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FUNDAMENTALS OF

SUBSEA ENGINEERING

MODULE 1
Introduction to Subsea Production

AUTHOR
John Preedy PhD
Associate, Azur Offshore Ltd
CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 2
COURSE STRUCTURE .................................................................................................................. 3
STUDYING THE COURSE ............................................................................................................. 5
1 INTRODUCTION TO SUBSEA PRODUCTION ...................................................................... 6
1.1. Introduction to Subsea Production Systems ........................................................................ 6
1.2. Fixed Structures vs. Floating Systems ................................................................................ 7
1.2.1. Subsea Production Systems (SPS) .............................................................................. 8
1.2.2. Floating Production Systems .................................................................................... 10
1.3. Global Oil and Gas Reserves ........................................................................................... 14
1.4. Exploration, Reservoir Analysis and Marine Drilling ............................................................ 21
1.4.1. Introduction........................................................................................................... 21
1.4.2. Exploration Phase Methods ...................................................................................... 21
1.4.3 Reservoir Engineering ................................................................................................ 29
1.4.4 Introduction to Offshore Drilling .................................................................................. 30
2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SUBSEA PRODUCTION ............................................................... 44
2.1 Field Location/Size ........................................................................................................ 46
2.2 Reservoir Factors Pressure .......................................................................................... 46
2.3 Reservoir Factors Chemistry ........................................................................................ 46
2.4 Reservoir Factors Temperature .................................................................................... 47
3 THE FUNDAMENTALS OF SUBSEA ENGINEERING ........................................................... 48
4 FIELD DEVELOPMENT CONTRACTS ................................................................................. 58
5 SUBSEA PRODUCTION OPTIONS .................................................................................... 60
5.1 Background .................................................................................................................. 60
5.2 Fields Developed with Satellite Wells Tied-back to Existing Platforms ................................... 61
5.3 Fields Developed with Satellite Template/Manifold/Clusters Tied-back to Existing Host Platforms
64
5.4 Fields Developed with Floating Production Platforms (Semi-subs) ........................................ 67
5.5 Fields Developed with FPSO Monohulls and Subsea Facilities............................................... 71
5.6 Subsea Fields Tied Back to a SPAR or TLP ........................................................................ 74
5.7 Well to Shallow Water Host or to Beach Gas Field Developments ......................................... 77
5.8 Well to Beach Gas Field Developments ............................................................................. 80
6. FLOW ASSURANCE FOR SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS ............................................... 83
6.1 Background .................................................................................................................. 83
6.2 Flow Assurance and Systems Design ............................................................................... 84
6.3 Flow Assurance Issues ................................................................................................... 88
APPENDIX A........................................................................................................................... 119
APPENDIX B........................................................................................................................... 120

Copyright IIR Limited 2015. All rights reserved.


These materials are protected by international copyright laws. This manual is only for the use of course participants
undertaking this course. Unauthorised use, distribution, reproduction or copying of these materials either in whole or
in part, in any shape or form or by any means electronically, mechanically, by photocopying, recording or otherwise,
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1
INTRODUCTION

Welcome to the Course

Across the world the search for oil pushes field developments into ever more difficult areas, with deeper
water, more isolated and hostile environments and increasing complexity in the reservoirs.

Offshore production technology has to develop techniques to meet these challenges. This introduction to
subsea engineering examines the production equipment that is placed on the seabed and connects the
well with the above sea surface production hosts, whether fixed platforms or floating production facilities.

This distance learning course examines the building blocks of subsea engineering including the key
components, flow assurance, reliability and maintenance. The crucial role of subsea engineering in
offshore production is illustrated with detailed case studies.

By completing this course you will gain:


A complete overview of subsea production equipment and systems
An understanding of how subsea systems are designed, installed and operated
Knowledge of the technology and processes involved in subsea engineering
An awareness of current developments and issues shaping subsea production around the world.

Offering the flexibility of studying in your own time and location, this programme will benefit a broad
range of people. If you are starting in a new role, this course will provide a comprehensive introduction to
subsea engineering. For those who work in a different part of the oil and gas industry it will provide a
deeper understanding of the part played by subsea engineering. Professionals in associated industries
such as consultants, lawyers, bankers and accountants will gain an insight into the complexities of this
increasingly crucial part of oil and gas production.

Whatever your motivation, the unique blend of downloadable and multimedia learning materials, expert
tutorial support and peer interaction via a dedicated online forum will ensure a thorough, accurate and
up-to-date knowledge of subsea engineering fundamentals, wherever you are in the world.
Welcome to Module 1.

John E. Preedy PhD


Course Director

2
COURSE STRUCTURE

The course is divided into six modules, which will be made available for download at two-week intervals.

The modules will cover the following:

Module 1 Introduction to Subsea Production


Introduction to offshore production
o Background to offshore production systems
o Global oil and gas reserves and fields
o Introduction to offshore exploration and drilling
Introduction to subsea engineering
o Building blocks
o SPS (Subsea Production Systems) and URF (Umbilicals, Risers and Flowlines)
o Other elements
o Systems design
Types of subsea completions
o Extensions to existing platforms
o Tie-backs to existing production hosts
o Production systems for floating hosts: FPSOs (Floating Production, Storage and Offloading
systems) and FPVs (Floating Production Vessels)
o Well to beach developments (gas fields)
Flow assurance for subsea production systems
o Hydraulics
o Wax
o Hydrates

Module 2 Wellheads, Xmas Trees and Manifolds


Wellheads
o Drilling subsea wells
o Wellheads as part of drilling and production operations
o Blowout preventers
o Design and functions
o Installation
o Examples
Xmas trees
o Types of trees
o Dual bore vertical trees and spool/horizontal trees
o Design and function
o Suppliers
o Installation
o New developments (drill through and all electric trees)
o Examples
Manifolds
o Templates
o Types of manifolds (wells clustered around manifold or template manifold)
o Design and functions
o Installation
o Examples

Module 3 Pipelines, Flowlines and Risers


Pipelines and flowlines
o Design and functions
o Route survey
o Pipe selection of materials and coatings
o Installation methods
o Operations
o Examples
Risers
o Requirements and functions
o Flexible dynamic risers
o Design
o Operation and use
o Manufacture
o Current developments
o Hybrid riser towers
3
o Steel catenary risers
o Examples

Module 4 Control Systems, Umbilicals and Equipment Costs


Subsea production control systems
o Types
o Electro-hydraulic multiplex control systems
o Equipment and suppliers
o Operations
o Installations
o Examples
Drilling control systems
Umbilicals
o Functions
o Design and manufacture
o Installation
o Examples
Costs of subsea equipment

Module 5 Reliability, Maintenance and New Technologies


Subsea equipment reliability, requirements and operability
Inspection, maintenance and repair
- Shallow water diver operations
- Deepwater diverless interventions
- Remote Operated Vehicles (ROVs)
- Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs)
- Subsea well workover
New technologies
- Subsea pumping
- Subsea processing
- Requirements
- Systems and examples

Module 6 Subsea Developments: Context and Case Studies


Reliability and its importance in subsea engineering
Decommissioning activities
o Production hosts
o Subsea equipment
Subsea completions interfaces with other functions
o Drilling and well completions
o Production hosts
o Government authorities
Examples of fields developed with subsea completions:
o Increased production to existing production host
North Sea fields
o Tie back to production host
Gulf of Mexico fields
Norwegian fields
o Subsea production to floating host
North Sea fields
Angolan fields
Australian fields
Brazilian fields
o Gas fields deepwater production to shallow water host
MCE (Gulf of Mexico)
Malampaya field (Philippines)
o Gas fields well to beach
Orman Lange field (Norway)
West Delta Deep (Egypt)

4
STUDYING THE COURSE

We all have our preferred learning styles and tackle reading and learning activities in our own unique
ways. As the author and tutor for this course it is my responsibility to keep you interested in the
content and to try and help you remain motivated to learn. This will be achieved in part by the text,
which will give you a thorough introduction to subsea engineering, but you also have responsibility
yourself. Your responsibility is to set aside sufficient time and find a place where you can undertake your
study of the modules, be it at home, whilst you are travelling, or during quiet periods at work. For
optimal personal development, however, you need to fully engage in the learning process part of this is
to apply your responsibility to work diligently through the materials, thinking about what you read,
reflecting on it, and no doubt at times challenging it.

We aim to thoroughly cover the subjects addressed in the course, but you may at times wish to consult
other sources on the internet, or maybe in a library, in order to delve deeper into an issue that
particularly interests you. Your responsibility for your learning also extends to making use of the online
course forum. Here you can post a question if there is something you dont understand, you can read
what others are asking or saying, you can add your comments in order to allow others to benefit from
particular knowledge you have, or you can share your own experiences of a particular issue. However,
the course forum is what you make it. If you just enter it to read other peoples posts and do not
contribute yourself, it will be a lonely place. Please start by checking out the forum and introducing
yourself. You could post your name, where you are, who you work for and the reason you are interested
in the subject of this course. Have a go and try it out!

Much thought has gone into the chronology of the modules and their sections the running order. The
sections in these modules are akin to the chapters in a book or a story, in that they build upon one
another. We would respectfully encourage you to read them in order, to put you in the strongest position
to address and absorb the key messages. Naturally you will have your preferred pace and you may
choose to dip in and out of the text, which is your prerogative.

