and the holes are bored by two short boring-bars. One
bar is located on each footstock or center base, and it is carried
by a slide that is adjustable. The angle between the ways upon
which the slides are mounted is 90 degrees, so that the angular
distance between the crankpin holes is also 90 degrees, irrespec-
1020
1021 -Q
tive of the adjustment of the boring-bars which is made to con-
form to the radius of the crankpin circle. The crankpins in each
pair of driving wheels are placed 90 degrees apart in order that
one side will be developing maximum power when the other side
of the locomotive is passing the dead center position, thus equal-
izing the distribution of the power developed and making it im-
possible for both sides of the locomotive to be on the dead center
at the same time.
Quarter-Turn Guide. A
quarter-turn guide, in rolling mill
practice, is a mechanical means for turning a bar, that has passed
through one pass in a rolling mill, through an angle of 90 de-
grees before it passes through the next pass in a continuous mill.
Queen's Metal. Queen's metal is a tin-antimony-copper bear-
ing alloy containing, in addition to the metals mentioned, a small
percentage of either zinc or bismuth. One composition of the
metal contains 88.5 per cent of tin, 7 per cent of antimony,
3.5 per cent of copper, and 1 per cent of zinc. Another composi-
tion contains 88.5 per cent of tin, 7 per cent of antimony, 3.5 per
cent of copper, and 1 per cent of bismuth. Owing to the high
percentage of tin, the metal is rather expensive, but, at the same
time, the high tin content makes it a high-grade bearing metal.
FIG, 3
\7g Wk*
25,000 r*
Rasps. A rasp is a file having teeth that are round on the top
and disconnected, the teeth having been formed by raising small
portions of the stock from the surface of the blank. This type of
file isused for heavy, rough filing, where a considerable amount
of material is to be removed, but where a smooth surface is not
required. There are several different types of rasps. Their
names and general features follow:
Cabinet: Flat on one side, convex on the other. Width and
thickness tapered. Edges slightly blunted and cut.
Horse, Plain: No tang. Rasp cut on one side, file cut on the
other.
Horse, Tanged: Similar to horse, plain, but with tang.
Shoe, Flat: Section uniform throughout. One half of each face
cut with rasp teeth, the other half with file teeth.
Shoe, Half-round: Flat on one side, convex on the other. Other-
wise, similar to flat shoe rasp.
1035- fc
,
Ratchet Gearing. Ratchet gearing in its simplest form con-
sists of a toothed ratchet wheel a (see diagram A), and a pawl
or detent 6, and it may be used to transmit intermittent motion
or to prevent relative motion between two parts except in one
direction. The pawl 6 is pivoted to lever c which, when given an
oscillating movement, imparts an intermittent rotary movement
to ratchet wheel a. Diagram B illustrates another application of
the ordinary ratchet and pawl mechanism. In this instance, the
pawl is pivoted to a stationary member and its only function is
to prevent the ratchet wheel from rotating backward. With the
stationary design, illustrated at C, the pawl prevents the ratchet
wheel from rotating in either direction, so long as it is in en-
gagement with the wheel. The principle of the multiple-pawl
ratchet gearing is illustrated at D, which illustrates the use of
two pawls. As will be seen, one of these pawls is longer than the
other, by an amount equal to one-half the pitch of the ratchet-
wheel teeth, so that the practical effect is that of reducing the
pitch one-half. By placing a number of driving pawls side by
side and proportioning their lengths according to the pitch of the
teeth, a very fine feed can be obtained with a ratchet wheel of
comparatively coarse pitch.
The type of ratchet gearing shown at E is sometimes employed
to impart a rotary movement to the ratchet wheel for both the
forward and backward motions of the lever to which the two
pawls are attached. A simple form of reversing ratchet is illus-
R-1036
trated at F. The teeth of the wheel are so shaped that either side
may be used for driving by simply changing the position of the
double-ended pawl, as indicated by the full and dotted lines. An-
other form of reversible ratchet gearing for shapers is illustrated
at G. The pawl, in this case, instead of being a pivoted latch, is
in the form of a plunger which is free to move in the direction
of its axis, but is normally held into engagement with the ratchet
wheel by a small spring. When the pawl is lifted and turned one-
half revolution, the driving face then engages the opposite sides
of the teeth and the ratchet wheel is given an intermittent rotary
motion in the opposite direction.
The frictioncd type of ratchet gearing differs from the designs
previously referred to, in that there is no positive engagement
between the driving and driven members of the ratchet mechan-
ism, the motion being transmitted by frictional resistance. One
1037 -R
type of frictional ratchet gearing is illustrated at H. Boilers or
balls are placed between the ratchet wheel and an outer ring
which, when turned in one direction, causes the rollers or balls
to wedge between the wheel and ring as they move up the inclined
edges of the teeth. Diagram / illustrates one method of utilizing
ratchet gearing for moving the driven member in a straight line,
as in the case of a lifting jack. The pawl g is pivoted to the
operating lever of the jack and does the lifting, whereas the
pawl h holds the load while the lifting pawl g is being returned
preparatory to another lifting movement.
Rate of Combustion for Boilers. The weight of coal burned
in a per square foot of grate surface per hour is called the
boiler,
rate of combustion. This rate commonly varies from 12 to
25 pounds in the case of power plants operating under natural
draft, increasing to 30 pounds or more when forced draft is em-
ployed. With heating boilers, the combustion is somewhat less, as
it is unusual to force the boilers so much, except in large plants.
Here the rate drops to 8 or 10 pounds in boilers of medium size,
and to 6 or 7 in those of small size, depending upon the care they
receive and the strength of chimney draft.
Reamer. Reamers are used for two purposes: (1) for pro-
ducing a hole that is smooth and true to size, and (2) for en-
larging cored or drilled holes. With reference to the manner in
which reamers are made, they may be divided into solid and in-
R-1040
serted-blade reamers, the latter usually being adjustable for size.
Hand reamers include straight reamers intended to be used by
hand for producing holes that are smooth and true to size. Fluted
chucking reamers are used in machines for enlarging holes and
finishing them smooth and true to size. Rose chucking reamers
are used in machines for enlarging cored holes and are so con-
structed that they are able to remove a considerable amount of
metal. Shell reamers are provided with a hole through the center
in order to save the material which otherwise would be used for
the reamer shank, and are mounted by means of this hole on
arbors. Shell reamers may be either of the fluted chucking or the
rose chucking reamer type. Taper reamers are used for reaming
the holes for standard taper sockets, standard taper pins, and, in
general, tapered holes that must be true as regards size and taper.
Pipe reamers constitute a large class of taper reamers ; they are
used for reaming taper holes previous to tapping the taper pipe
taps. Center reamers are used for reaming the center holes in
work that is to be held between the centers in different types of
machine tools. Jobbers' reamers are similar to hand reamers and
are used for similar purposes, but are provided with a taper shank
so that they may be used in machines. Taper bridge reamers are
a special type of reamers used for reaming rivet holes in struc-
tural construction work. Grooved chucking reamers are used for
enlarging cored holes. They are fluted with spiral grooves like a
twist drill and may be said to occupy a place on the boundary
between reamers and drills.
Reamers used on cast iron and steel usually are fluted so that
the teeth are either radial or slightly ahead of the center. If the
faces of the teeth are ahead of the center, this provides negative
rake, which is desirable for reamers used on brass work.
Reamer Clearance. A reamer having proper clearance cuts
freely and smoothly. There are three kinds of clearance, which
may be described in the following order: 1. Longitudinal, which
nearly all reamers should have to some extent. This is a slight
taper which makes the reamer smaller toward the shank in order
to prevent the back end from enlarging the hole or dragging and
thereby roughing up the hole. 2, The clearance on the entering
end of the teeth which every reamer ought to have, 3. The clear-
ance along the sides of the teeth or on the peripheral part of the
reamer. The latter is sometimes called radial clearance or relief.
Reamer Teeth Spacing. There are three methods of spacing
reamer teeth. First, they may be spaced evenly around the en-
tire surface; second, the spacing may be irregular but with one
half of the circumference corresponding to the other half, so that
the cutting edges are diametrically opposite; and third, the spac-
ing may be irregular around the entire circumference. The object
1041 -R
of uneven spacing is to eliminate chatter and produce smoother
holes than are obtained with uniformly spaced teeth. Some con-
tend that a reamer spaced according to the second method is liable
to chatter and that no two cutting edges should be diametrically
opposite.
It is undoubtedly true that an odd number of teeth in a reamer
favors smoother work than an even number of equally spaced
teeth. The reason for this is as follows In a reamer having an
:
even number of teeth, any ridge or hard spot in the work tends
to push the tooth away at that point and the action is transmitted
diametrically across the reamer to the opposite side of the hole.
Tf the reamer has an odd number of teeth, the effect is trans-
mitted across the hole to two teeth instead of one and is, there-
fore, less than if concentrated on one tooth. In other words, the
irregularities are not see-sawed back and forth across the hole by
the action of the teeth as much with an uneven number of teeth
as with an even number. The average manufacturer, however,
prefers reamers with an even number of teeth because of the dif-
ficulty of measuring those with an odd number of teeth. Reamers
that have an even number of teeth, but with the spacing broken
up so that it is irregular, can be made to ream a hole as true as
an odd-toothed reamer.
Reaumur Thermometer. The thermometer which is most
commonly used for general purposes in Germany and other Ger-
man speaking countries is the Keaumur thermometer, introduced
about 1730 by the French scientist Reaumur. On the Reaumur
scale, the freezing point of water is located at 0, and the boiling
point of water, at atmospheric pressure, at 80 degrees. The fol-
lowing formulas may be used for converting temperatures given
on the Reaumur scale to temperatures on the Centigrade and
Fahrenheit scales :
_ __
Degrees Reaumur t=
4 X degrees C.
= *
5
_ 4 V (degrees F* 82)
Degrees Reaumur e= 5
" *
having a larger size at one end than at the other. Some have tried
to establish the term "increaser" thinking of direction of flow-
but this has been due to a misunderstanding of the trade custom
of always giving the largest size of run of a fitting first; hence,
all fittings having more than one size are reducers. They are
scale. The most common form is the "spoon" riffler, which comes
in many different grades of curves, its name
describing its shape
perfectly. Next in point of usefulness, is the flat riffler, which is
made in different shapes and widths to take care of the flat sur-
faces and panels in the die impressions. Other styles are the
"hook" riffler, the "knife" riffler, and the "round taper" riffler.
B C D
A
plain
rectangular cross-section, such as shown at A
(see Fig. 2), is
often used. Rings of this kind can be easily machined from
tubing. A
better shape than the rectangle for the cross-section
of an oil-ring is the trapezoid shown at B. It is sometimes neces-
sary to have a ring fit the slot rather closely, and this shaped
ring is less likely to bind in the slot if the machine happens to
be a little out of level axially. A further refinement may be made
by chamfering the bore as at C. For small light rings, this is
.particularly good, as it increases the specific pressure between
the shaft and ring, thus enabling the ring, even though light in
weight, to cut through the oil and get a better bite on the shaft.
The contour of the cross-section shown at D, effectively prevents
oil-throwing. The oil collects at the two outer edges, and when
thrown off, strikes the sides of the oil-ring slot, which prevents
it from leaving the pedestal.
A fairly hard brass is a desirable material for small and me-
dium sized oil-rings. Cast iron has been used with success, but
this is not generally favored. It is claimed that washers of sheet
metal, several of them running in one ring slot, have given satis-
factory results. Very soft compositions or dead soft brass should
be avoided, for if the oil becomes gritty, the rings will be charged
like a lap, and will wear grooves in the journal.
COUNTERSUNK
HEAD
A\
STEEPLE BUTTON OR CONE COUNTERSUNK
ROUND
or conical, the apex of the cone usually being cut off so that the
head has the shape of a frustrum. Sometimes the head is coun-
tersunk in the plates held together by the rivet Fig. 1 shows a
number of different types of rivet heads. In order to form the
head and fill the clearance space in the rivet hole, the rivet should
have a length in excess of the thickness of the plate equal to about
three-fourths the diameter for the countersunk head, and from
1.3 to 1.7 times the diameter for ordinary riveting. It is ad-
visable to make the rivets of the same material as the plates in
which they are used, to prevent corrosion from galvanic action ;
that is, iron rivets should be used for iron plates, steel rivets
for steel plates, and copper rivets for copper plates.
Proportions which have been used extensively for the com-
mon types of rivet heads, are as follows: Steeple head: Diam-
i eter A (see Fig. 2) of the head equals twice the rivet diameter D,
and height C of the head is equal to diameter D. Button or round
head: Diameter A of the head equals 1.75 times rivet diameter Z),
and height C of the head equals 0.75 times diameter D. Cone
1063 -R
head: The large diameter A of the head equals 1.75 times rivet
diameter D, the small diameter B equals 0.9375 times diameter JD,
and the height C equals 0.875 times the diameter D. Counter-
sunk head: The diameter Aof the head equals 1.844 times rivet
diameter D, and the height Kequals 0.5 times diameter D. These
proportions are based upon an included angle of 80 degrees. Ac-
cording to the American Standard, the included angle is 78 de-
grees and A = 1.81 D; K= 0.5 D. An included angle of 60 de-
grees is the common standard for bridge and structural work.
Rivets, Cold Formed. In permanently assembling various
light parts, it is often possible to greatly reduce the cost and yet
secure sufficient strength by cold forming in an assembling die,
P
rn
\WP
where C is a constant to be determined by tests. Experience
shows that when C is equal to 2000 this formula gives the maxi-
mum sprocket speeds for satisfactory results, and that, in general,
it is desirable to use sprocket speeds not greater than 80 per
cent of the maximum speed S.
When one keeps within the proper range with respect to the
number of revolutions per minute, there is no known limit to the
permissible chain velocities except where centrifugal force be-
comes great enough to stress the chain beyond its proper working
load. By using a sufficiently large number of teeth on the
sprockets, roller chains have been driven at velocities as high as
4000 feet per minute, transmitting five times their ordinary rated
horsepower at that speed. Such drives, of course, require special
attention.
High-speed roller chains are essentially double-roller chains.
The weight, pin bearing area, and width of these chains is double
that of a single-roller chain of the same pitch, and they are
capable of transmitting twice the power at the same speed. The
sprocket teeth are cut with the same cutters as are used for single
chains of the same pitch and roller diameter. The very satisfac-
tory performance of these double chains, coupled with their lov;
cost, has greatly extended the field of usefulness of the roller
chain, and except where extreme quietness of action is required,
they will fill all ordinary requirements for either low or high
speeds.
VALVE SPINDLE
ECCENTRIC ROD
CENTER LINE OF
ECCENTRIC ROD
Rotary Blower. A
rotary blower, also known as a "positive
blower," is a blower consisting of a casing in which two moving
elements revolve in opposite directions, one or both of which are
called impellers. The impellers are of double-lobe cycloidal form,
so that they engage with each other and force air between them,
as they rotate, from the inlet to the outlet. Eotary blowers are
positive in their action and are used for furnishing blast for
1079 -R
cupolas, gas and oil burners, furnaces, ash conveyors, pneumatic
tube service, etc.
The weight of the wire used for the screens is governed by the
weight and character of the material to be screened, so that the
size or gage of the wire often varies for the same number of
screen, and this, in turn, somewhat determines the size of the
openings or meshes. The nature of the sand-blast apparatus is
such that precise grading is not necessary.
plate type and the traveling belt type. Both are faced with sand
paper or other abrasive material. The stock is smoothed by
bringing it in contact with the working surface. The disk machine
is the one usually found in the pattern shops.
much superior to the form shown at C and Z), especially for large
work. The straight or curved half-round type works very well on
soft bearing metals such as babbitt metal, but on brass or bronze,
it cuts slowly and, as soon as the edge is slightly dulled, consider-
able downward pressure is necessary. The type F requires very
much less effort on the part of the workman, and it will cut rap-
idly. As there are two handles instead of a single handle at
one end, the blade can be pressed against the work with little
exertion. This form of scraper is largely used for the heavy
scraping required in fitting large connecting-rod brasses, etc.
The sides are sometimes ground slightly concave (to give the
cutting edges "rake") by holding them against the face of the
grinding wheel.
-S
Spotter: Flat finished surfaces on the ways of machine tods,
etc.,are often finished by spotting, frosting or flaking, partly to
obtain an ornamental appearance and also because the spotted
surface holds lubricant more effectively. One type of spotter
placed on the market is so arranged that the scraper, as it Is
pushed across a guide placed upon the work, receives a rocking
motion so that the blade produces a uniform half-moon effect
without skill or experience on the part of the workman. By ad-
justing a small thumb screw, different shaped spots may be
obtained.
$ XR
_
1105 -S
When the motion is in the same direction as the thrust of the
load which assists the screw movement:
-*
x R
If lead I is large in proportion to the diameter so that the helix
angle is large, F will have a negative value, which indicates that
the screw will turn due to the load alone, unless prevented by a
force F which is great enough to prevent rotation of a non-locMng
screw.
Coefficients of Friction: According to experiments by Profes-
sor Kingsbury made with square-threaded screws, a coefficient of
0.10 is about right for pressures less than 3000 pounds per square
inch and velocities above 50 feet per minute, assuming that fair
lubrication is maintained. If the pressures vary from 3000 to
10,000 pounds per square inch, a coefficient of 0.15 is recom-
mended for low velocities. The coefficient of friction varies ac-
cording to lubrication and the materials used for the screw and
nut. For pressures of 3000 pounds per square inch and using
heavy machinery oil as a lubricant, the coefficients were as fol-
lows: Mild steel screw and cast-iron nut, 0.132; mild steel nut,
0.147; cast brass nut, 0.127. For pressures of 10,000 pounds per
square inch using a mild steel screw, the coefficients were, for a
cast-iron nut, 0.136; for a mild steel nut, 0.141; for a cast brass
nut, 0.136. For dry screws, the coefficient may be 0,3 to 0.4 or
higher.
Coefficient of Friction for Angular Thread Forms: Frictional
resistance is proportional to the normal pressure, and for a thread
of angular form, the increase in the coefficient of friction is
equivalent practically to /* sec ft, in which equals one-half the
included thread angle; hence, lor a U. S. Standard thread, a
coefficient of 1.155 p* may be used.
E tan A (1 j*tan A)
tan A + /i
frictionbetween the threads of a bolt and nut and also the greater
the force tending to burst the nut.
For information about different standard threads and thread
forms, refer to name of thread or standard. See Acme Thread;
American Standard Screw Thread System; British Association
Thread; British Standard Fine Screw Thread; French and In-
ternational Thread; Harvey Grip Thread; Lowenherz Thread;
Pipe Thread; S. A. E. Standard Screw Thread; V-thread; Whit-
worth Standard Thread; Worm Thread.
Electric windings,
Cast iron electro-magnets,
resistance, etc.
Steel Concrete
Sound or heat
Earth
insulation cork
Asbestos, magnesia,
Rock
packing, etc.
Flexible material,
fabric, felt, rubber, Sand
leather, linoleum
Firebrick and
Wire mesh
refractory material
V
The polar section modulus, also known as the section modulus
of torsion, equals, for circular sections, the polar moment of in-
ertia divided by the distance from the center of gravity to tbe
most remote fiber. This rule applies also with fair accuracy to
sections that are nearly circular. For other cross-sections, the
section modulus of torsion is not equal to the polar moment of
inertia divided by the distance from the center of gravity to the
most remote fiber. Methods have not yet been developed by
means of which the modulus of torsion may be calculated
section
for cross-sections other than circular. Experiments have been
made, however, and the section modulus of torsion has been de-
termined in this manner for the most common cross-sections
$-1114
Self-tapping Screw
inversely upon the field strength, the speed of the series motor
will be inversely proportional to the load. Since the speed of a
S-1120
motor also depends upon the voltage that is impressed upon the
armature, the speed of a series motor may be controlled by intro-
ducing resistance in series with the armature, and this is accom-
plished by means of a controller which is used also for starting
the motor. The use of the controller enables the operator to
start the motor slowly under light loads, and also prevents too
great a flow of current when starting under heavy loads. The
characteristics of the series motor are heavy starting torque
and a speed dependent upon the load.
Serrated Shaft Ends. The present S.A.E. standard involute
serrations replace the straight type formerly included in the
recommended practice. These involute serrations are multiple
keys in the general form of internal and external involute gear
teeth, as used for permanent fits between shafts and parts
mounted upon them. The purpose of this standard is to provide
a uniform, easily fabricated set of serrations that can be made
by several manufacturing processes.
The pitches range from 10/20 (ten/twenty) to 128/256, and
the standard includes a wide range of tooth numbers or ser-
rations. The basic dimensions are Diametral Pitch, Pitch
Diameter, Circular Pitch, Major Diameter (of External Ser-
ration), Minor Diameter (of External Serration) and Addendum
(of External Serration). The special dimensions are circular
tooth thickness and width of space, and both major and minor
diameter of the internal serration. The dimensions for the inter-
nal serration are held the same for all fits, and the external
serration is varied to obtain the desired fit. Modifications are
made to obtain equal strength teeth in both members and at the
same time retain even steps of major diameter in well known
fractions. The basic formulas are as follows :
T.M.T.TX.
Pitch Diam. =-=^ __
No. of Teeth _.
"Diametral Pitch
, _.. ,
-Circular Pitch ===
3.1416
Diametral Pitch
The diametral pitch in these formulas is the first figure which
is used to designate the pitch (as, for example, 10 in 10/20) and
this pitch value determines the pitch diameter. The pressure
angle for all serrations is 45 degrees. There are three classes
of fits ("loose," "close" and "press"), which are designated in
the standard as Classes A, B and C, respectively.
Tooth thickness is determined by measuring over pins for the
external, and between pins for the internal serrations. The
diameter of the pins is optional within a narrow range because
it is not necessary that a pin contact exactly at the Pitch Circle.
For the sake 'of uniformity, however, this standard incorporates
a recommended diameter.
Set-Screws. The principal difference between a set-screw
and a cap-screw is that the former bears on its point, whereas
1121 -S
8et-tcrewt
^
Shafting Diameters. The diameter of shafting for transmit-
ting a given amount of power may be determined by the following
formulas which are taken from the American Standards Associa-
tion's Code for the Design of Transmission
Shafting. In these
formulas:
D= outside diameter of shaft in inches;
JTm =
combined shock and fatigue factor to be applied in every
case to the computed bending moment (for rotating shafts,
K m tt= 1.5 for gradually applied or steady loads; 1.5 to 2 for sud-
denly applied loads and minor shocks only; 2 to 3 for suddenly
applied loads and heavy shocks) ;
S-H24
K t
= combined shock and fatigue factor to be applied in every
case to the computed torsional moment (for rotating shafts and
1
1.5 to 3) ;
Jf= t
maximum bending moment in inch pounds;
N= revolutions per minute ;
P= maximum number of horsepower to be transmitted by the
shaft;
p = maximum shearing stress in pounds per square inch (the
maximum shearing stress p, under combined load = 8000 pounds
per square inch for "commercial steel" shafting without allow-
ance for keyways, and 6000 pounds per square inch with allow-
ance for keyways. p = 30 per cent of the elastic limit in tension,
but not more than 18 per cent of the ultimate tensile strength for
shafting steel purchased under definite physical specifications) ;
SB = maximum permissible torsional shearing stress in pounds
per square inch (the values for S B are the same as just given
for p) ;
T s= maximum torsional moment in inch pounds.
If a solid circular shaft is subjected to a pure torsional load
321,000 KP
t
sjr
If a solid circular shaft is subjected to combined torsion and
bending
'
product that is flat and less than 2 inches thick, and from 6 to
12 inches wide.