As a final note, a great idea that suits many people when studying by distance learning is to consider
writing their own brief summary of the key learning points being taken away at the end of each major
section which is sometimes called an Elevator Pitch. Where does the term Elevator Pitch come from?
Imagine you are travelling a few floors in an elevator with your boss and he/she asked you what did you
learn from that last section of your course I saw you reading? Youve got the time the elevator travels
those few floors to succinctly tell them the main points you drew from the text. Have a go at drafting
one. Remember that whatever you produce will probably vary from someone else this is not a problem
as you will probably have a different priority or focus on what is important to you in the section.
Additionally, the disciplines of summarising and prioritising are very important for people to practise.

Enough of the preparation and guidance for this course; lets turn our focus to the first module.

Learning Outcomes:
On successfully completing this module you will have an understanding of:

The background factors that led to the development of offshore production systems
How and where oil and gas can form in the Earth and how it is located
The importance of the geological information to predict how oil will flow
How a well is drilled
Different types of oil flow
The factors that will make oil flow from the source to the production facility
Flow assurance issues, which must be correctly assessed for each development
You will also have an overview of:
- The elements and equipment of Subsea Engineering
- Examples of field development concepts involving subsea equipment.

5
1 INTRODUCTION TO SUBSEA PRODUCTION

1.1.Introduction to Subsea Production Systems

The exploration for offshore oil and gas resources began in the late 1800s. In 1896, an offshore well was
drilled off the coast of California. These first wells were drilled from piers generally 100 to 150 m long,
some producing from as deep as 200 m of water. The discovery in 1938 of the Creole field 2 km from the
Louisiana coast in the Gulf of Mexico marked the first venture into open, unprotected waters. The
discovery well was drilled from a 20 by 90 m drilling platform secured to a foundation of timber piles set
in 4 m of water.

SUMMERLAND CALIFORNIA
1896

Figure 1.1: Early Offshore Drilling and Production Systems


When early land-based drilling reached the landsea boundary, the drillers realised that the reservoirs
continued out under the sea. This meant they would have to go offshore to follow the reservoir. The
figure shows the California coast in 1896, with wooden piers and drilling derricks. Also shown are the
wooden production platforms which were offshore when the tide was in and onshore when the tide
was out. The first significant offshore production took place in the Gulf of Mexico in 1947. This was some
20 km off the coast in some 20 m of water.

Source J E & P Associates

In the search for oil and gas in offshore areas, the oil industry has continually extended and improved
drilling and production technology. The early schemes utilising fixed structures tied to the seabed evolved
into the use of large steel jacket-reinforced concrete production platforms standing in more than 300 m
water depth. The driving necessities of cost reduction and the need to develop fields at ever-increasing
water depths have led to other concepts such as the following:

Floating Production Vessels (FPVs)

Tension Leg Platforms (TLPs)

Floating Storage Units (FSU)

Floating Production Storage and Offloading (FPSO) Vessels

SPARS and DDCS vessels (Deep Draught Caisson Structures)

6
Figure 1.2: Range of Offshore Production Hosts
The figure represents a range of production hosts for offshore production: (a) A bottom founded steel
jacket platform; (b) A bottom founded concrete jacket platform. Both of these would be normally set
above the reservoir with production coming to trees on the platform (dry trees); (c) and (d) are floating
production hosts, an FPSO and a Production Semi-submersible respectively. Because of the floating
motions the wells cannot be connected directly to the floater. Here the trees must be mounted on the
seabed (wet trees) and connected to the surface with a combination of subsea equipment (flowlines,
manifolds and flexible dynamic risers); (e) and (f) are other floating production hosts.
A Tension Leg Platform (TLP) and a SPAR respectively. These have relatively small surface motions and
so can use dry tree production approaches.

Source J E & P Associates

Directed Learning:

Visit the Douglas-Westwood Ltd website (www.dw-1.com). Enter Downloads by


providing your email address and find a range of their most recent Conference
Presentations. From this information, prepare your thoughts on the following:

Developments and expenditures in your geographical location.

Your thoughts on when and how oil will peak and eventually run out.

The costs of oil and gas in, say, one, three and 10 years time.

Once you have done this, publish your findings and reasons on the module forum on
the Learning Management System so we can share your thoughts and read what other
participants say.

1.2. Fixed Structures vs. Floating Systems

In the early stages of offshore oil and gas exploration and production, both in the Gulf of Mexico and the
North Sea, fixed platforms dominated production development concepts. The fixed structure, either as a
7
tubular steel jacket or reinforced concrete construction, provided the location for the topsides facilities
including the drilling rig, processing equipment, controls and export systems. With the concrete
structures additional oil storage is often available.

Figure 1.3: Production from Steel Jacket Host with Subsea Tie-Back
This illustrates a common early approach to offshore production (especially in the North Sea at 100 m
water depth). The platform is set above the main reservoir (dry trees) and there is a subsea completion
tie-back to the platform. The first subsea tree was installed in 1961. The table of trees every 10 years
from that date represents the growth of subsea engineering systems.

Source J E & P Associates

1.2.1. Subsea Production Systems (SPS)

The first subsea well was completed by Shell Oil in 1960 in the Gulf of Mexico. It came on stream in early
January 1961, marking both the successful culmination of more than five years of intense research and
development, and the beginning of an identifiable subsea production industry.

8
Figure 1.4: First Subsea Well Development by Shell, in the GoM

Source - Shell plc

During the first decade of the 21st century the total number of subsea wells is estimated to be over
5,000 worldwide. Such subsea wells and subsea production systems that were developed have been
extensively used in full field developments and as satellite wells or tie-backs to host platforms. These are
illustrated below:

9
Figure 1.5: Satellite Field Tied-Back to Host Platform with Central Manifold and Cluster of
Wells.
Reservoir A accessed directly from the platform. Reservoir fluids move up the production tubing, passing
through the seabed to the platform wellhead deck. The well control valve pack (Xmas Tree) is in the
dry.
Reservoir B is accessed via a subsea tie-back with the wells completed on the seabed, that is, wet
trees. The reservoir fluids flow through the manifold, along the flowlines and up the platform risers to the
process deck. Some of the subsea wells could be for water injection, where water is sent from the
platform into the reservoir for pressure maintenance.

Source Azur Offshore Ltd

1.2.2. Floating Production Systems


There is a range of floating production systems. In the broadest sense such categorisation may include
the following:

Semi-submersible Floating Production Vessels (FPVs) with or without storage;


Ship-based Floating Production and Storage Offloading (FPSO) vessels;
SPAR buoys;
Tension Leg Platforms (TLPs).

Floating production facilities (semi-sub and monohull) have gained more and more acceptability over the
past 35 years. They involve the extensive use of subsea production systems.

Directed Learning:
These four structures were important landmarks in the oil industry. Search through the
web and try to find good records, photographs or pictures of them and further
information about the developments. Display your findings for other participants to
share.

The gain in popularity of FPSOs and other floaters, compared with fixed structures, is primarily due to the
economic benefit and reversibility in utilising such facilities. In many cases it has been the only economic
means to develop an offshore oil field as companies explore in remote and deepwater areas with no
existing infrastructure, and as smaller marginal fields are developed in mature areas. Second, technology

10
in the areas of mooring design and subsea production systems has reached an advanced stage where
both increased feasibility and reliability along with unit cost reduction have had a favourable impact.

A key factor in fields developed with floating production systems (FPV and FPSO monohull) is the
relatively high degree of movement of the floater (i.e. + or 25 m in the horizontal plane and + or 8 m
in the vertical plane). This means the wells cannot be completed topsides (as in a fixed platform), but
must be completed subsea with the flexible dynamic risers providing the link between. Other forms of
floater (TLPs and SPARs) do not have such massive movements and wells can be completed in the dry
topsides.

Several field development schemes are given as illustrations:


Marginal/Small Field with Floater.
FPV above Integrated Template/Manifold System.
Small Field with FPSO and a Number of Integrated Template/Manifold Structures.

Figure 1.6: Marginal/Small Field with a Floating Production Vessel (FPV Semi-submersible).
FPV above an Integrated Template Manifold System.
FPV is sited above the wells system. The reservoir fluids flow up to the wells in the template manifold.
Because the FPV has high horizontal and vertical motions the steel production tubing cannot continue
directly up to the floater. The link between the seabed and the FPV is a flexible dynamic riser. Because
the wells are completed with trees on the seabed this is a wet tree system. Thus the commingled flow
from the manifold goes along a short flowline to the riser base and then up the flexible dynamic riser. At
the FPV main deck the flow arrives at the riser porch and on the topsides process units. If all the
reservoir locations cannot be accessed from the central template manifold then the field may incorporate
satellite wells accessing the outer parts of the reservoir, tied-back to the template manifold.

Source Azur Offshore Ltd

11
Figure 1.7: Small Field with FPSO and an Integrated Template Manifold.
FPSO is sited away from the wells system (often with a spacing of 1 to 2 km). The FPSO is permanently
moored by a turret mooring system. Because the FPSO has high horizontal and vertical motions the steel
production tubing cannot continue directly up to the floater. As in Figure 1.2 the wells are completed
on the seabed. The reservoir fluids travel via short flowlines to the riser base and up the flexible
dynamic risers, through the turret system to the process deck. The separation of the permanently
moored FPSO and the subsea well systems is required because at some future date the wells may need
to be accessed from a drilling semi to carry out well maintenance activities. There has to be room in the
field for the permanently moored FPSO and the temporary moored drilling semi.

Source Azur Offshore Ltd

However it must be noted that not all fields developed with FPSOs or FPVs have subsea completions.
Sometimes these floaters produce from dry tree wellhead systems. Examples are the Wenchang Field in
the South China Sea and the Kizomba Field Developments in Block 15, Angola.

12
Figure 1.8: Wenchang Field South China Sea
Not all fields developed with production to an FPSO or FPV utilise subsea production systems. In the
Wenchang Field Development (S China Sea) production the well fluids first go to two wellhead platforms
with trees at the platform level. There is no processing on these platforms; it goes directly to the FPSO
via a platform riser a flowline and a flexible dynamic riser up to the FPSO.
The reason for this arrangement is that the oil in the reservoir is very thick and needs to be pumped up
from the reservoir with electrical submersible pumps. Such pumps need frequent replacements, which
can be best achieved by the direct access through the dry tree on the wellhead platform.

Source J E & P Associates

Figure 1.9: Kizomba Field Block 15 Angola


Kizomba Field is another field where much of the well fluids come to a dry tree arrangement, here to TLPs
before transfer to the FPSO for processing.

Source Wikimedia Commons

13
1.3. Global Oil and Gas Reserves

Over the last decade offshore oil production has continued to increase in all global areas, with oil and gas
amounting to about 66% of the worlds energy needs. While the onshore areas of the world provide the
largest amounts of oil and gas, the offshore industry is increasingly important and by 2015 offshore oil
and gas will account for 40% of the total production. Oil production is currently about 85 million barrels
per day. This will peak sometime between 2015 and 2030, but it is expected to hold at its peak for many
years after (but with new mixes of hydrocarbon sources).

The worldwide offshore expenditure is massive. Background information from Douglas-Westwood Ltd is
shown in Figures 1.10a to 1.15b below.

Figure 1.10a

Source Douglas-Westwood Ltd

14
Figure 1.10b

Source Douglas-Westwood Ltd

Figure 1.10c: General Oil and Gas Data


(a) Global energy requirements (oil at about 85 million barrels/day) with oil and gas accounting for
about 66%; (b) regional oil and gas reserves; (c) is peak oil on the way?

Source Douglas-Westwood Ltd

15
Figure 1.10d: Shift in Ownership
Some 25 years ago the oil industry was run by the oil companies (IOCs), with a lessor input from
National Oil Companies. Nowadays the opposite is the case with NOCs dominating the Oil activities.

Source - Douglas Westwood Ltd

Figure 1.11: Global Oil and Gas Supplies and Reserves

Source Douglas-Westwood Ltd

16
Figure 1.12a: The Importance of Offshore Production

Source BP plc. and Douglas-Westwood Ltd

Figure 1.12b: Oil Movement to Deepwater

Source BP plc. and Douglas-Westwood Ltd

17
Figure 1.13: The Demand for Oil is based on Population numbers and the Lifestyle of each
Person
Typically the USA consumption level is some 20+ barrels of oil per person per year; in Europe it is 8 to
10 barrels per person; in China it is about 3 barrels and in India it is less than 1 barrel per person.

Source - Douglas Westwood Ltd

Figure 1.14a: Global Offshore Oil and Gas Production and Expenditure

Source Douglas-Westwood Ltd

18
Figure 1.14b: Deepwater Capex

Source Douglas-Westwood Ltd

Figure 1.15a: Offshore Operations and Maintenance Expenditure

Source Douglas-Westwood Ltd

19
Figure 1.15b: Floating Production Expenditure

Source Douglas-Westwood Ltd

Figure 1.16: New Opportunities for Oil and Gas (Illustrated here in North and South America)

Source - J E & P Associates

20
1.4. Exploration, Reservoir Analysis and Marine Drilling

1.4.1. Introduction

The petroleum industry has always been required to characterise the formations below the surface to
identify the locations of oil and gas reserves and to use further information to define the drilling and
production strategies for recovering these reserves. Over many years this skill has involved the best
inputs from geologists, geophysicists, petroleum engineers, drilling engineers and production engineers.
In addition to the very important human skills involved, nowadays we have the tremendous capabilities
of physical methods combined with very extensive computing powers.

The stages in this acquisition and evaluation using the above are:
Exploration Phase
Appraisal and Reservoir Definition Phase
Drilling and Well Testing Phase
Production Phase

1.4.2. Exploration Phase Methods

Land-based exploration techniques involve both geological surveying and the collection and examination
of rock samples as well as various geophysical survey methods. For offshore exploration it is the latter
that are employed, either from the air or more commonly from surface vessels. Geophysical surveys can
be divided into two broad categories: reconnaissance surveys to outline possible areas of interest, where
there are thick sediments and the possibility of structural traps, and detailed surveys to define well
locations to test specific structures. Gravity and magnetic surveys are generally regarded as
reconnaissance methods.

Directed Learning:
Google Fugro Geophysical and Geotechnical Techniques. Report what you learn from
this site.

There are a number of advances in non-seismic methods such as gravity and magnetic surveys. When
recorded in conjunction with a 3D seismic program, these methods offer the benefit of an independently
measured geophysical property which can be effectively used to verify, refine and constrain a 3D velocity
model and/or seismic interpretations.

Seismic surveys can be used for reconnaissance purposes and are almost invariably used for the more
detailed surveys.

Seismic Surveys

The acquisition of seismic data involves the transmission of controlled acoustic energy into the Earth, and
recording the energy that is reflected back from geological boundaries in the sub-surface. Information
regarding the structure and nature of the reflecting strata can be derived from the two-way travel time,
and other attributes, of the returning energy. Processing these reflections produces a synthetic image of
the Earths sub-surface geological structure.

Between 1975 and 1995 significant progress occurred, especially in seismic imaging. In addition, the cost
of acquiring, processing and interpreting a unit amount of data decreased, as did the time required for all
these steps. This progress resulted from four technologies:
Seismic data acquisition;
3D seismic data processing;
Computer hardware technology;
Interpretation and display.

More recently 4D seismic methods have become important, the additional dimension being time lapse, in
assisting the operation management of the depletion of the reservoir in the production phase.

21
Figure 1.17: Marine Seismic Survey Methods
The seismic exploration method involves sending a shock wave down through the Earth and recording the
return signals which bounce back from the various sub-surface layers. The collected data is processed to
build a picture of the sub-surface structures. For offshore exploration the marine survey method involves
the activity from a survey vessel. The shock source is from a compressed air gun and the recording
hydrophones are on streamers towed by the vessel.

Source J E & P Associates.

Marine Seismic Survey Methods

The method involves the use of purpose-equipped vessels both deploying the activating source of energy
and the means to receive the returned signals. The vessel has large computer capabilities both to store
and to process the signals offshore, and nowadays the means to transmit over satellite links the signals
direct to land-based locations. All vessels use GPS to define the working location.

Thus the five key ingredients to acquire useful seismic data are as follows:
Positioning/Surveying
Seismic Energy Source
Data Recording
Data Processing

22
Figure 1.18: Five Ingredients for Seismic Exploration Activities

Source CGGVeritas

Positioning

Global Positioning Systems (GPS) are used to provide positional accuracy of between 30 cm and 2 m. At
sea the vessel and all its towed equipment are constantly in motion. An integrated combination of
multiple reference site DGPS, relative GPS, laser measurements of range and angles, underwater
acoustics ranging and digital compasses along the streamers are used to determine the accurate position
of all the components in real time as the vessel continuously moves along.

23
Figure 1.19: Positioning at Sea

Source - CGGVeritas

Literally hundreds of complex mathematical position calculations are carried out every few seconds,
enabling the precise positions of the vessel, the seismic source(s) and the individual hydrophone groups
in the streamer(s) to be calculated in real-time as the vessel continuously moves along.

Seismic Source Air Guns

An individual air gun generally consists of a system of two high pressure chambers connected and sealed
by a double-ended piston. During the charging cycle, air at high pressure (say 200 psi) is fed into the
upper chamber and bleeds through the hollow piston into the lower chamber. To fire the gun, an
electrical pulse opens the solenoid valve and a slug of high pressure air is delivered to the underside of
the trigger piston. The piston shoots upwards under the pressure exerted on the firing piston releasing
the air in the lower chamber into the water. Pressure in the upper chamber then drives the piston back to
its initial position and the charging cycle recommences.

24
Figure 1.20: How Airguns Work and how they are deployed

Source - CGGVeritas

Hydrophone Recorders

The receiving hydrophones are mounted on a line (streamers). The vessel will have many individual lines
(often 12 but can nowadays be up to 20 or more) which are towed from arm arrangements on the
vessel. Each streamer line may be many kilometres in length, with the total streamer lines making up
many tens of kilometres in length. There are a number of different hydrophone types including the newer
solid state ones.

25
Figure 1.21: Data Recording

Source - CGGVeritas

Data Collection/Processing

The vessel has large computers both to collect/store and to process the data. Nowadays the data is
usually transmitted directly (in real time) back to the land-based organisation via satellite links for further
processing and supply to the client.

26
Figure 1.22: Data Processing

Source - CGGVeritas

Directed Learning:
Visit the CGGVeritas website (www.cggveritas.com) to learn more on seismic
exploration methods. To access Seismic Overview click on WHO WE ARE, then click
SEISMIC OVERVIEW. Take the 40-slide set shown and other information provided and
add them to your notes.