Sheet Iron. Sheet iron may be either black or galvanized.
Galvanized sheets should be thoroughly and evenly coated, of
bright appearance, and free from blisters, ragged edges, or other
defects. The zinc coating should not flake or peel off when scraped
with a knife, or when the sheet is bent sharply to right angles.
The sheet should never be re-rolled after leaving the galvanizing
bath, except for the purpose of straightening. The zinc used for
galvanizing should contain at least 98 per cent pure zinc. The
minimum zinc coating per square foot for galvanized plates
should vary from 1.35 to 1.65 ounce, the smaller value being
used for the thinnest sheets and the higher value for the heavier
sheets.
Sheet Metal Gages. Sheet metal gages or gaging systems
vary for different classes of materials, such as ferrous and non-
ferrous metals. Gage numbers and equivalent thicknesses are
given in engineering handbooks. See Sheet Steel; also Gages
for Sheet Metals.
Sheet-Metal Testing. Tensile strength tests are unsatis-
factory for determining the quality of thin sheet metal that is
to be worked in power presses, etc., because of two reasons : in
the first place, such tests do not yield reliable data for very thin
sheets; second, the quality of metal which is to be worked by
drawing, stamping, folding, etc., is dependent upon ductility and
similar properties rather than upon tensile strength. A machine
has been developed for determining what is known as the
Erichsen value, i.e., the depth in millimeters before the metal is
torn, of an impression made by forcing the sheet metal through
a die. See Erichsen Value.
Sheet Steel. Sheet steel is made from soft steel containing
a low percentage of carbon. The Manufacturers' Standard plate
gage sizes most generally considered under the heading of "sheet
steel" are those from No. 10 (0.1345 inch thick) down to No. 30
(0.012 inch thick). Sheets corresponding to the various gage
numbers between these limits are made in widths of 24, 26, 28,
and 30 inches, and in lengths of 72, 84, 96, and 120 inches.
Nos. 10 to 16, inclusive, are also made in widths of 36, 40, 42,
and 48 inches, and in lengths of 144 inches, and Nos. 17 to 24,
inclusive, are also made in sizes 36 inches in width and 144 inches
long. See Cold-rolled Sheet Steel.
H31-S
Shellac, Pattern. See Pattern Varnish or Shellac.
Shrink-Holes in Castings. A
shrink-hole is a cavity caused
by the shrinking away of the metal in cooling. This defect is
most likely to occur in those parts of a casting which are ex-
cessively thick. If practicable, avoid sudden changes in the
thickness of a section.
Shrouded Gears. The teeth of some cast gears are joined
together at the ends by a flange or wall of metal in order to
strengthen the teeth. Gear teeth which are reinforced in this
way are said to be shrouded. If this shroud or supporting wall
only extends to one-half of the height of the teeth, instead of to
the tops, the gear is known as a semi-shrouded form.
Shunt Trip. A
shunt trip is an arrangement for tripping cir-
cuit-breakers. The shunt trip has its coil normally disconnected
from the circuit and trips as soon as the coil is connected in the
circuit. It is generally used to trip a
circuit-breaker from a distant point by
the closing of a switch or similar device
Shunt-Wound Generator. This is a
direct-current generator in which the
field winding is connected to the brushes
N of tlie mac*line and *s t*lus * n P^alk*
(CP)) 5
_l\l/ll II
^th
I
I I
the armature winding, forming a
shunt to the same, as shown by the dia-
gram. This shunt is a comparatively fine
wire of high resistance, thus limiting the
field current to a small percentage of the
total current, although the number of
Diagram of Shunt- turns proportionately higher. The
is
wound Generator voltage of such a generator is maxi-
mum at no load and, unless regulated,
decreases as the load increases. Regulation is accomplished by
inserting an adjustable resistance or rheostat in the field circuit;
if resistance is cut out, the field current is increased and also the
voltage of the machine, and vice versa. Modern shunt-wound
generators with commutating poles have a very dose inherent
regulation, so that a very small change is required in the position
of the rheostat between no load and full load.
S-1136
form, is the cleanest and most convenient flux. The paste is pro-
duced by moistening the borax in clean water. The flux can be
applied to the parts to be jointed with a small brush.
The work should be heated gradually at first, so as to harden
the borax flux; then heating should be continued with a clean
flame until a red heat is reached, at which temperature the solder
will run and penetrate interstices which ordinary hard solders
would fail to fill. As soon as the joint has been completed, the
source of heat should be removed and the work quickly plunged
in clean cold water. This method of procedure disintegrates the
flux and scale which, if left to cool slowly, would set in a very
hard vitreous film that is extremely difficult to remove.
Siphon-Barometric Condenser. A
barometric condenser is
not equipped with an air pump but is connected with a discharge
or tail pipe having an elevation of at least 34 feet above the
surface of the hot-well. See Condenser.
$
CO
i 3
Q.
5
I
is
II
i
?
01
T3
ft.
Q.
1151-S
and the runner, no matter where the runner is placed along the
rule. A tongue that fits a groove in the bottom edge of the rule
holds the runner to the rule, and a light spring that bears against
the upper edge keeps the runner snugly in place.
The upper faces of the rule and slide are inscribed with suit-
able logarithmic scales which, in the common form of rule, are
designated as A, B, C, and D, as illustrated. Scales C and D are
exactly the same and are used in combination for the operations
of multiplication and division.
Multiplication and Division: Thus, as shown in the middle dia-
gram, when one end of the scale C is set at some figure on the
D scale, say 3.36, it is actually at a point which is a proportional
distance from the left end of the D scale equal to the logarithm
of 3.36. Now if the cursor is moved to some number on the
C scale, say 2.64, it will actually be a proportional distance from
the left-hand end of the C scale equal to the logarithm of 2.64 or
at a proportional distance from the left-hand end of the D scale
equal to the logarithm of 3.36 plus the logarithm of 2.64. The
D scale reading of 8.87 at this point is, therefore, equal to the
product of 3.36 times 2.64. In division, this operation is per-
formed in reverse. As shown in the lower diagram, the divisor
2.16 on the C scale is set against the dividend 9.00 on the D scale.
The left-hand end of the C scale is now at a proportional dis-
tance from the left-hand end of the D scale equal to the logarithm
of 9.00 minus the logarithm of 2.16 and the reading at this point
on the D by 2.16 or 4.16.
scale is equal to 9.00 divided
Squares and Square Roots: The logarithmic A and B scales,
which are exactly the same, are called square root scales and they
are so laid out that any point on the A scale has a logarithmic
value equal to twice that of a point which is directly below it
on the D scale. (The same relation holds true with respect to
points on the B scale compared with points directly below on the
C scale.) Thus if the cursor hair-line is set on any number on
the D scale it will indicate the square of that number on the
A scale* This is based on the fact that to find the square of any
number you multiply its logarithm by 2 and find the correspond-
ing number (anti-log) of the resulting logarithm. In correspond-
ing manner by setting the cursor hair-line at some number on the
A scale the square root of that number can be immediately read
where the hair-line crosses the D scale directly below. The
A and B scales virtually repeat themselves so that on each, *
complete scale from 1 to 10 extends from the left hand end to
the middle and another complete scale from 1 to 10 extends from
the middle to the right-hand end. Here the problem arises as to
which scale should be used in finding the square root of a given
number. The left-hand scale is used where the number has an
S-1152
odd number of digits, if it is an integer, or an odd number of
zeros immediately following the decimal point, if it is a decimal
of less than 1. The right-hand scale is used where the number
has an even number of digits, if it is an integer, or no zeros or
an even number of zeros immediately following the decimal point,
if it is a decimal of less than 1. For decimals greater than 1,
the rule for integers is followed and only the digits to the left
of the decimal point are counted.
Scale Values: The scale numbers on a slide rule may be as-
signed arbitrary values equivalent to any multiple of ten. Thus
the number 4 on the scale may stand for 0.04; 0.4; 4; 4,000;
4,000,000; etc. However, when a given multiple is used in any
calculation it must be applied to all settings and scale readings
for that calculation. Usually, a slide rule of this type and size
is considered to be accurate to three places, i.e., the first three
and DI the inside or exhaust lap. The object of the outside lap is
that the steam may be shut off after the piston has moved for-
ward a certain distance, and be expanded during the remainder
of the stroke. If there were no outside lap, steam would be ad-
mitted throughout the entire stroke and there would be no expan-
sion. If there were no inside lap, exhaust would take place
throughout the whole stroke, and the advantages of premature
release and compression would be lost. Hence, outside lap affects
the cut-off, and inside lap affects release and compression.
Balanced Slide Valve: Many of the slide valves now in use
are of the balanced type, which means that the steain pressure is
excluded from most of the upper surface of the valve to reduce
the pressure on the valve seat and the resistance to movement.
There are different designs of balanced valves.
Riding Cut-off Valves: If a steam engine is equipped with a
single slide valve, any change in the point of cut-off will cause a
corresponding change in the point of admission, thus varying
$-1154
the lead, release, and compression; hence, on many modern en-
gines, the cut-off is varied independently by a separate auxiliary
valve. The type of cut-off valve commonly used slides upon a
bearing surface of the main or distribution valve, and, therefore,
is often referred to as a "riding" valve. The main valve is op-
erated by a fixed eccentric, and the riding valve by the eccentric
of a shaft or flywheel type of governor, which varies the point
of cut-off automatically, according to speed. For instance, if the
engine speeds up, the position of the eccentric is changed with
relation to the crank, so that the steam is cut off earlier, thus
decreasing the speed, whereas, if the engine slows down as the
result of an increase in load, the cut-off occurs later, which in-
creases the power and brings the speed back to normal. This
action of the governor, however, does not affect the operation of
the main valve.
A simple form of riding cut-off valve is shown by the sectional
view, Fig. 2. The main valve contains ports A, through which the
steam is admitted to the cylinder, and the riding valve B serves
to cut off the steam. The latter may be controlled by any of the
different types of shaft governors in common use. Another valve
mechanism which operates on the same principle, differs consider-
ably in form, as both the main and cut-off valves are cylindrical,
the cut-off valve working within the main valve. The inner or
cut-off valve is operated by the eccentric controlled by the gov-
ernor, and the main valve by the separate eccentric attached to
the main shaft.
When setting riding or auxiliary cut-off valves, the general
practice is to set the main valve the same as an ordinary slide
valve, or so that it has equal port openings or lead at each end
of the stroke, assuming that there is lead. The riding valve is
usually set to give an equal cut-off for the forward and return
strokes. When the riding valve is controlled by a shaft governor,
which is the method commonly employed, the cut-off is
equalized
either at the middle of the range of the governor or at the point
where it is expected that the engine will run most of the time.
The exact method of procedure in setting the valves on engines
of different design depends somewhat upon the arrangement of
the valve-gear and governing mechanism, in each particular case.
Slitting Files. A
slitting file is a type that is similar to the
feather-edge, although the taper is less abrupt and the edges
are sharper.
case the lead or babbitt metal faces are held in the dove-tailed
pockets shown. While a heavy blow may be struck with one of
these soft hammers, a finished surface will not be marred by
dents, because of the relative softness of the hammer face.
silver, tin and so-called platinin and goldin metal, as well as gold
and silver. Pinchbeck is the name applied to certain alloys which
are closely related to brass alloysi but contain less zinc. Common
classes of pinchbeck alloys include similor, mannheim gold, oveide
and chrysorin.