The aim of the exploration activity is to identify potential trap structures to be the target for exploration
drilling (often called wildcat drilling).

27
Figure 1.23: Geological Reservoir Model.
The end product of the seismic exploration process is a computer generated graphic 3D model of the
subsurface. Based on this and other information exploration companies will decide if and where to drill
for oil and gas. This example (above) represents over 600 square kilometres of complex geology down to
a depth of more than 6,000 meters!

Source - CGGVeritas

Many exploration wells are not successful and prove to be dry. However if the exploration drilling does
find oil and/or gas then further appraisal well drilling may be commenced to support the evolution of the
reservoir model by reservoir and petroleum engineers.

28
Figure 1.24: Marine Seismic Vessel
Geo Challenger vessel with seismic lines. Atlantic Explorer vessel with seismic lines.

Sources PGS Petroleum Geo-Services and CGGVeritas

1.4.3 Reservoir Engineering

The principal functions of reservoir engineers are as follows:

To predict the future performance of a reservoir under the various producing mechanisms which are,
or may become available
In conjunction with other disciplines (geology and geophysics (G&G), facilities, drilling,
production/operations, commercial), develop optimum field development and depletion strategies.

The methods for determining the primary rock properties are well tests, conventional and special core
analysis, and logs.

In order to predict the future performance of the well, reservoir engineers estimate which reservoir drive
mechanisms would be most effective. These drive mechanisms are as follows:
fluid expansion
solution gas drive
water drive
gas cap drive
gravity drainage
combination

For new field developments, the assessment relies on the geological description of the reservoir and on
the pressure, volume, and temperature (PVT) behaviour of the reservoir fluids. For producing fields,
production rate and reservoir pressure data provide valuable information for assessing mechanisms for
driving the oil to the surface.

By running this computer model to simulate reservoir performance over field life, reservoir engineers can
provide various data for drilling and well design, facilities design, and commercial decisions. Typical data
is listed below:
reservoir fluid compositions and properties
rock properties
oil, gas, and water production and design rates
reservoir, bottom hole, and wellhead pressures and temperatures
well counts

29
In addition, the reservoir engineers and drilling teams will define the required drilling programme for the
field development.

Figure 1.25: Geological Reservoir Model


The end product of the seismic exploration process is a computer generated graphic 3D model of the sub-
surface. Based on this and other information, exploration companies will decide if and where to drill for
oil and gas.

Source J E & P Associates

1.4.4 Introduction to Offshore Drilling

Despite the great strides made in geological and geophysical exploration methods there is as yet no
means of forecasting positively the presence or absence of hydrocarbons in any prospective horizon until
a physical connection has been established and this means drilling.

Drilling may be of the following types:


Exploration Drilling (Wildcat) The initial drilling to find a reservoir
Appraisal Well Drilling to gain further information on the reservoir
Development or Production Drilling

30
Figure 1.26: Types of Drilling
The first drilling is exploration drilling called wildcat drilling. This is to identify whether the potential
reservoir trap does in fact contain oil and gas. If successful this information is added to the reservoir
model. Further drilling, called appraisal well drilling, is carried out around the reservoir to confirm its size
and extent. If the reservoir is confirmed as being exploitable then a plan for producing it will be
developed and the reservoir drilled to bring the hydrocarbons to a production host. This activity is part of
the field development plan.

Source J E & P Associates

31
Figure 1.27: Developing the Production Drilling Plan
The petroleum/reservoir engineers and the drilling teams will define the drilling programmes for the field
development. This will lead to the definition of where the drill paths should enter the reservoir for
maximising the drainage of the hydrocarbons and to provide the locations for any water injection
requirements.
The figure is an illustration of the drilling plan for the Britannia Gas Field in the North Sea. In the
reservoir picture the points of entry into the reservoir are indicated. In this field development the wells
located in the circle to the right are drilled from a fixed platform set in the field. The wells located in the
circle to the far left are accessed from a subsea completion with a tie-back flowline to the main platform.

Source Chevron UK Ltd

For offshore drilling the choice of rig and drilling platform depends not only on drilling requirements and
depth of water: weather prospects and seabed conditions must also be considered. Although there is a
wide range of design in the various platform structures for offshore rigs, the structures themselves fall
into three general categories, all of which must accommodate a complete drilling crew and a helicopter
deck. These are as follows:
Self-contained Platforms
Drilling Tenders
Mobile Units

32
Figure 1.28: Offshore Drilling Rigs
These are of the following types: jack-up drill rigs for drilling in shallow water depths usually up to 120
m; the rig is floated to the drilling location with its legs up; at the site the legs are jacked down to land
on the seabed; semi-submersible drilling rigs: these operate in both shallow water depths (a few 100
metres) and deepwater depths (over 2,000 m); they can be operated by being moored to the seabed or
held by dynamic positioning (DP) thrusters; and drillships: these are mainly a deepwater rig and usually
operate on DP. Jack Ryan.

Source - BP plc. and J E & P Associates

33
Mobile Drilling Rigs

Jack-ups
These are self-contained hulls generally resembling a simple flat-bottomed barge with three, four or
multiple legs positioned on the periphery of the hull and on which the hull can be jacked up or down.
When under tow to or from location, the barge is at the bottom of the legs, which then have most of their
length exposed above sea level. When over the well location the legs are jacked down until they reach
the seabed. As jacking continues the legs will first start to penetrate the seabed but eventually the
platform will climb up the legs until it is high enough to be out of the maximum wave area. At this
position the legs are locked and drilling can start.

Such platforms are useable to moderate water depths.

Semi-submersibles
These are a development of the submersible structures and float on two pontoons fully submersed in the
water. The pontoons are such that the vessel can easily be towed from one location to another. The
semi-sub can be held on location by a series of anchors or, in more advanced systems, by dynamic
positioning (DP). Anchored systems can operate up to quite deep waters; the DP vessels can operate in
extreme water depths.

Directed Learning:
Search on the web for Marine Drilling Companies. Collect information on their Drilling
Fleets. Which type is the most numerous? Where are some of the current areas of the
world with big drilling programme activities? What are the typical water depths in these
areas? Collate your findings and publish them to share with other participants.
Comment on which are the best websites for Drilling Fleets.

Drill Ships
Because of its conventionally shaped hull, drill ships suffer more from wind and wave movements than
the semi-sub. In calm water areas (i.e. West Africa and parts of the Far East) this is no problem. They do
have the advantage of better (faster) mobility between locations and very large working deck space (both
for working and for stores and equipment). Drill ships may be moored by anchors or have DP capabilities.
Drillships are used in extreme water depths.

34
Figure 1.29: Offshore Drilling Rigs at Work
(1) Semi-submersible drilling rig. Drilling in the North Sea moored.
(2) Drillships. Jack Ryan drillship working in the GoM.
(3) Jack-up drill rig on the move

Source Wikimedia Commons and BP plc.

35
Drilling the Well

Figure 1.30: A Typical Subsea Well Casing Design (North Sea)


The drilling process involves drilling a number of hole sizes, starting with the largest 36 hole. Following
the drilling, the casing is set in the hole and cemented in. Further smaller sizes of holes are drilled and
casings set and cemented until the drilling reaches the reservoir location. This is illustrated by a typical
North Sea well system. Ultimately the 5 production tubing will be set in the well and provide the
flowpath of the reservoir hydrocarbons to the surface.

Source J E & P Associates

36
Figure 1.31: Well Profiles for some West African Wells
In West Africa (i.e. Angola) some of the reservoirs are at a relatively shallow earth depth, sometimes
around 1000m below the seabed. The production wells for such reservoirs may have only 3 or 4 casing
strings in their design.

Source J E & P Associates


Temporary Guide Base
The temporary guide base (TGB) is a frame which serves as the foundation for the other subsea
equipment. It is lowered to the seabed on the end of a string of drill pipe. The string is fitted with a
special running tool that releases the guide base when it is in position. The base may need to be levelled.
When this has been done the four guide lines are tensioned up from the rig.

Figure 1.32: Temporary Guide Base and 36 inch Hole Opening Drilling

Source Wikimedia Commons

37
Spudding-In
A 36-inch diameter bit (called a hole opener) is lowered to the seabed inside a guide frame that runs
down the four guide lines. A relatively short section of hole is drilled to a depth of around 100 m. Sea
water is often used as the circulating fluid and cuttings are brought to the seabed. It is important that
this portion of the hole is vertical and checks are made as the drilling proceeds. While the hole is open it
may be temporarily filled with a gel-water fluid or bentonite to stop it sloughing (when the sides fall in).

Figure 1.33: Drilling a Subsea Well a) Spud in and Drill ahead b) Drill to First Casing Depth

Source - J E & P Associates

Outer Conductor Casing and Permanent Guide Base


30 conductor casing is run into the hole. Centralisers are used to keep the casing string in the middle of
the hole. These are fitted round the joints as they are run. Before the last joint of 30 casing is run, the
permanent guide base (PGB) is attached to its top, leaving about 1.5 m of casing protruding above it.
This provides anchorage for the next string of casing (20).

The PGB, with the casing suspended from its aperture, is lowered on a special running tool to the seabed.
The guide lines running through the four posts on the PGB guide it into position and it slots into the TGBs
aperture with a funnel-shaped bottom projection that guarantees an accurate fit.

38
Figure 1.34: Drilling a Subsea Well a) Pull out of the Hole (Trip) b) Run First Casing

Source - J E & P Associates

Cementing the Conductor Casing


The casing is anchored to the hole wall by cementing. A drill string is run into the conductor casing,
through which cement will be pumped extending it into the shoe at the bottom of the casing. Cement is
pumped through the bottom of the casing, displacing the sea water and rising up into the space between
the outer diameter of the steel casing and the hole wall. This continues until cement is seen to be
emerging at the seabed level. The cement is allowed to harden over a few hours.

Figure 1.35: Drilling a Subsea Well a) Pump Cement b) Displace Cement behind Casing

Source - J E & P Associates

Drilling 26 Hole
A 26 hole is now drilled to a depth of some 500 m. Sea water again is used as the drilling fluid and the
cuttings are discharged to the seabed. Measures to prevent sloughing may be required.

39
Running and Cementing 20 Casing and Running the Wellhead
The shoe at the bottom of the 20 casing is guided into the aperture in the PGB and the casing run to the
bottom of the hole. A wellhead is attached to the top of this casing. The wellhead is a device with internal
fittings called casing hangers that suspend the various sizes of casing and tubing strings that will be run
during the remainder of the well programme. The upper end of the wellhead, which has an internal hole
diameter of 18, is designed to closely latch onto the 18 Blow Out Preventer (BOP) stack when this is
run. The wellhead is run with the last joint of the inner 20 conductor casing, after which the casing is
cemented as for the 30 conductor casing.

Figure 1.36: Drilling a Subsea Well a)Drill Ahead to 2nd Casing Seat b) Run 2nd Casing String

Source - J E & P Associates

Running the BOP Stack and the Marine Riser


The BOP stack is run attached to the lower end of the 21 bore marine riser. The riser acts as a conduit
for tools and for drilling fluid and cuttings returning from the well. By this means all further operations
are organised from the drill deck on the surface installation.

40
Figure 1.37: Full Marine Drilling System
Details of the components from seabed temporary guide base to surface diverter just below the rig floor.

Source - Azur Offshore Ltd

Drilling 17 Hole
The cement filled shoe of the 20 casing is next drilled out with a 17 bit to a depth of about 2,000 m.
Drilling mud is circulated from the drilling facilities through the drill string with the circulation continuing
up the hole (now containing cuttings) and marine riser onto the mud deck where it is passed over a shale
shaker which removes the cuttings and allows the mud to be re-circulated. When the hole has been
completed it is logged with electric and sonic wireline logging devices to determine the conditions in the
hole before running the casing. Such logging is often carried out by specialist personnel brought out to
the drilling platform to perform such functions.

Running and Cementing 13 Casing


The 13 casing is run to the bottom of the hole. Cementing requires a very large quantity of material
for this length of hole. The cement will be prepared in the mixing and pumping equipment on the drill
facilities. The amount of cement is carefully calculated from the knowledge of the hole diameter along its
length. The amount required is to fill the annulus and to leave a certain amount of cement inside the
bottom of the casing above the shoe, this being drilled out at the start of the next hole section.

The cement is forced down the casing and back up the outer portion of the hole. It is important to
displace all the mud which previously occupied this space. Separation of the mud and the cement
interface is assisted by a plug which travels ahead of the cement. Once the calculated amount of cement
has been pumped into the well another plug is used and mud is then used to provide the driving force to
force the cement all the way to the top of the casing annulus.

The well may be surveyed using wire line instruments to check inclination and direction.

41
Figure 1.38: Drilling a Subsea Well a) Pump and Displace Cement and Install BOP on
Wellhead b) Drill Ahead Approaching Reservoir

Source - J E & P Associates

Drilling 12 Hole
The cement shoe of the 13 casing is then drilled out with a 12 bit and drilled to 3.5 km.

Logging, Running and Cementing 9 Casing.


The hole is first cleaned by mud circulation. Logs are run. The casing is run and cemented similar to the
13 casing.

Drilling 8 Hole to Total Depth


The hole drilled to the final depth (and hence into the oil pay zone) may require a different mud system.
If so the new mud system has to be prepared and used to displace the other mud system from the hole.

The hole is drilled to its final Target Depth (TD) with an 8 bit. As it nears its target more and more
measurements are taken with various instruments. When TD is reached the pay zone should have been
penetrated. The new mud controls the well by providing weight to balance the pressures.

Coring and Logging


When at the pay zone a coring drill will be used to cut a core sample which is brought back to the surface
for examination and testing. The coring drill has a hollow section with the cutters only around the edge.
Logging operations follow the coring operation.

Running and Cementing the 7 Liner


The 7 liner may run to the wellhead or it may be suspended from the bottom of the deepest string in the
casing run (9) by means of a liner hanger. The liner is cemented in at the same time as it is run, and a
packer or plug is set at its top to isolate the test zones inside it from the cased hole above. If a string of
narrow tubing is now run down through this packer with special valves that allow the controlled entry of
well fluids, it is now possible to channel pressurised well fluids to the surface under control. To allow
fluids access to the inside of the liner requires that it is perforated using a perforating gun which
produces a series of holes in the liner.

Well Testing and Well Stimulation


When the well system has been completed it is necessary to test the flow characteristics from the
reservoir. These tests involve measurement of the flow rate of the oil as well as various physical and
chemical tests on the produced hydrocarbons. This data will be used to determine whether the well (field)
can go into production.

42
Directed Learning:
For further information on Drilling Wells refer to www.seadrill.com. Go to: Drillships
West Navigator; semi-subs West Phoenix and West Venture. In each of these you will
find an animation. On the web there are many sites of drilling and other companies
that have video presentations. Search for some of these and report what they show to
other course participants.

43
2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SUBSEA PRODUCTION

There are many different field development concepts involving bottom founded platforms (often shallow
water) and floating production hosts which can be deployed in both shallow and deep water.

Figure 1.39: - Field Development Options


There are many options for a field development. All the options should be considered in the concept
phase. Each should be evaluated for technical merit and cost.
For the production host there are a range of bottom founded hosts appropriate to shallow water
developments, and a range of floating production hosts appropriate to shallow and deepwater
developments. Some of these will have dry well systems direct to the host without subsea completions.
Others will require wet tree solutions involving subsea completions. At the seabed level there is the
choice of individual wells, or manifolded flow.

Source Azur Offshore Ltd

The basic principles of subsea production are illustrated in Figure 1.40 showing the reservoir, the well,
the wellhead and Xmas tree at the seabed with the flowline to the base of the riser, onto the production
host and processing system. The figure may be used to represent the key reservoir factors which
influence the production. These are all important factors in the crucial component of FLOW ASSURANCE
which is the continued ability of the production well to produce under all future conditions.

44
Figure 1.40: Basic Principles of Offshore Production
The figure gives a simple representation of the flow of reservoir fluids up the production tubing, through
the subsea Xmas tree, along the seabed flowline and up the riser system to the production host. Factors
that could cause problems to such a scheme operating successfully are known as FLOW ASSURANCE
ISSUES.
These include the following: (1) System hydraulics in the reservoir the fluids may be at 250 bar
pressure. Some of this pressure is lost as the fluids flow up the well, through the seabed equipment,
along the flowline and up the risers. Hydraulic studies must evaluate if there is sufficient energy to allow
this to operate. Reservoir pressure maintenance may be achieved by injecting water at the edges of the
field (water injection); (2) Corrosive compounds in the reservoir fluids. Levels of H2S and CO2 can cause
corrosion of simple steels. Protection against corrosion may be by continuous injection of an inhibitor into
the flowline; (3) The oil in the reservoir may contain wax which could precipitate out as the oil cools in
the flowline causing blocking of the line. This may be treated by injection of wax inhibitors or maintaining
the heat in the flowline by insulation; and (3) The presence of gas and water can lead to ice-like crystals
of hydrates which could block the lines.
The design of the overall offshore production system must incorporate defences against all such potential
Flow Assurance problems.

Source J E & P Associates

The following factors affect flow assurance:


The Field Location/Size
The Reservoir (Reservoir Engineering)
Reservoir Factors Affecting the Production System
Pressure
Temperature
Chemistry
Long-term Operation

45
2.1 Field Location/Size

The overall development will be influenced by:


Geographic Location (e.g. stable, mature areas or distant, remote areas).
Water Depth (e.g. shallow waters of a few metres up to very deep water more than 2,000 m).
Field Size (e.g. a few tens of million barrels of oil with two or three wells up to fields with one or two
billion barrels of oil with 40 or 50 wells).
The presence of large quantities of gas.
The environmental weather conditions (e.g. benign in West Africa and severe in West of Shetlands).

2.2 Reservoir Factors Pressure

Initially the oil (and dissolved gas known as associated gas) is in the reservoir at relatively high pressure
(at say 3,000 psi). This pressure forms the natural drive which forces the oil to flow from the reservoir
into the production tube and up the well.

The vertical lift in the well system will depend on the reservoir depth. By the time the oil flow has
reached the seabed it will have used up much of the natural pressure (and will be at say 1,000 psi).

At the seabed the oil flow will be through the wellhead, the Xmas tree and manifold systems. These
involve valves, chokes, pipe runs and bends. All these will cause some pressure loss.