Solder for Aluminum: According to investigation by the
Bureau of Standards, solder for aluminum should consist of a tin
base with an addition of zinc, or zinc and aluminum. The func-
tion of the alloys is principally to produce a fluid mixture within
the range of soldering temperatures. A high temperature is ad-
vised to secure adhesion of the tinned surface. For tin-zinc
solders, the following composition is suggested : Zinc, 15 to 50 per
cent, and the remainder tin. For tin-zinc-aluminum solders, the
composition suggested is: Zinc, 8 to 15 per cent; aluminum, 5 to
12 per cent; and the remainder tin. By using the higher values
of the zinc and aluminum percentages, the solder will be too stiff
at the lower temperatures to flow readily. A
higher temperature
will secure a better joint. Solders should be applied without a
flux after preliminary cleaning and tinning of the surfaces to be
joined. Good aluminum solder should not be brittle. The tensile
strength of the better grades of aluminum solder is about 7000
pounds per square inch. The strength of the joint, however, is
dependent upon the workmanship. All metals used for aluminum
soldering are electrolytically negative to aluminum. A
soldered
joint for this reason is attacked by electrolysis and destroyed
when exposed to moisture; hence, it is recommended that the
soldered joint be protected by paint or varnish.
Spark Tests for Steel. It has long been the practice of tool-
makers and hardeners to judge the grade of steel by observing
the characteristics of the spark produced when a sample is held
against an abrasive wheel. It is doubtful if anyone could esti-
mate within plus or minus 0.10 per cent of carbon, unless the
grinding wheel speed and the type and grade of wheel have been
standardized, and unless analyzed steel standards from the same
S-H66
heat as the steel being tested are available. But if wheel speed
and wheel are standardized and a standard from the same heat
is available, then it is possible to estimate the carbon content to
within plus or minus 0.02 per cent for the lower carbon steels,
and to within plus or minus 0.05 per cent for the higher carbon
steels.
The carbon content of alloy steel may be determined as ac-
curately as for the straight carbon steels, provided the percentage
of alloying elements is not very high, as would be the case, for
instance, in high-speed steel. In addition, the presence of other
elements may be determined. The presence of chromium can
readily be determined within ranges of 0.3 per cent; nickel below
1.5 per cent is somewhat difficult to determine, but nickel from
1.5 to 3.5 per cent is readily discerned. In tungsten steel, one
may discover minute traces of tungsten, and also distinguish be-
tween 2 per cent, 5 per cent, and 8 per cent tungsten steel and
higher. The beginner should become accustomed to the carbon
steels first, for after he has become thoroughly conversant with
these, the examination of other steels will be easier.
Spark Pictures: In looking at the spark picture produced by
carbon steel, when pressed against an abrasive wheel, a series of
streaks and explosions are in evidence. By observing at first,
steels of known composition, and perhaps keeping samples as
standards for comparison, other steels may be classified in a gen-
eral way by the spark test. The piece of steel to be tested should
not be placed against the edge of the wheel. It has been found
more satisfactory to place it against the side surface of the wheel
at a point % %
to inch from the outer periphery. There should
be no obstruction in front of the spark, as it is generally easier
to study the characteristics at a distance from the wheel at a
point where the carrier lines are more separated. A black back-
ground should be used, against which the sparks can be clearly
seen. The best way is to set the wheel in a black painted cabinet,
so that the color and characteristics can be readily seen. The
length of the spark has little to do with the determination of the
grade of steel, because the length usually depends on the size of
the piece being tested and the method of pressing it against the
wheel. The only difference in the method of testing hardened
and annealed work is that more pressure is required to obtain the
same length of spark with an annealed piece of work.
Batiot=
Since logarithms would ordinarily be used for the extraction
of this root, the ratio may be obtained as follows:
Rule: Subtract the logarithm of the slowest speed from the
logarithm of the fastest speed and divide the difference by the
total number of speeds minus 1; the result will equal the log-
arithm of the ratio.
In actual practice, the exact progression obtained may be
modified slightly to permit using gears of a certain diametral
pitch. For machine tool transmissions, the speed ratio should,
as a general rule, be between 1.3 and 1.5, as otherwise there will
be either too small or too great a difference between successive
speeds. There would be no practical advantage in a series of
speeds varying by small increments equivalent to a ratio of say,
1.1, whereas, if the ratio were 1.7 or possibly 2, the changes from
one speed to the next would be excessive. Feeding mechanisms
may be designed for ratios of 1.2 or less, depending on the type
of machine.
Speeds of machine tool drives and especially feed changes are
sometimes varied according to "chromatic scale progression/'
with a ratio of either 1.4142 or 1.189 in case a lower ratio is
required. The first ratio is the square root of 2, and the second
the fourth root of 2. The object of using these particular ratios
is to obtain a series of speeds or feeds containing the even ratios,
2, 4, 8, 16, etc.
arranged that the revolutions made during a given time are indi-
cated by figures which change automatically. For instance, if
the reading is 500 at the instance the spindle of the instrument
is pressed against the shaft and 700 one minute afterward, the
difference between the first and second readings, or 200, indicates
the speed in revolutions per minute. If considered desirable, the
register may be set to zero by holding the point of the spindle
against the revolving shaft for a short time. A more highly de-
veloped instrument known as a tachoscope consists of a revolution
counter and a non-magnetic precision stop-watch which are so
connected that they operate simultaneously the moment a slight
pressure is applied to the spindle which engages the revolving
shaft. As soon as the pressure is released, both the revolution
counter and the watch stop at the same time, thus indicating on
the dials the number of revolutions made and also the time
elapsed. See also Tachometer.
Spiral Bevel Gears. Spiral type bevel gears have been used
widely in automobile rear axle drives in preference to bevel gear-
ing having straight teeth. There has also been an increasing
demand for this type of gearing for other purposes. The spiral
design operates more smoothly than bevel gears with straight
teeth and has certain other advantages. The relation between
spiral and straight tooth bevel gearing is practically the same
as the relation between ordinary spur gears and helical gears
applied to parallel shafts. The teeth of spiral bevel gears are not
a true spiral, although the actual curve, when developed on a
plane, closely approximates the spiral curve. Gears of this kind
are cut on machines of the generating type.
Spiral Bevel Gear Capacity: Spiral bevel gears have a load-
carrying capacity that is somewhat greater than that of straight-
tooth bevel gears of similar proportions. The difference in
capacity, however, is not very great, and the formula for straight-
tooth gears may also be applied to the spiral bevel type. One of
the principal reasons why spiral bevel gears are slightly superior
to the straight-tooth form as power transmitters is that there
are more teeth in contact and the load on any one tooth is less.
Another reason is that the load is never concentrated on the point
of a tooth throughout its whole length. When there is contact at
S-1176
the point at one end, the contact is toward the flank at the other
end, and the average height from the root, at which the load is
applied, is much less than the total height of the tooth. The
smoothness of operation is another favorable factor tending to-
ward greater load capacity, as in the case of herringbone or
double-helical gearing for connecting parallel shafts.
The tooth of a spiral bevel gear has to take both the trans-
mitted load and the thrust load. This total load equals the trans-
mitted load divided by the cosine of the spiral angle. For a
30-degree spiral angle, the total load is about 1.15 times the
transmitted load. This additional tooth load on a spiral bevel
gear tooth, as compared with a straight tooth, is more than offset
by the increased number of teeth in contact While the tooth
thickness of the spiral bevel gear is less than that of the straight
gear, the length of the curved tooth is correspondingly greater,
so that the sectional area on the pitch cone surface is prac-
tically the same for the straight and spiral forms of teeth of
corresponding pitch.
Spiral Head. A
spiral head is an attachment for milling ma-
chines, used for indexing or dividing and also in connection with
helical milling. See Indexing Attachments.
'
these four fittings. The standard also gives the limits both for
permanent or fixed fits, and also for fittings intended to slide
either when under load or when not under load. An efficient
method of forming these multiple splines on the shaft, is by hob-
bing. The procedure is the same in principle as hobbing a gear,
but a special form of hob is required. The hob used for gen-
erating straight-sided splines has curved teeth. The required
hob-tooth curvature may be determined either graphically or
mathematically. The mathematical method is more accurate and
rapid. See Hobs, Splined Shafts.
Sin A = and C = ~A
pounds per square inch, with elongation varying from 15 per cent
for half hard to 1 per cent for spring temper. Grade B, half
hard, 65,000; hard, 85,000; extra hard, 100,000 pounds per square
inch, with elongation varying from 20 to 1 per cent for half hard
to extra hard.
Spring Caliper. A
spring caliper is a measuring tool used by
machinists. The two legs of a spring caliper are joined by a
spring (instead of a riveted joint) in such a manner that the
bent ends are normally held apart, while a screw and nut are
provided for forcing the measuring points together. Sometimes
the nut is split so as to permit of rapid adjustment to an ap-
proximate dimension, after which the nut is closed and an
accurate adjustment made by turning it on the screw.
EXTENSION SPRING WITH REGULAR MACHINE LOOP AND HOOK, IN LINE OR IN SAME PLANE.
EXTENSION SPRING WITH REGULAR MACHINE LOOP AND HOOK, AT RIGHT ANGLES.
EXTENSION SPRING WITH REGULAR HAND LOOP AND HOOK, AT RIGHT ANGLES.
EXTENSION SPRING WITH REGULAR LOOP OF ONE COIL ON SIDE AND SPECIAL CROSSOVER EYE.
EXTENSION SPRING WITH SPECIAL CROSSOVER EYE AND AN EXTENDED EYE FROM CENTER OF COIL
cially where the ratio of -7- is relatively small (see Wahl Factor) ;
;_.
Where S is the allowable safe working stress, its value will
rary for different classes and grades of spring wire as will the
value of G. For more exact calculations, the value of S used will
also be affected by the size of wire. For average grades of ma-
terial and not considering wire size, the following values may be
used as an approximation: For oil-tempered commercial steel
wire, G &= 11,000,000 and S =
100,000 pounds per square inch
for light service; use 80 per cent of this stress value for average
service and 65 per cent of this stress value for severe service.
For music wire, G =
12,000,000 and S =
120 per cent of the
stress values for oil-tempered commercial steel wire. For hard-
drawn steel wire, G =
11,000,000 and S =
80 per cent of the
stress values for oil-tempered commercial steel wire. For stain-
less 18-8 steel, G =10,500,000 and S =
80 per cent of the stress
values for oil-tempered commercial steel wire. For phosphor
bronze, G =
6,000,000 and S =
45 per cent of the stress values
for oil-tempered commercial steel wire. For beryllium copper,
G = 7,000,000 and S =
60 per cent of the stress values for
oil-tempered commercial steel wire. For brass, G =
5,000,000
and S e= 40 per cent of the stress values for oil-tempered com-
mercial steel wire. For Monel metal, G
S = =
9,250,000 and
50 per cent of the stress values for oil-tempered commercial
steel wire.
Helical Springs Made of Square Wire: Helical springs usually
are made of round wire. In some cases, however, wire of square
1191 -$
cross-section may be used to obtain a higher load-carrying
capacity without increasing the size of the spring. In designing
square wire springs, the load and deflection for a given working
stress may be calculated first for a round wire spring having the
same diameter, number of turns, and a wire diameter equal to
the side of the square cross-section; then the load capacity of the
round wire spring is multiplied by 1.06 and the deflection by
0.739, in order to obtain corresponding values for a spring made
of square wire.
While the load capacity of the square wire spring is 6 per cent
greater than that of one made of round wire, the square wire has,
chain runs against the sprocket. When the chain is fitted with
some attachment for specific purposes and a reverse bend is re-
quired, the sprocket must be provided with
a gap or gaps to allow
the attachment to pass.
(90\
diameter:
angle for new chain is 24.1 degrees and the average pressure
angle is 17.6 degrees.
Hobs: Only one hob will be required to cut any number of
teeth for a given pitch and roller diameter.
Fellows Cutters: These are for use on the Fellows gear shaper.
Not more than two will be required to cut any number of teeth
for a given pitch and roller diameter.
The face of the tooth is that part of the tooth curve that is be-
tween the outside circumference and the pitch circle.
The flank of the tooth is that part of the working depth of the
tooth which comes inside of the pitch circle.