From the seabed wellhead/manifold systems the oil will flow along the seabed to the riser below the
production host in a flowline. The length of the flowline could be a few tens of metres or up to several
tens of kilometres. The seabed is not absolutely flat. Overall there will be pressure loss of the flow along
the seabed section.

From the riser base below the production host (fixed platform or floater) the oil has to rise to the sea
surface and then some additional 50 metres to the point where it enters the process plant separator. The
level of pressure lost on this final lift depends on the water depth which can be from less than 100 m to
up to 2,000 m. The oil has to arrive at the separator inlet at some 200 psi.

An hydraulics study is required to check that the proposed production system does allow the oil to flow
from the reservoir to the process plant. This needs to examine the hydraulics for flow at day one, at the
end of field life (5, 10, 20 years or more) and for start-up after shut down conditions. Such studies will
provide information on pressure maintenance requirements (water or gas injection); downhole pumping
or well gas lift and seabed pressure boosting or riser lift.

Additionally, as the pressure is reduced the associated gas will bubble out of the oil such that when the
oil reaches the seabed it will be a mixture of oil and gas (probably together with some water). This is
called multi-phase flow. The production process will have to take this into account in its design and
operation.

2.3 Reservoir Factors Chemistry

The hydrocarbon (and other materials) in each reservoir are unique to that reservoir. It is important to
understand the chemistry of each reservoir. Key factors are:

The presence of H2S and/or CO2


Levels of H2S at a few parts per million could lead to sour corrosion in steel, and CO 2 at more
than a few % level could lead to sweet corrosion. Potential corrosion problems could be solved
with expensive steels but normal steels with a chemical injection package of corrosion inhibitors
are more commonly chosen.

Wax and Asphaltenes


Under low temperature conditions these can precipitate out and cause blocking of the flowlines.

Chemicals which cause emulsion formation

Chemicals which cause scale

These may require chemical injection.

It must be noted that over the field life the reservoir chemistry may change.

46
2.4 Reservoir Factors Temperature

In most areas of the world the seabed bottoms are at just over 0 Celsius. Thus oil in steel lines will be
subject to cooling. Cooling may cause:

Wax and Asphaltene deposition

Hydrate formation (if gas and water are present).

These and other effects may be mitigated by chemical injection and insulation of the lines.

Directed Learning:
Visit www.oilandgasuk.co.uk . You might find the report, Britains Offshore Oil and
Gas interesting. However it is only available to purchase (10 to members/ 15 to
non-members). Appendix B shows the topics covered.

47
3 THE FUNDAMENTALS OF SUBSEA ENGINEERING

The total view of subsea engineering is illustrated in Figure 1.41. The main building blocks are given in
the outer part of the diagram, with the necessary interfacing activities towards the centre. Additionally,
subsea engineering should not be confused with underwater engineering a point illustrated in the
figure. The main areas of subsea engineering are as follows:

AREA 1 WELL SYSTEM


AREA 2 SEABED STRUCTURES AND PIPING SYSTEMS
AREA 3 PIPELINES, FLOWLINES AND RISERS
AREA 4 SUBSEA CONTROL SYSTEMS
AREAS 5 AND 6 OFFSHORE OPERATIONS/UNDERWATER ENGINEERING

Also, other key topics are:

RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
FIELD OPERATIONS AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT
NEW TECHNOLOGIES
An important part of this is the selection and integration of all the correct components. This is called
systems design.

Figure 1.41: - Fundamentals of Subsea Engineering


The various components of subsea engineering systems are represented in the circular diagram. The
main areas include: Area 1 Subsea wellheads and Xmas Trees; Area 2 Templates and Manifolds
Seabed Piping Structures; Area 3 Flowlines (in-field lines), Pipelines (export product lines) and Risers
(lines connecting flow between the seabed and above surface production host); and Subsea Control
Systems.

Source J E & P Associates

48
Figure 1.42: Systems Design Parameters and Issues

Source IntecSea Ltd

AREA 1 WELLHEADS

Figure 1.43: Subsea Wellhead

Source Lasmo plc.

49
WELLHEAD FUNCTIONS

To support BOP and seal with well casing during drilling

To support and seal the subsea production tree

To support and seal the well casing

To support and seal the production tubing hanger

XMAS TREES

Figure 1.44: Subsea Xmas Tree


Dual Bore Xmas Tree. Picture shows the tree inside a protective frame. The valve actuators come out
from the basic block. The subsea control system is mounted to the side (in orange). Small steel lines
carry the hydraulic fluids to the appropriate valve when commanded.

Source Lasmo plc.

XMAS TREE FUNCTIONS

The Xmas tree is basically a stack of valves installed on a subsea wellhead to provide a controllable
interface between the well and the production facilities.

The following are specific functions of a subsea Xmas tree:


Sealing the wellhead from the environment by means of the tree connector
Sealing the production bore and annulus from the environment
Providing a controlled flow path from the production tubing, through the tree to the production flow
line. Well flow control by means of tree valves and/or a tree-mounted choke valve.
Providing access to the well bore via tree caps and/or swab valves.
Providing access to the annulus for well control, pressure monitoring, gas lift, etc.
Providing a hydraulic interface for the down hole safety valve.
Providing an electrical interface for down hole instrumentation, electric submersible pumps and so on.
Providing structural support for flow line and control umbilical interface.

50
Figure 1.45: Seabed Structures and Piping Systems (Manifolds)
Three options are illustrated: (i) Each well has its own flowline back to the host platform with a 6 line;
(ii) The wells are clustered about a manifold. In the manifold the flows from each well are commingled
and sent to the platform in a 10 to 14 line; (iii) The wells and manifold are located in the same
structure. This is called a template manifold.

Source J E & P Associates

TEMPLATE FUNCTIONS
The primary function of a subsea template is to provide guidance for positioning wells and controlling
their positions relative to one another.

Some specific functions of a subsea template are:

To provide a guide for positioning the well conductor and guiding the conductor during installation.
To control spacing between adjacent well conductors.
To provide guidance and support for the BOP in some cases.
To provide guidance and support for well completion equipment (e.g. trees) in some cases.
To accommodate pre-installation of well flowline piping and facilitate interface of the production trees
with their flowlines.
To accommodate pre-installation of tree control hardware and facilitate interface of the production
trees with their controls.

MANIFOLD FUNCTIONS
The general function of a subsea manifold is to gather and distribute production through an arrangement
of piping and valves. Some specific functions are as follows:

To collect the flow from individual satellite wells into a production header and control the delivery of
the commingled flow to a field production gathering flowline.
To collect the flow from several field production gathering flowlines and deliver that flow to a larger
production export pipeline.
To isolate the production from individual wells and deliver it to a well test header or a well test
flowline.
To segregate high pressure and low pressure production into separate high pressure and low pressure
headers and flowlines.

51
To control the flow from individual wells by means of subsea chokes. Wells may be choked at the
trees or at the manifold.
To distribute injection water or gas from a common supply header to individual injection wells (water
injection or gas injection manifolds).
To distribute lift gas from a common lift gas header to individual wells (lift gas manifold).
To facilitate pigging of subsea pipelines by provision of pig isolation valves, tees and pig detector
instrumentation mounted on the manifold structure. (The process of pigging will be covered in more
detail later in the module.)
To provide structural support of the piping and flowline connector at the flowline connection interface.
To provide ROV or installation tool interfaces for installation of flowlines, chokes, pig launchers, pig
receivers and other components.

AREA 3 FLOWLINES AND PIPELINES

Figure 1.46: Flowlines and Pipelines


In-field lines are called flowlines. They carry the well fluids to the host for processing separation into oil
and gas. These are often smallish in size 6 to 14. They have to be buried for security. The lines which
carry the separated oil and gas for export are termed Pipelines. If these are over 16 they may not need
to be buried.

Source J E & P Associates

Flowlines carry the fluids from the wells, direct or via manifolds, along the seabed to the production host.
These produced fluids are multiphase and are combinations of hydrocarbon gas and liquids together with
water.

These lines are often smaller in size 6 to 14 diameter.

Pipelines are the larger export lines carrying the processed separate oil and gas to shore or offshore
loading facilities. They may be up to 40 and above.

52
RISERS

Figure 1.47: Flexible Dynamic Risers


Risers carry the liquids from the seabed to the intake to the process plant on the production host. With
dynamic hosts (i.e. FPSOs and FPVs) the motions are beyond the capabilities of steel pipe. In this case
they are often flexible dynamic risers made of combinations of steel and plastic layers.
They have a tension length up to a mid-water arch shape and then a catenary hanging section up to the
floater.

Source J E & P Associates

Risers carry the liquids from the seabed to the intake of the process plant on the production host. With
jacket platforms and other stable hosts they are steel tubes. With dynamic hosts (i.e. FPSOs and FPVs)
the motions are beyond the capabilities of steel pipe. In this case they are often flexible dynamic risers
made of combinations of steel and plastic layers.

53
AREA 4 SUBSEA CONTROLS SYSTEM AND CHEMICAL INJECTION

Figure 1.48: Subsea Control Systems and Umbilicals


The subsea wells are controlled from the production host. The main features are as follows: (a) Topsides
control station (computers, hydraulics and chemicals skids); (b) Umbilicals carrying signal cores,
hydraulic lines and chemicals lines to seabed equipment; (c) Subsea distribution and subsea control
modules.