PX 55 X (600 + 7)
In this formula,
V BBS velocity in ft. per min. at pitch diameter
S, = allowable static unit stress for material;
;
PX 27 X (1200 + 7)
Diametral Pitch for Given Power Capacity: The preceding
formulas are arranged to indicate the approximate safe power-
transmitting capacity of a pair of gears. In the design of gear-
ing, however, it may be necessary to determine the pitch or tooth
size required for transmitting a given number of horsepower. If
the power rating is based upon the original Lewis formula,
the equivalent diametral pitch P is found by the following
formula:
H.P. X 55 X (600 + 7)
The face width of a spur gear usually equals three to four times
the circular pitch or face width =
circular pitch * ^th k X
varying from 3 to 4. Theoretically, the power-transmitting
capacity increases in proportion to the face width, but this only
holds true within certain practical limits because very wide gear-
ing may not have proper contact throughout the length of the
teeth, possibly because of deflections or imperfect mounting. If
a face width of 4 times the circular pitch is considered satisfac-
tory, then in the following formula k should equal 4. The formula
S-1198
willthen show the diametral pitch required when the face width
equals 4 times the circular pitch.
3,1416
H.P. X 55 X (600 V) +
Load at Pitch Line When gears
and Equivalent Horsepower:
transmit a given number of horsepower, the equivalent load in
pounds at the pitch line is found as follows:
Load at pitch
Square File. This style of file either tapers from the middle
toward the point or is made of uniform cross-section throughout
The taper square file has double-cut, bastard teeth, and is ex-
tensively used in machine shops generally, principally for en-
larging apertures of a square or rectangular shape. The blunt
form also has double-cut bastard teeth and is employed by engine
builders and in the shops of railroads, ship-yards, etc., for the
rougher work in finishing or enlarging mortises, keyways, or
splines, especially when of considerable length.
Staybolt. A
staybolt is a bolt used in boilers and locomotives
for supporting or staying the tube sheets. Staybolts are threaded
throughout their length and are inserted in tapped holes in the
inner and outer sheets. The ends are riveted over to tighten
and strengthen the bolt.
Staybolt Taps. A
tap having 12 threads per inch, provided
with a long shank and reamer section, for use by boiler makers
in tapping boiler sheets preparatory to inserting the staybolts.
It is generally driven by an air drill.
Spindle Staybolt Taps: A short tap with a hole drilled through
its entire length, in which a spindle is fitted and acts as a guide.
The tap is used for tapping holes from the inside of fire boxes
in locomotive work
St. Croix Rule. This is a rule employed for finding the board
measure of logs, as follows Deduct 4 inches from the diameter
:
Steam Metal. Alloys suitable for steam valves and other pur-
poses where the metal is exposed to the action of the steam are
often known as "steam metals." Alloys of copper and zinc are
unsuitable for this purpose, because their strength is materially
reduced at high temperatures and the metal deteriorates by con-
tinued heating and cooling. Alloys of copper with from 10 to
12 per cent of tin are, therefore, used for this purpose. A good
composition consists of 88 per cent of copper, 10 per cent of tin,
and 2 per cent of zinc. This alloy has a tensile strength of about
33,000 pounds per square inch, when cold, and over 30,000
pounds per square inch, when heated to 400 degrees F.
S-1212
Steam Pipe Vibration, See Vibration Due to Steam Plow.
Steam Separators. Steam separators are used in steam
power plants in order to intercept the moisture in the steam and
the water of condensation that flows along with it, before the
steam reaches the engine cylinders or turbines, thus protecting
them from damage by water. It is a well-known fact that steam
engines and turbines operate more economically and at higher
efficiency when supplied with dry steam than when supplied with
moisture-laden steam. For this reason, a steam separator will
effect a saving in fuel and also a considerable saving in oil and
engine repairs.
Steam Tables. Steam tables may be found in many engi-
neering handbooks, and in the catalogues of various kinds of
steam apparatus. They give useful data relating to steam at dif-
ferent pressures, and include such factors as: 1. pressure;
2. temperature; 3. heat in water above 32 degrees F.; 4. internal
latent heat; 5. external latent heat; 6. latent heat of evaporation;
7. total heat of evaporation; 8. weight of a cubic foot of steam,
in pounds; 9. volume of a pound of steam, in cubic feet.
~0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
PERCENTAGE OF PEARLITE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
PERCENTAGE OF FERRITE AND CEMENTITE
HARDENING
O TEMPERATURE
DRAWING TEMPERATURES IN
T
,_
ABOVE THE
TRANSFORMATION
POINT
Steel Wire Gage. This gage is used in the United States for
allbare wire of galvanized and annealed steel and iron, and also
for all tinned and spring steel wire. It is also known as the
United States Steel Wire Gage, Washburn & Moen Wire Gage,
American Steel & Wire Co/s Gage, Roebling Wire Gage, and
National Wire Gage. Steel Wire Gage tables may be found in
Engineering Handbooks.
.JO/
Step-chuck and Closer
equivalent to 1.75 per cell at the 20-hour rate for passenger car
and motor truck service, and at the 4-hour rate for motorcoach
service. The temperature of the battery at the beginning of such
discharge shall be exactly 80 degrees F., and an average tempera-
ture of 80 degrees F. shall be maintained during discharge with
a maximum variation of 5 degrees F. The second rating shall
apply only to batteries used in passenger car and motor truck
starting and lighting service. This rating shall indicate the
cranking ability of the battery at low temperatures and shall be
(1) the time in minutes when the battery is discharged continu-
ously at 300 amperes to a final average terminal voltage equiva-
lent to 1.0 volt per cell, the temperature of the battery at the
beginning of such discharge being zero degrees F. ; and (2) the
terminal battery voltage 5 seconds after beginning such discharge.
Stove Bolt. This bolt has been so named because of its use
in stove building. It is made in a number of different forms,
either with a round button, or flat countersunk head, the head
1229 -S
having a slot for a screwdriver and the threaded end being
provided with a square or hexagon nut.
Stove Coal. This coal is in pieces of such size that they will
not pass a screen of 1%-inch mesh, but will pass a screen of
2-inch mesh.
Strenes Metal. A
chromium-nickel-molybdenum alloy that
can be cast to shape, eliminating a large amount of machine work
and stock removal. Up to 500 hours of machining time has been
saved by the use of this metal for a single large die. In the plant
of a refrigerator manufacturer, dies from this metal are said to
have produced more than 1,350,000 refrigerator top stampings
from 0.050-inch material. Suitable for drawing and forming
dies, punches, forming pads, and draw- or pressure-rings.
Strength of Materials. See kind of material
Stress Definitions. A stress is a force acting within a ma-
terial or machine part resisting deformation. Aload tends to
produce deformation and is resisted by the stress which it cre-
ates within the body. A working load is the maximum load
applied to a material under ordinary working conditions. A
working stress is the stress produced in the material by the work-
ing load. A safe working stress is the maximum permissible
working stress under given conditions, as for example, for a
certain material. The total stress is the sum of all the stresses
caused at one section of the body, irrespective of its area in
square inches; whereas the terms stress, working stress, or in-
tensity 'of stress generally mean the number of pounds stress per
square inch of section.
S-1232
Stresses, Compound. See Compound Stresses.
Stuffing-boxes
The velocities previously given will allow for two or three el-
bows, a stop valve, and a foot-valve. The area of the discharge
pipe may be found by using the same formula and substituting
300 for the value of V in all cases.
1258
1259-T
employed for light operations such as drilling, reaming, lapping,
and the cutting of very small threads with taps or dies, while
the revolving-spindle tailstock is applied to certain drilling opera-
tions. The "sliding" or "open" tailstock is similar to the half-
open design, except that it has full or complete bearings. The
spindle has a knob at one end and is moved by hand the same
as the spindle of a traverse grinder.
Tangential Load. A
load applied to a circular body, such as
a gear or pulley, in the direction of a tangent to its circumfer-
ence, is known as a tangential load. To find the tangential load
at the pitch-line of spur gearing, multiply 33,000 by the number
of horsepower being transmitted, and divide the product by the
pitch-line velocity in feet per minute.
T-1260
Tang of Drill Shank. The "tang" is the flat end on the taper-
ing shank of a drill. The drill is caused to rotate with the spindle
or socket, principally by the friction between the shank and the
socket, and any slipping is prevented by the flat end or tang on
the shank which engages a cross-slot at the end of the taper hole.
The drills used in chucks ordinarily have straight shanks
instead of the taper form and the end does not have a tang.
Tantalum. Tantalum is a metal of silver-white color, highly
ductile, and remarkably hard, if hammered. Tantalum has a
specific gravity of 16.64. It melts at a temperature of 2850 de-
grees C. (about 5160 degrees P.). Its specific heat is 0.0365, and
its coefficient of linear expansion per unit length, per degree F.,
0.0000045. Tantalum belongs to the same group of metals as
vanadium and columbium.
Tap Bolt. A tap bolt is used without a nut, the threaded end
being screwed into a tapped hole in one of the parts to be held
by the bolt; hence, the name, tap bolt. Tap bolts and cap-screws
are used in the same way.
Machinery
the flutes of the tap which is backed out of the hole by turning
the extractor with a wrench. This extractor is adjustable so as
to support the fingers close to the tap, even when the broken end
is below the surface of the work. Another method of removing
broken taps, which has proved effective in some cases, is to in-
ject into the hole a little nitric acid, diluted in the proportion of
about one part acid to five parts water. The action of the acid
upon the steel loosens the tap so that it usually can be removed
either with an extractor or an ordinary pair of pliers. The re-
maining acid should afterwards be washed out of the hole so
that it will not continue to eat the threads. A third method con-
sists in adding, by electric arc welding, metal onto the shank of
the broken tap, up to or above the level of the work. Care must
be exercised to prevent depositing metal onto the threads in the
tapped hole. After the shank has been built up, the head of a
kolt or a nut is tacked to itad then the tap may be backed out
1263 -T
Tap-Holder, Friction. Many tapped holes do not extend clear
through the work, but are "blind"; hence, when the tap is driven
by power, provision should be made for allowing the tap to stop
in case it should strike the bottom of the hole, as otherwise it
might be broken. Taps are also broken frequently, because the
drilled holes are not large enough, the result being that the strain
on the tap becomes excessive, and breakage occurs unless provi-
sion is made for limiting the amount of driving power. One
method of safeguarding the tap is to hold it in a friction chuck
or holder, which will slip in case the tap strikes the bottom of
the hole or meets with excessive resistance to rotation. There are
a number of different forms of friction tap- and drill-holders on
the market These differ as to the method of obtaining and vary-
ing the frictional resistance. On some drilling machines, an
adjustable friction is introduced in the spindle-driving mechanism
to prevent the breaking of taps.
Collapsing Tap
>^AAAA/^AAAAAA^AAA>^WU^
it
Length
Teat Drill. The cutting edges of a teat drill are at right angles
to the axis, and in the center there is a small teat of pyramid
shape which leads the drill and holds it in position. This form
is used for squaring the bottoms of holes made by ordinary twist
T-1272
drills or for drilling the entire hole, especially if it is not very
deep and a square bottom instance, when drilling
is required. For
holes to form clearance spaces at the end of a keyseat, prepara-
tory to cutting it out by planing or chipping, the teat drill is
commonly used,
Tee. A tee is a pipe fitting, either cast or wrought, that has
one side outlet at right angles to the run ; that is, a single outlet
branch pipe. A cross-over tee is made along lines similar to a
cross-over, but having at one end two openings in a tee-head the
plane of which is at right angles to the plane of the cross-over
bend. A union tee has a male or female union at the connection
on one end of the run. A service tee has an inside thread on one
end and on the branch, but an outside thread on the other end
of the run; it is also known as a street tee. A double-sweep tee
is made with easy curves between body and branch, i.e., the cen-
ter of the curve between the run and branch lies outside the body.
Tension Scales for Belts. The tension of belts used for the
transmission of power should be varied according to the length,
T-1276
width, and thickness of the belt. When a belt is kept at the
proper tension, its life is materially increased, and the cost of
maintenance and repairs is greatly reduced. A belt should not
only have the proper initial tension at the time it is put up, but
this tension should be maintained. If a belt is too tight, there
is a constant waste of power due to excessive friction in the bear-
ings, and if it is too loose, a loss in efficiency from slippage
results; both conditions tend to shorten the life of the belt. A
belt tension scale has been designed for testing the tension while
a belt is in position on the pulleys. The scale is placed on the
belt and a handle is turned, thus causing tension to be applied
to the belt by means of a spring contained within the scale. The
tension of the belt is indicated by graduations which show
whether or not the belt requires tightening, and, if so, how much
should be cut out of the belt.
multiple type.
Dies operated by hand are frequently used for small and
medium-sized parts, especially when accuracy as to the lead of
the thread and its relation to the screw axis is not essential
and comparatively few parts need to be threaded at a time. When
a large number of pieces must be threaded, power-driven ma-
chines equipped with dies are commonly employed. If the opera-
tion is simply that of threading the ends of bolts, studs, rods,
etc., a "bolt cutter" would generally be used, but if cutting the
thread were only one of several other operations necessary to
complete the work, the thread would probably be cut in the same
machine performing the additional operations. For instance;
T-1284
parts are threaded in turret lathes and automatic screw ma-
chines by means of dies and in conjunction with other operations.
When screws are required which must be accurate as to the pitch
or lead of the thread, and be true relative to the axis of the
work, a lathe is generally used; lathes are also employed, ordi-
narily, when the threaded part is comparatively long and large
in diameter. Many threads which formerly were cut in the lathe
are now produced by the milling process in special thread-
milling machines. The method often depends upon the equipment
at hand and the number of parts to be threaded. Very precise
threads may be produced by grinding.
W (1 + cosec t)
M=E A JLL
0.57735
+W + =E
(1 2) 0.86603 P -f 3 TF
and silver and soft maple, 900 redwood and Norway pine, 1000
; ;
Tin Plate. Tin plates are made by coating soft sheet Bteel
with tin to protect the steel from corrosion. They are made in
sizes of 10 by 14 inches and multiples of that measure, the most
commonly used sizes being 14 by 20 and 20 by 28 inches. The
"base weight" of tin is equivalent to the weight of a standard
"base box" which contains 112 sheets of 14- by 20-inch size. In
the trade, the expressions "charcoal plates" and "coke plates" are
retained from the time when high-grade tin plates were made
from charcoal iron and the lower grade of tin plates from sheet
iron produced with coke as a fuel, or coke iron. At the present
time, however, these terms refer only to the quality of the tin
coating and the finish. Charcoal plates have the heaviest coating
and the highest polish, while coke plates have a light coating of
tin. The latter are generally used for can-making. The amount
of coating of pure tin per square foot of plate equals 0.023 pound,
according to the specifications of one large consumer of this ma-
terial. See also Terne-plate.
tool steels are also used, it having been found that if 0.5 per cent
of titanium is present in steel, cutting tools are produced which
give much greater durability and high-grade quality.
Endurance Tests: The endurance of titanium-treated steel has
been demonstrated by tests on a rotary vibrational testing ma-
chine. An open-hearth steel that contained 0.25 per cent of car-
bon, 0.64 per cent of manganese, 0.425 per cent of silicon, 0.04
per cent of phosphorus, and 0.035 per cent of sulphur, withstood
2,660,000 revolutions at a fiber stress of 38,870 pounds. After
this same steel had been treated with titanium, it was given
4,052,200 revolutions at the same fiber stress, namely, 38,870
pounds. The stress was then increased to 40,600 pounds, and the
piece stood 10,800,700 additional revolutions without a fracture.
'The fiber stress was again increased to 42,400 pounds and the
piece given 1,918,600 more revolutions. The stress was increased
a third time to 44,200 pounds and the piece was given an addi-
tional 1,006,300 revolutions before it broke. This was a total of
17,777,800 revolutions for the titanium steel, many of which were
given it at an increase of fiber stress, as against 2,660,000 rev-
olutions for the untreated steel.
by been estab-
this process, because once the operating cycle has
lished and the power supply adjusted, the human element is
eliminated.
Toggle Joint. A
link mechanism commonly known as a toggle
joint is applied to machines of different types, such as drawing
and embossing presses, stone crushers, etc., for securing great
pressure. The
principle of the toggle joint is shown by the ac-
companying diagram. There are two links, 6 and c, which are
connected at the center. Link 6 is free to swivel about a fixed
1299 -T
pin or bearing at d, and link c is connected to a sliding member e.
Rod / joins links b and c at the central connection. When force
is applied to rod / in a direction at right angles to center-line xx,
'
~*~
Thus, 1.00 is an example of bilateral tolerance, because
(3) The nominal size may be specified for both parts, with a
notation showing both allowance and tolerance, as
Diameter of hole: 2%
0.002, + 0.000
Diameter of shaft: 2%
0.001, 0.003
Bilateral tolerances should be specified as such, usually with
plus and minus tolerances of equal amount. Example of the
expression of bilateral tolerances follow:
'
THREE SQUARE
L===
H.P. X 63000
fix r
Example: A
spur gear having a pitch radius of 6 inches, ro-
tates 500 revolutions per minute and transmits 10 horsepower.
Determine the torque in pound-inches; also the tangential load
in pounds at the pitch circle.
500 X 6
-210 pounds
Triangles. A
triangle is a plane figure bounded by three
straight lines. If all the three sides of a triangle are of equal
length, it is known as equilateral. If two sides are of equal
length, it is known as isosceles. If one angle is a right, or
90-degree angle, the triangle is a right or right-angled triangle.
If all the angles are less than 90 degrees, the triangle is an acute
or acute-angled triangle. If one of the angles is larger than
90 degrees, the triangle is an obtuse or obtuse-angled triangle.
very thick. In order to properly gage the inside of the tube while
it isbeing drawn through the die, the inside is kept from closing
in by the insertion of a steel mandrel or "triblet" This triblet
is a rod which is slightly smaller in diameter than the tube over
which it is drawn, and must be of a length longer, than any tube
that will be drawn over it. To the end of the triblet is welded &
hardened steel tip, the shape and size of which gage the inside
1317 -T
of the tube. At its opposite end it is secured to the center of a
bar that has a sliding action of five or six inches- over two bolts
in the standard of a bench at the rear.
Troy Weight. The troy weight is used for weighing gold and
;
tightly into the holes in the tube sheet by expanding the ends.
This tightening of the tube is done by simply stretching the
metal outward against the hole in the tube sheet, by means of a
tool calleda tube expander. There are two general types of these
tools the sectional expander and the roller expander. The sec-
tional type is composed of a number of steel segments which are
held together either by a steel band or a ring of rubber; these
segments surround a central tapering mandrel which is driven
inward in order to force the segments outward, thus stretching
the tube. The outer surfaces of the segments are usually so
shaped that the tube is not only expanded against the wall of the
hole through the tube sheet, but enlarged on both sides of the
tube sheet. This beading of the tube makes the latter serve as
a brace against either tensional or compressive stresses. When
tubes are expanded by means of thees sectional expanders, this
is frequently referred to as the Prosser method. The roller type
of tube expander has a set of three or more rolls which are
mounted in a suitable frame or holder. These rolls bear against
a central tapering mandrel which is rotated and, at the same
time, forced inward, thus causing the rolls to revolve and grad-
ually expand the tube tightly against the hole in the tube plate.
This is frequently called the Dudgeon method. The rotation of
the mandrel may be effected either by hand or by power.
Tumbler Files. These files are of double oval section but are
narrower than crossing files, and the surfaces have smaller radii.
They are made in either taper or blunt forms and the teeth are
double-cut, bastard, second-cut, or smooth. The tumbler file is
not used very generally.
Tumbler Gear and Cone. The type of geared feed-changing
mechanism illustrated by the diagram, or some modification of it,
Type Metal Bearings. Type metal, used for casting type for
the printing trades, is sometimes used for light high-speed ma-
chine bearings which are not likely to become heated. For bear-
ings, it is used in the form of a lining like babbitt metal. Type
metal is a comparatively cheap alloy, because it contains a large
percentage of lead and, when cheapness is an important con-
sideration, there is a tendency to use this lining metal instead
of the more expensive babbitt alloys containing copper and tin.
T-1332
Type metal bearings should not be used, however, when heavy
by the shaft.
loads have to be supported
1889
V-1340
I
<*
li =r=v=^=r=:
Fig. 1.
Reversing Valve-gear set for Forward and Backward Motions
arSS
forward the
' to
be
lj illustrate a direct
eccentrics for
1345 -V
Equalizing the Valve Travel: After the steain-chest cover is
removed, in order to expose the valve and its seat, begin either
by turning the engine or the eccentric one or more revolutions
around its shaft, and observe the movement of the valve with re-
lation to the steam ports. (When the engine is large and difficult
to turn, it is often much easier and more convenient to simply
loosen the eccentric and rotate it about the crankshaft, thus se-
curing the same as far as the movement of the valve is
effect,
concerned.) Whenthe valve has traveled as far as possible in
one direction, measure the distance x (diagram A, Fig. 2), be-
tween the edge of the valve and the edge of the port After
taking this measurement, continue turning either the engine
crankshaft and the attached eccentric, or the eccentric alone,
thus causing the valve to be moved in the opposite direction.
When it has reached the opposite end of its travel, as at B, meas-
ure the distance y between the other edge of the valve and the
edge of the port. Assume that the port opening x was about
equal to the port width, and the valve traveled beyond the other
port, as indicated by the distance y. In this case, then, the posi-
tion of the valve on its seat will have to be changed an amount
equal to one-half the difference between the distances x and y,
in order to make these dimensions equal and equalize the valve
travel.
The way in which the position of the valve is changed, in order
to equalize its travel, will depend upon the arrangement of the
valve-operating mechanism. Ordinarily, the length of the ec-
pentric rod or valve-stem can be varied, or it may be possible to
adjust the valve axially along the valve stem, by means of nuts
on either side. When the valve movement has been equalized so
that the valve travels an equal distance each way from its cen-
tral position, the first step in setting the valve is completed. The
next one is to locate the eccentric in the proper position so that
the valve will operate at the right time.
Position of the Eccentric: Before setting the eccentric in re-
lation to the crank, it is first necessary to know in which direc-
tion the engine is to run, assuming that it is not reversible. The
terms "running over" and "running under" are ordinarily used
to indicate the direction in which an engine rotates. When the
crank rises at the beginning of the forward stroke and the top
of the flywheel turns away from the cylinder, the engine is said
to be running over. Inversely, when the crank falls at the be-
ginning of the forward stroke and the top of the flywheel turns
toward the cylinder, the engine is running under. Stationary
engines ordinarily are designed to run over, whereas locomotives
must, of necessity, run under when moving forward. When en-
gines are running over, the vertical thrust of the cross-head
V-1346
engine at the point of cut-off for the head end of the cylinder.
Setting Valves on Reversible Engine; When an engine is
equipped with a reversing mechanism of the shifting-link type
illustrated by the diagrams, Fig. 1, the valve is set in practically
the same way as described in the foregoing, except that it must
be adjusted for the forward and backward motions, and, instead
of a single eccentric, there are two eccentrics which must be lo-
cated with reference to the crankpin. The procedure, in brief,
is as follows: The travel of the valve is first equalized with the
Valve Travel, The total distance that air engine slide valve
moves in one direction is known as the travel. This term is used
instead of the word "stroke," which might properly be applied.
Vanadium. Vanadium is a light colored metal having a spe-
cific gravity of from 5.5 to 6. It melts at a temperature of 1750
degrees C. (3182 degrees P.). Its specific heat at 32 degrees F.
is 0.124, and its electrical conductivity (silver =
100) is about
5 ; it is non-magnetic. Vanadium is widely distributed in small
quantities in a large number of minerals. It is an important
alloying metal used in steel, vanadium steel having a number of
valuable properties which are not obtainable in ordinary steel.