Source Azur Offshore Ltd

Directed Learning:
There are no good websites on the general topic of SUBSEA ENGINEERING. However
there are five main companies that provide subsea production equipment. They are:
CAMERON www.c-a-m.com
FMC www.fmctechnologies.com
AKER SOLUTIONS www.akersolutions.com
VETCO GREY www.ge-energy.com
DRIL-QUIP www.dril-quip.com
Visit their websites and download pictures and information on their products. From
these prepare your own best set of the subsea equipment items and report them back
on the online forum.

The process from the design basis to a full system design is represented in Figure 1.49.

54
Figure 1.49: Design Basis to Systems Design
From the basis of design (BoD) to systems design through the definition of requirements of all the subsea
equipment.

Source IntecSea Ltd

Some of the latest market information on subsea equipment is provided by Douglas-Westwood Ltd:

Figure 1.50a

Source Douglas-Westwood Ltd

55
Figure 1.50b

Source Douglas-Westwood Ltd

Figure 1.51a

Source Douglas-Westwood Ltd

56
Figure 1.51b: Subsea Outlook and Challenges

Source Douglas-Westwood Ltd

Figure 1.51c

Source Douglas-Westwood Ltd

57
4 FIELD DEVELOPMENT CONTRACTS

Typical field development (here a subsea development with an FPSO production host) contracts are
broken down into the following:

PROJECT MANAGEMENT (conducted by Operator Oil Company)

RESERVOIR ENGINEERING/DRILLING PLAN (usually conducted by the Operator Oil Company)

DRILLING CONTRACT

FPSO HULL AND TOPSIDES CONTRACT(S)

SUBSEA PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT (SPS)


Wellheads
Xmas Trees
Manifolds
Production Control Systems
Drilling/Workover Control Systems

UMBILICALS RISERS AND FLOWLINES + INSTALLATION (URF or URFL or SURF)


Flowlines
Risers
Umbilicals
+ Installation Activities

EXPORT OFFLOADING FACILITIES


Drilling is carried out by one of the many worldwide drilling groups such as the following:
Transocean
Pride
Maersk
Noble Drilling and many many others.
FPSO newbuild hull construction is carried out mainly in Far Eastern yards such as:
- Hyundai Heavy Industries (South Korea)
- Samsung
- + Others

FPSO tanker hull conversions are carried out mainly in:


Keppel Shipyard (Singapore)
Jurong Shipyard (Singapore)
MISC Shipyard (Malaysia)
+ Others

Topsides design and specification are carried out by a number of companies including:
KBR
Stork Protec
+ Others

The companies providing subsea production system (SPS) components are:


Cameron
FMC
GE Vetco Grey
Aker Solutions
Dril-Quip

The companies providing umbilical flowline and riser components together with the installation
capabilities include:
Technip
Acergy
Siapem
Herrema Marine Construction
+ Many Others

58
Figure 1.52: Typical Field Development Contracts
(Illustrated by a Development with a Subsea Field to an FPSO)
The main subsea production equipment contracts are as follows: (a) subsea production systems (SPS)
comprising the wellheads, trees, manifolds, production and drilling control systems; and (b) umbilicals,
risers and flowlines (URF, but also called URFL or SURF). This contract often includes installation activities
for all the subsea equipment.

Source J E & P Associates

59
5 SUBSEA PRODUCTION OPTIONS

5.1 Background

Many of the current subsea production systems were pioneered in the North Sea. Since the early 1980s it
was one of the worlds leading grounds for the development of new subsea production technologies.

Diver-assisted production systems installed, inspected, maintained and repaired by divers within water
depths between 100 m and 300 m maximum have been the favourite, because of their cost
effectiveness, in particular for the development of the so-called Marginal Fields. At the same time
diverless subsea production technology was developed by a number of leading operators for deepwater
(greater than 500 m water depth) production requirements.

Subsea production systems show the range of options available. These are categorised as follows:
Small reservoir with two or three wells (with individual flowlines) tied-back to an existing platform.

Several small satellite reservoirs, tied-back to an existing platform acting has a Production HUB.

Fields developed with floating semi-sub platforms or FPV.

Fields developed with satellite template/manifold/clusters tied-back to existing host platforms of


floaters.

Fields developed with floating FPSO monohulls.

Large gas field standing alone 100/150 km from the beach connected directly to control and
processing facilities in the NOVEL SUBSEA TO BEACH SCENARIO. No above water offshore facilities
needed. The most recent example is the Statoil Snohvit Gas Field in northern Norway.

Very large deepwater reservoir with many subsea wells, producing to a large FPV semi-sub, a
monohull FPSO or a SPAR or a TLP.

Many other variations of the above exist. Some of the shallow water options are discussed further.

60
5.2 Fields Developed with Satellite Wells Tied-back to Existing Platforms

Figure 1.53: Individual Trees Tied-Back to Production Host

Source - J E & P Associates

This is certainly the most simple subsea solution to develop either a large field with additional satellite
wells for production or water injection, or very small fields with only one or two wells tied-back to a host
platform.

61
MAGNUS FIELD (BP)

Figure 1.54: Magnus Field


Magnus Field is developed with a steel jacket platform set in the middle of the field. First production was
from platform drilled wells. At a later date additional wells (satellite wells) were drilled away from the
platform. The individual wells with a wet tree were each connected to the platform via their own flowline.

Source Azur Offshore Ltd

In the late 1980s, the cost effectiveness of Magnus would have been in doubt without additional
production from the southern and northern subsea wells.

Four wells in the south and three wells in the north are linked to the main deepwater platform by
individual flowlines and control umbilicals. Export from the platform is via two export pipelines for oil and
gas. Additional developments with subsea manifold/clusters have been carried out in order to maintain
continued operability of the field and facilities.

62
Figure 1.55: Argyll Field Individual Trees connected to a Gathering Manifold close to Riser
Base

Source - Azur Offshore Ltd

Figure 1.56: Dai Hung Field (Vietnam) with a combination of Wellhead Platform Dry Tree
Wells plus Individual Subsea Trees
Note: Production Semi is the one deployed earlier in the North Sea Argyll Field, but redeployed to
Vietnam.

Source - PetroVietnam

63
Figure 1.57: Espadarte Field Brazil
Note: Essentially no Manifolding on the Seabed means the development is based on Individual Wells with
their own Flowline and Risers. In total the Field has 39 wells.

Source - Keppel Shipyard

5.3 Fields Developed with Satellite Template/Manifold/Clusters Tied-back to


Existing Host Platforms

Figure 1.57: Subsea completions with multi well Manifolds Tied-Back to Existing Host
Platforms

Source - J E & P Associates

64
OTTER FIELD (Total)

Figure 1.58: Otter Field


Otter Field is a subsea tie-back to a host platform some 26 km away. It is three production and two water
injection wells. These are combined into a template manifold. Because of the relatively long distance to
the platform, the production wells each have an electrically driven submersible pump. These pumps must
be powered from the platform.

Source Azur Offshore Ltd

The Otter Field is a marginal oil accumulation located in UKCS block 210/15a in the northern North Sea.
The water depth is 182 m. Total (field operator) and co-venturers Agip, Esso and Shell developed Otter
as a subsea tie-back to a neighbouring platform (Eider).

Otter lies approximately 21 km south-west of the Magnus Field and 27 km north of the Tern Field. The
reservoir is located within the Brent Group reservoir sequence, with the majority of the oil being held in
two members of this sequence, at a depth of approximately 1,500 m.

The oil is a light crude (36.50 API) with a low GOR (448 scf/bbl). It is undersaturated with a saturation
pressure around 900 psi below initial reservoir pressure 2,980 psi. There is no evidence of H 2S and only
0.22% of CO2.

The reservoir was initially produced under natural drive but artificial lift will be required after
approximately one year. This will be provided by subsea downhole ESPs.

Water injection for pressure support will be necessary very early in field life and the capability for total
fluid replacement will be provided from the start of production. For this purpose the produced water may
be re-injected into the reservoir, supplemented by water from another source, after treatment.

65
LYELL FIELD (Conoco/Oryx)

Figure 1.59: Lyell Field


Lyell Field is a subsea tie-back to the Ninian Field platforms some 13 km away. The well system (12 wells
in total some production, others water injection), are arranged in a cluster around the gathering
manifold.

Source Azur Offshore Ltd

The Lyell Field lies in the UK North Sea Block 3/2, approximately 15 km west of the Ninian Field. Located
in 146 m of water, the field was discovered in 1975, with a total of nine exploration and appraisal wells
delineating the main field areas.

Because of the marginal nature of the field the method of development was to use a subsea centre
designed on a fit for purpose basis, tied back to an existing platform facility. Chevrons Ninian Southern
Platform was found to be the most suitable host platform where agreement was reached to provide Lyell
water injection facilities and produced fluid processing and export facilities on a per barrel tariff basis.

Development is via a subsea production system, using a 13-well slot production manifold. This manifold
is connected to the Ninian Southern Platform by a 12 production flowline, 8 test flowline and a 10
water injection pipeline. A 2 methanol line is piggybacked onto the water injection pipeline. The wells are
located in a circular cluster around the manifold .

The subsea system is controlled by an electro-hydraulic multiplexed control system from a master control
station located in the Ninian Southern Platform control room. A combined controls and chemical injection
umbilical interconnects the Ninian Southern Platform and the subsea manifold. This umbilical provides
power to the subsea control modules, hydraulic power for valve operation, signals for system control and
has six chemical cores, three for each of the production and test flowlines.