On account of its great affinity for carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen
at high temperatures, absolutely pure vanadium has not been
produced. Owing to its very high melting point, vanadium, even
if it were commercially possible to produce it reasonably pure in
the metallic state, would present much difficulty in alloying with
other metals. Fortunately, it is relatively easy to reduce vana-
dium as an alloy of iron, ferro-vanadium, containing approxi-
mately one part of vanadium and two parts of iron. This alloy
has a melting point of about 1300 degrees C. (about 2370 de-
grees F.), which is low enough for it to melt and alloy readily
when added to molten steel.
Vanadium Steel. The two most marked characteristics of
vanadium steel are its high tensile strength and its high elastic
limit. Another equally important characteristic is its great
resistance to shocks; vanadium steel is essentially a non-fatigue
metal, and, therefore, does not become crystallized and break un-
der repeated shocks like other steels. Tests of the various spring
steels show that, when subjected to successive shocks for a con-
siderable length of time, a crucible carbon-steel spring was broken
by 125,000 alternations of the testing machine, while a chrome-
vanadium steel spring withstood 5,000,000 alternations, remain-
ing unbroken. Another characteristic of vanadium steel is its
great ductility. Highly-tempered vanadium-steel springs may
be bent sharply, in the cold state, to an angle of 90 degrees or
more, and even straightened again, cold, without a sign of frac-
ture; vanadium-steel shafts and axles may be twisted around
several complete turns, in the cold state, without fracture. This
property, combined with its great tensile strength, makes vana*
dium steel highly desirable for this class of work, as well as for
gears which are subjected to heavy strains or shocks upon the
teeth. Chromium gives to steel a brittle hardness^ which makes it
very difficult to forge, machine, or work, but vanadium, when added
V-1356
to chrome-steel, reduces this brittle hardness to such an extent
that it can be machined as readily as an 0.40-per-cent carbon
steel, and it forges much more easily. Vanadium steels ordinarily
contain from 0.16 to 0.25 per cent of vanadium. Steels of this
composition are especially adapted for springs, car axles, gears
subjected to severe service, and for all parts which must with-
stand constant vibration and varying stresses. Vanadium steels
containing chromium are used for many automobile parts, par-
ticularly springs, axles, driving-shafts, and gears.
Vernier Calipers
are sixteen divisions to the inch on the true scale and a total of
eight on the vernier, the latter will enable readings within one
hundred twenty-eighths of an inch to be taken (16 X 8 =
128).
It will be seen then that each subdivision on the true scale can
be divided into as many parts as there are divisions on the
vernier.
1S69
W-1370
compared with $2.40 under the Gantt system. If the work is not
done within the task time under the latter system, the regular
hourly or daily rate is received.
received for the actual working time at the regular day rate.
This percentage, according to the Rowan plan, is equivalent to
the percentage of standard time that is saved.
If Aequals the amount received for the actual working time
at the regular day rate; B equals the standard time in which the
work should be completed; and C equals the amount of time
saved, the premium may be computed as follows: Premium
C
=s A X -5*' For example, if the standard time is eight hours
z>
and the actual working time, six hours at sixty cents an hour,
X "o =
2
the premium equals 360 90 cents, and the total amount
WaM factor
As the index ratio decreases, the Wahl factor increases. This
factor, when applied as a multiplier to the computed torsional
stress in a helical spring, gives a close approximation to the
total stresses developed.
Warding File. A
warding file has parallel faces, that is, it
is thickness throughout, but it is tapered in width
of the same
for the whole length from the heel to the point. It is generally
double-cut, and is used by jewelers and machinists, but espe-
cially by locksmiths for filing "ward notches" in keys; hence,
the name "warding file."
Washburn &
Moen Wire Cage. This gage is the same as
the American Steel & Wire Go's, gage, which, as approved by
the Bureau of Standards at Washington, is now known as the
"Steel Wire Gage." This gage applies to all steel wire, and is
used to a greater extent than any other steel wire gage in the
United States. See Gages for Wire.
Washed Metal. Washed metal is a name used for cast iron
from which most of the silicon and phosphorus have been re-
moved, by the so-called "Bell-Krupp process," without removing
W-1376
much of the carbon contents, so that the metal still contains
enough carbon (over 2.2 per cent) to be classified as cast iron.
Washers. Plain washers are made in standard sizes to suit
standard screw threads, bolts and screws. The manufacturers'
regular standard, adopted in 1935, is for bolt sizes ranging
from %
inch up to 3 inches, inclusive. There is also an S.A.E.
standard for plain washers. This includes screw and bolt sizes
ranging from No. 2 machine screw up to, and including,
1%-inch bolts. These washers are somewhat smaller than the
manufacturers' standard and also have smaller inside diameters
or clearance spaces between the bolt and washer.
waterproof if made thick enough. These are much used for steam
joints. Flaxseed meal made into a paste with water is often
serviceable, the oil contained serving as a binder as the water
evaporates.
Wedge Coupling. A
wedge coupling, also known as a vise
coupling, issimilar to a compression coupling which grips the
two shafts to be connected with the wedging action. There are
numerous designs, all of which employ some kind of a conical
split inner sleeve.
W-1382
Weighing Scale, Sensibility. See Scale Sensibility.
Weight and Mass. See Mass and Weight.
Weight, Effect of Altitude. See Gravity.
Weights and Measures Bureau. The present fundamental
standards of length and mass for practically the whole civilized
world result from the establishment of the International Bureau
of Weights and Measures. In response to an invitation of the
French government, fifteen countries, including the United
States, sent representatives to a conference held in Paris in 1870,
to consider the advisability of constructingnew metric standards.
This conference was of short duration, on account of the war
then raging between France and Germany. Asecond conference
was held two years later, at which thirty countries were repre-
sented, the United States again being among this number. At
this conference, it was decided that new meters and new kilo-
grams should be constructed to conform with the original stand-
ards of the archives, and a permanent committee was appointed
to carry out this decision. The preparation of the new standards
had advanced so far by 1875 thaft the permanent committee, ap-
pointed by the conference of 1872, requested the French govern-
ment to call a diplomatic conference at Paris to consider whether
the means and appliances for the final verification of the new
meters and kilograms should be provided, with a view to per-
manence, or whether the work should be regarded as a temporary
operation. In compliance with this request, a conference was
held in March, 1875, at which nineteen countries were repre-
sented, the United States being one of this number. In 1875,
seventeen of the nineteen countries represented signed a conven-
tion which provided for the establishment and maintenance of a
permanent International Bureau of Weights and Measures to be
situated near Paris and to be under the control of an interna-
tional committee elected by the conference, the committee to
consist of fourteen members, all belonging to different countries.
In addition to the primary work of verifying the new metric
standards, the bureau was charged with certain duties, the fol-
lowing being the most important: The custody and preservation,
when completed, of the international prototypes and auxiliary
instruments; the future periodic comparison of the several na-
tional standards with the international prototypes; the com-
parison of metric standards with standards of other countries.
In accordance with the terms of the convention, the French
government set aside a plot of ground just outside of Paris, and
upon this ground, which was declared neutral territory, the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures was established.
FRONT Et-EVATICN
Construction of Weir
Wheatstone Bridge
8 e -J 2
--, ana j
and hence, as
-, it follows that ^ 4.
F X R *= W X **
r
=
v-*-
X
137329
X cot 27 de -
0.640327
No. Th'ds per inch
137829
30 min.
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0.640327 p
Winchester Bushel. A
measure of capacity or volume, legal
in the United States, and equal to 2150.42 cubic inches. This
measure has not been legal in Great Britain since 1825, when it
was superseded by the Imperial bushel which is equal to 2218.19
cubic inches.
Windmill Power. The power of windmills of the same type
varies approximately as the square of the wheel diameter, and
as the cube of the wind velocity. This general rule is based on
the theory that the intercepted area of air current varies as the
square of the wheel diameter, and that the kinetic energy of
the air, impinging on such an intercepted area, varies as the
cube of the wind velocity. This rule is applicable within rea-
sonable limits, but as windmills are designed to give the best
efficiency in low winds, say, from 10 to 15 miles per hour, the
same angle of sail will not give the same percentage of efficiency
in winds of considerably higher velocity.
The ordinary wheel works most efficiently under wind veloci-
ties of from 10 to 12 miles per hour. Such wheels will give
reasonable efficiency in from five- to six-mile winds. Mills built
for grinding purposes, geared mills, or power mills as they are
called, when attached to a grinder having a centrifugal feed,
will develop power almost proportional to the cube of the wind
velocity, within reasonable limits of such velocity, as their speed
TABLE 1
TABLE 2
W-1394
need not be kept down to a certain number of revolutions per
minute, as in the case of a pumping mill. Should this theoreti
cal condition hold, Table 1, showing the amount of power foi
wind velocities, would apply
different sizes of mills at different
The figureswhich show the horsepower have been proved by
laboratory tests. The results of tests on mills actually in use
are given in Table 2, the figures indicating the horsepower.
The foregoing tables must be translated with reasonable al
lowance for conditions under which wind wheels must work,
and which cannot well be avoided; pumping mills must be made
to "regulate ofF" at a certain maximum speed to prevent dam-
age to the attached pumping devices. The regulating point is
usually between 20- and 25-mile wind velocities, so that no
matter how much higher the wind velocity may be, the power
absorbed and delivered by the wheel will be no greater than
that indicated at the regulating point.
Wire Feed. The name "wire feed" is often applied to the mech-
anism for feeding a rod through the spindle of a screw machine.
The term "wire-feed screw machine" is sometimes used to indi-
cate a design having a mechanism for automatically feeding the
stock through the spindle, whereas a machine not having this
stock-feeding mechanism may be designated as a plain screw ma-
chine.
Wire Rods. Wire rods are hot rolled from billets to an ap-
proximate round, and receive no additional processing to obtain
a more accurate cross section or to improve the surface. They are
rolled to specified dimensions and are produced in coils of one
continuous length, wound counter-clockwise. Wire rods are classed
as a semi-finished product and are intended primarily for the
manufacture of wire. They are not comparable to the finished
product bars in accuracy of cross section nor surface finished
because of the difference in, type of mill on which each is rolled.
This product is classed as carbon steel when no minimum con-
tent is specified or guaranteed for aluminum, chromium, colum-
bium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten or vanadium; when
the minimum for copper does not exceed 0.40 per cent; and when
the maximum content specified or guaranteed for any of the fol-
lowing elements does not exceed the figures given: Manganese,
1.65 per cent; Silicon, 0.60 per cent; Copper, 0.60 per cent.
Size Classification: Wire rod sizes are designated by fractional
or decimal parts of an inch or by the gage numbers of the Steel
Wire Gage (Washburn and Moen). The smallest size hot-rolled
wire rod made is known as No. 5 gage, but custom in the industry
has set the minimum nominal diameter of No. 5 gage rods at 0.218
inch. The largest size of wire rods has a nominal diameter of
47/64 inch. Wire rods from No. 5 gage to 15/32 inch, inclusive,
are ordinarily produced on rod mills generally by the double or
multiple strand method. Wire rods over 15/32 inch to 47/64 inch,
inclusive, are commonly produced by the single strand method and
are often referred to as combination rods. Aside from the differ-
ences in methods of rolling indicated above, the manufacture of
the larger sizes of rods involves additional precautions in steel-
making, and the preparation of billets to assure quality equiva-
lent to that more readily obtained in the smaller sizes of rods.
Rods for Merchant Wire Products are suitable for drawing
into wire which will be subjected only to simple forming opera-
tions as in the case of wire fencing, staples, barb-wire, nails, bale
ties, etc. These are run-of-mill rods free from defects injurious
to merchant wire products.
Rods for Special Surface Quality Wire are suitable for drawing
into manufacturers wire having special surface requirements.
These rods are free from defects such as injurious seams, fins, laps,
divers, etc., and are subjected to mill tests and inspection de-
W-1402
signed to assure that the special precautions taken in their manu-
facture have produced rods of suitable quality.
Rods for Welding Wire are suitable for drawing into wire to
be used for gas or electric arc welding. The rods are manufac-
tured to give satisfactory performance of the wire under the
action of the gas flame or the electric arc. Those requirements
involve extra precautions in the manufacture of the steel, in the
selection and preparation of the billets, and in making tests of
the rods.
Rods for Spring Wire are suitable for drawing into wire to be
used in the manufacture of springs, such as upholstery, bed, auto-
mobile seat and cushion springs. The rods are rolled from
specially prepared steel.
Rods for Telephone and Telegraph Wire are made by practices
and of chemical compositions suited to the manufacture of wire
having electrical and physical properties that will meet the re-
quirements of the respective standard grades. EBB stands for
"Extra Best Best" and signifies steel wire of lowest electrical
resistance; BB stands for "Best Best" and signifies steel wire
of medium electrical resistance. Steel signifies steel wire of maxi-
mum resistance permissible in communication lines.
Wire Rope. Wire ropes are made by twisting a number of
wires together into a strand, and then twisting a number of
strands about a hemp core to form a wire rope. Sometimes the
hemp center is replaced by a wire strand which adds from 7 to
10 per cent to the strength of the rope. The strand is usually
made by placing one wire in the center and surrounding this with
a layer of 6 wires, thus forming a 7-wire strand. If another
layer of wires is placed outside of this layer, this new layer will
contain 12 wires, and the strand will be a 19-wire strand. An
additional layer will contain 18 wires, thus making a 37-wire
strand. By adding another layer, this time of 24 wires, a 61-wire
strand is obtained; and, in exceptional cases, still another layer
may be added, this time of 30 wires, making a 91-wire strand.
The advantages of wire rope as compared with hemp rope are
as follows: Greater strength for the same diameter; greater
strength for the same weight; lower cost for the same strength;
equal strength whether wet or dry (a hemp rope may lose as
much as 30 per cent of its strength when wet) ; equal length un-
der all weather conditions; greater indestructibility; and greater
variety in types of construction that may be applied to different
uses. As another advantage may also be mentioned the greater
certainty with which the strength of wire ropes may be computed.
Types of Wire Rope: When all the wires used in making a
strand are of the same size, the construction is known as a one-size-
wire type. Another construction, known as the Warrington type,
1403 -W
or three-size-urire construction, makes use of 7 wires of uniform
diameter surrounded by a layer of 12 wires of which 6 are large
and alternate with 6 smaller wires. The Warrington construction
increases the metallic area and, hence, the strength for a given
outside diameter of rope by approximately 10 per cent, and is
advantageous for general hoisting purposes. Still a third type
of construction, known as the Secde type, is used. In this, the
center wire is large; then there is a layer of 9 small wires, and
then an outer layer of 9 large wires. Strands made in this man-
ner will produce a rope which is somewhat stiff er than the ropes
made by one-size-wire or three-size-wire construction.
Wire ropes are made from a number of different materials
varying from iron wire to the highest grade of special steels.
Iron was used almost entirely for wire ropes in the early days of
wire rope manufacture. At the present time, it is employed only
to a limited extent. Compared with newer materials, it is of a
low tensile strength and soft, and although ductile and pliable,
it is heaviest in proportion to its strength.
Crucible-steel Wire Rope: Crucible steel is a tough and pliable
material of moderate cost when used for wire ropes. It has about
double the strength of iron for the same weight; it is also harder
than iron, and, therefore, resists external wear better. The steel
has derived its name from the early method of making high car-
bon steel in small crucibles, but the same grade of steel for wire
rope is now made by the Siemens-Martin open-hearth process.
When drawn into wire, steel of this quality will have an ultimate
strength of from 150,000 to 250,000 pounds per square inch, the
higher figure applying to the finer wires and the lower to those
of larger diameter.
Plow-steel Wire Rope: The name "plow" steel originated in
England and was applied to a strong grade of steel wire used in
the construction of very strong ropes employed in the mechanical
operation of plows. The name "plow" steel, however, has become
a commercial trade name, and, applied to wire, simply means a
high-grade open-hearth steel of a tensile strength in wire of from
200,000 to 260,000 pounds per square inch of sectional area. A
strength of 200,000 pounds per square inch is obtained in wire
about 0.200 inch in diameter. Plow steel when used for wire
ropes has the advantage of combining lightness and great
strength. It is a tough material, but not as pliable as crucible
steel. The very highest grade of steel wire used for wire rope is
made from special steels ranging in tensile strength in wire from
220,000 to 280,000 pounds per square inch of sectional area. This
steel is especially useful when great strength, lightness, and
abrasive resisting qualities are required.
Galvanized Wire Rope: The following information on materials
W-1404
used for wire rope and the practical applications of different
materials is from the United States Government specifications:
Galvanized wire rope should be used if the rope is likely to cor-
rode because of the presence of moisture, as for the standing
rigging of a ship. Because the zinc coating is rapidly removed
by wear, it should not, in general, be used for hoisting. It may,
however, be used for the running rigging and for wheel (steer-
ing) ropes on ships, as these ropes do not wear rapidly.
Uncoated Wire Rope: Uncoated wire rope should be used where
it is protected from moisture, as in a building, and for more or
less continuous hoisting. It may be used instead of galvanized
wire rope where it is exposed to moisture, as for derrick guys, if
a protective coating is applied to the rope at regular intervals.
Phosphor-bronze Wire Rope: Phosphor-bronze wire rope has
lower strength than steel wire rope; therefore, the working loads
should be lower. The sheaves should also be larger than those for
steel rope. It is non-magnetic, and can be used for conditions
under which galvanized steel rope does not give satisfaction.
Because of these properties, it is used on small vessels.
Marline-covered Wire Rope: Marline-covered wire rope is
stronger and more durable than manila rope. The marline cover-
ing prevents wearing of the wires and supplies lubricant to them.
As the marline wears to a smooth surface, the rope is easily
handled or laid in a flat coil. Compared with uncovered wire
rope, the marline-covered rope is more easily handled, has greater
friction, which is an advantage if it is used on a smooth drum,
and is more durable, particularly if it is exposed to gases, grit,
or moisture.
HEADLESS
h----- L----- .
PINCHED HEAD
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Mil mil \ \ i I \ \
i
FLAT HEAD
d
M I
i
r
ROGERS FLAT
* 111 \ V I V V V V V\ 1 \ HEAD DRIVE
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jrear in feet per minute,, its diametral pitch, and face width as
measured along the pitch circle of the worm.
Worm Thread Cutting. Worm threads are cut either by
using some form of thread-cutting lathe and a single-point tool,
by using a thread milling machine and a disk type of cutter, or
by using a gear-hobbing machine. Single-thread worms usually
have an included angle of 29 degrees. Many worm gears used
at the present time, especially for power transmission, have
thread angles larger than 29 degrees because multiple-thread
worms are used to obtain higher efficiency, and larger thread
angles are necessary in order to avoid excessive under-cutting of
the worm-wheel teeth. According to the recommended practice
of the American Gear Manufacturers' Association, worms hav-
ing triple and quadruple threads should have a thread angle of
40 degrees, and some manufacturers of worm gearing, especially
when the helix or lead angle of the thread is quite large, use a
thread angle of 60 degrees.
If the helix or lead angle of the worm thread exceeds 15 or
20 degrees, it is common practice to reduce the depth of the
thread by using the normal instead of the axial pitch of the worm
in the formulas. Thus, if Pn equals normal pitch, the total depth
equals Pn X 0.6866 instead of P X 0.6866. This normal pitch Pn
equals P X cosine of the helix angle. According to the recom-
mended practice of the American Gear Manufacturers' Associa-
tion, the whole depth for single- and double-thread worms equals
P X 0.686, and for triple- and quadruple-thread worms equals
P X 0.628.
Worm Threads. The included angles of worm threads may
range from 29 degrees up to 60 degrees. While 29 degrees (see
W-1420
illustration) a common angle for single-threaded worms, the
is
multiple-threaded type used for efficient power transmission must
have comparatively large helix angles and, consequently, increased
thread angles to avoid excessive under-cutting in hobbing the
worm-wheel teeth. The American Gear Manufacturers' Associa-
tion recommends a 40-degree in-
d = 0.6866 X P cluded thread angle for triple-
t = 0.335 x p
b = 0.310 X P and quadruple-thread worms, but
many speed reducers and other
transmissions have thread angles
of 60 degrees. The angle of
29 degrees is the same as that of
the Acme thread, but the worm
thread depth is greater and the
widths of the flats at the top and
29-degree Worm Thread bottom are less. If the lead
angle or angle between the worm
thread helix at the pitch cylinder and ,a plane perpendicular to
the worm axis, is comparatively large, difficulties may be encoun-
tered if a 29-degree worm thread is employed. If the lead angle
is larger than about 20 degrees, an increase in the included
thread angle is desirable. As the efficiency of worm gearing
reaches a maximum when the lead angle is about 45 degrees, this
explains why 60-degree thread angles have been applied in many
transmissions. The formulas for the thread parts of a 29-degree
worm thread are as follows :
= No. threads per
pitch
of inch
9
A
thread = 0.6866 p
'
depth of ^-
.
No. of
threads per inch
t width thread s=
at top of p; 0.335
b width bottom of thread = 0.310
at p.
Non-adjustable Wrenches
pig iron, and passes through the same process in the puddling
furnace, and is rolled through the puddle rolls, cut up, heated,
and re-rolled the same as refined iron, but the bars thus obtained
are again cut up, made into box piles, reheated, and again run
through the rolls. The double rolling of the metal makes it very
fibrous. Double-refined wrought iron is a very good material hav-
ing an ultimate tensile strength of about 50,000 pounds per square
inch with an elongation of 28 per cent. It is used extensively in
the construction of passenger and freight cars, because of its
ductility and its quality of being able to withstand shocks and
constant vibration better than steel.
Zinc Castings. Pure zinc castings are used for certain spe-
cial purposes. For example, the dies or blocks on which hats are
made are usually cast from zinc. The patterns for pure zinc
castings are usually made from plaster-of-paris/and the molding
is similar to that of other metals. Another use for cast zinc is
for making monuments and statues, the metal then being market-
ed under the name of "white bronze." For many purposes of in-
side decoration, a metal casting that can be easily bronzed or
otherwise finished is desirable. Zinc, when alloyed with some cop-
per, is frequently used, although, as a general rule, brass or
bronze castings are preferable. Brass and bronze, however, must
be cast at a temperature of from 1700 to 1900 degrees F., accord-
ing to the composition of the alloy, whereas zinc, alloyed with a
small amount of copper, can be cast at a temperature of from
about 800 to 900 degrees F., which is an important consideration,
especially when plaster molds are used.
Zinc Cement. Zinc cementis a cement composed of zinc
oxide which is made a paste by means of a solution of zinc
into
chloride. The peculiar quality of zinc cement is that it hardens
quickly, and it may, therefore, be used for various purposes where
this quality is of value. A cheaper form of zinc cement may be
made from commercial zinc-white, mixed with an equal weight of
fine sand, an3 made into a paste by means of a solution of zinc
chloride. This cement is frequently used for filling cracks in
metals, and for cementing glass, porcelain, etc.
1431 -Z
Zinc Chromate. Zinc chromate is a yellow pigment made
from zinc salts and potassium dichromate. It is fairly soluble in
water and generally contains other chromates and zinc oxide, with
some impurities. It has a specific gravity of 3.5, and grinds to a
paste in 25 per cent of oil. Considerable drier is required as it
is a slow drying material, but it has proved to be one of the most
inhibitive of all pigments in use and is valuable in even small
amounts in protective paints. Its rather high price is its only
disadvantage.
Zinc-Dust. Zinc-dust, also known as zinc powder, is metallic
zinc in the form of a fine powder. It may be obtained in two ways :