66
5.4 Fields Developed with Floating Production Platforms (Semi-subs)

Figure 1.60: Subsea Production Systems Tied-Back to a Production Semi

Source - J E & P Associates

67
BALMORAL (Sun Oil)

Figure 1.61: Balmoral Field

14 wells were drilled from a central template manifold located directly below the floater. Additional wells
were satellite wells at a distance around the main development. The floating host was a purpose-built
GVA 5000 semi-submersible production vessel, without storage, moored by an eight chain catenary
anchor system. This was the first floater in the North Sea to employ flexible dynamic risers.

Source Azur Offshore Ltd

The Balmoral Field is a small reservoir located in Block 16/21a of the UK North Sea Sector. The decision
was taken to develop it in 1982.

Sun chose a subsea development for the 140 m water depth, with floating production vessel located over
a template. Crude oil is collected from 13 subsea production wells, processed on board the FPV, then
exported through a 14 pipeline to the Brae/Forties pipeline, then on to Cruden Bay in Scotland. Figure
1.61 illustrates the total system as it is operated today.

The semi-submersibles available for conversion had insufficient space and deck-carrying capacity. A new
build twin deck vessel (GVA 5000), with a central moonpool, was concluded to be the best configuration.
(A moonpool is an opening (usually a rectangular hole) in the vessel or rig through which equipment can
be lowered to the seabed.) The vessel is moored by an eight-point anchor system using 93 mm dia. K4
chains which were secured to the seabed using 45/66 tonnes anchors.

The structures final weight is 840 tonnes and it consists of a two-tier frame approximately 150 ft long
and 150 ft wide, with a total height of 33 ft. It has two rows of seven slots which are orientated north
east, at right angles to the heading of the FPV and spaced to allow workover operations to be performed.
Space for additional retrievable manifolds for other development areas is provided. They have been used
since for two satellite developments.

The template is secured to the seabed by three piles, each 42 diameter and 70 m long. The pile to
sleeve connections are made by the swaging technique (having a compression fitting).

There are nine satellite wells connected to the template by flowlines. The lines to the three satellite
production wells are thermally insulated to minimise the risk of hydrate formation and to reduce the
dosage levels for de-emulsifiers in separators. The remaining 2 annulus lines for gas lift and 6 water
injection lines have a fusion bonded epoxy corrosion coating as well as a sacrificial anode cathodic
protection. All flowlines are trenched and tied into the template and satellite wells using flexible spools.

68
All the various control systems were examined and multiplex electro-hydraulic chosen. An umbilical,
located in the central moonpool area, provides all the hydraulic and electrical power as well as a
telemetry link between the subsea equipment and the FPV.

Oil is exported via a 14 trenched pipeline 14.5 miles long, to a bypass facility adjacent to the tap valve
No.3 tie-in on the Brae/Forties pipeline.

THUNDER HORSE (BP)

Thunder Horse is the largest offshore production platform in the Gulf, with a processing capacity of 250
thousand barrels per day of oil and 200 million cubic feet per day of natural gas, and the field is believed
to hold in excess of 1 billion barrels of oil. Thunder Horse Production Semi is the largest offshore
installation of its kind in the world. It is located in 1920 m water depth. The Semi is moored above the
subsea field. Some of these wells have the capability of flowing up to 50,000 to 60,000 barrels per day.

Figure 1.62: Thunder Horse Field Development

Source - BP plc

69
Figure 1.63: Na Kika Production Semi in the GoM

Source - Wikimedia Commons

Figure 1.64: Gumusut-Kakap Field Malaysia

Source - Shell plc

70
5.5 Fields Developed with FPSO Monohulls and Subsea Facilities

Figure 1.65: Field Developed with Subsea Completions connected to an FPSO

Source - J E & P Associates

After the success of using monohulls (Petrojarl 1) for extended well testing in the North Sea, forward
looking contractors and operators decided in the early 1990s to use large purpose-built or tailor-
converted FPSOs (Floating Production Storage and Offloading) vessels for more field development in the
harsh conditions of the North Sea. Nowadays several fields are in operation with FPSOs linked by flexible
dynamic risers to the subsea facilities, manifolds and clusters of wells.

The first one to come on stream in 1994 was the Kerr McGee GRYPHON field. Gryphon was developed by
use of a permanently moored FPSO facility connected to a single subsea well cluster via flowlines and
flexible risers. The design of the Gryphon facilities was based upon offshore loading into shuttle tankers,
from storage in the FPSO cargo tanks.

The wellhead cluster consists of 14 wellheads and Xmas trees which are located some 1,500 m from the
vessel. The development wells are eight producers, four water injectors, one aquifer producer and one
gas well.

71
Figure 1.66: Gryphon Field
The Gryphon Field was developed with a subsea completion (comprising production wells in a line and
water injection wells in a second line) connected to an FPSO, moored some 1.8 km away. Each well had
its own production flowline (i.e. no manifolding). Subsea control and chemical injection functions are
distributed to the appropriate tree from a subsea distribution centre.

Source Azur Offshore Ltd

A current Angolan deepwater development utilising an FPSO with 43 subsea wells is the BP development
Greater Plutonio.

72
Figure 1.67: Greater Plutonio Field
Greater Plutonio Field development with subsea systems producing to an FPSO located between various
fields. In total the field has 43 wells (a combination of production, water injection and gas reinjection).

Source J E & P Associates and Binary Systems Ltd

Figure 1.68: Cascade-Chinook Field in the GoM

Source - Petrobras US

73
5.6 Subsea Fields Tied Back to a SPAR or TLP

Figure 1.69: Subsea Fields tied-back to Production SPARS or TLPs

Source - J E & P Associates

Figure 1.70: Shells Perdido Field in the GoM

Source - Shell plc

74
Figure 1.71: Boomvang / Nansen Fields Development (GoM)

Source - Wikimedia Commons

Figure 1.72: Red Hawk Gas Fields in GoM

Source - Technip

75
Figure 1.73: Llano Field Tied-Back to Auger TLP in GoM

Source - Shell plc

Figure 1.74: King Field Tied-Back to Marlin TLP in the GoM

Source - BP plc

76
5.7 Well to Shallow Water Host or to Beach Gas Field Developments

Figure 1.75: Deepwater Gas Fields Tied-Back to Shallow Water Production Hosts

Source - J E & P Associates

These are gas fields with long-distance flowlines back to shore (for shallow water platform or shore-based
processing facilities). At the field site there is just the subsea facilities with no visible presence at the
surface. All subsea systems must be controlled from the platform or shore.

An example of the well to shallow water processing host is the Malampaya Field in the Philippines. The
wells are in about 800 m of water and about 30 km from the shallow water production host in about 40 m
of water.

77
Figure 1.76: Malampaya Field
Malampaya Field is an example of a deepwater gas field with well fluids going to a shallow water host for
processing. Here the wells are in about 800 m water and the host is in 30 m of water at a distance of
about 30 km away. After processing, the gas is sent 500 km to the coast where it is used to make
electricity.

Source Cameron Ltd

Figure 1.77: Mensa Gas / Condensate Field in the GoM

Source - Shell plc


78
Figure 1.78: Mississippi Canyon Gas Fields Development (GoM)

Source - Total

Figure 1.79: Field Layout

Source - Total

79
5.8 Well to Beach Gas Field Developments

Figure 1.80: Subsea Field direct to Onshore Processing (Well to Beach) Developments

Source - J E & P Associates

An example of the well to beach approach is the Statoil SNOHVIT Field in the northern Norwegian Sea
(within the Arctic Circle), where the main subsea site is about 145 km from the shore.

80
Figure 1.81: Snohvit Field
Snohvit Field is an example of a gas field well to beach. Here there is only the subsea production
system offshore. The flowline brings the gas to shore for processing.

Source Statoil plc.

Figure 1.82: Ormen Lange Gas Field Development

Source - Hydro

81
Figure 1.83: West Delta Deep Gas Field Development - Egypt

Source - BG Group

82
6. FLOW ASSURANCE FOR SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

6.1 Background

Everything starts from the reservoir where the fluids it contains and the means of extracting them via
subsea wells vary from reservoir to reservoir. Some may need water injection to maintain the pressure,
or gas lift in the wells, or downhole pumping or seabed boosting or gas lift at the base of the riser to keep
them producing over the life of the field, meaning only a few years or many years (20 to 30 or more).
Other reservoirs may have special chemical properties and they may need special chemical injection
treatments.

On the top of that there are always variations of pressure and temperature over the operating life as well
as an increase of the water cut.

One major problem of deposition does not depend upon either temperature or pressure: that of produced
sand with potential serious consequences on the well and the SPS. This is where small amounts of sand
(less than 1 kilo to 50 kilos per well per day) are produced from the reservoir along with the oil. Sand
from the producing formation can also be a problem, and in extreme cases can cause either flowline
blockage or severe erosion of system components.

These are all the basic challenges that the subsea production systems have to meet.

In addition, with high pressures and low surrounding temperatures at the seabed (between +4 and 0
Celsius) solids known as hydrates can form in the upper well tubing, in the Xmas tree, in the manifold
piping, in the flowlines, in the pipelines and in the risers. Ultimately blockages can occur and be very
difficult to locate and remove, with subsequent significant losses of production and revenues.

Wax and organic minerals like scale can deposit on the internal surface of the well tubing reducing the
bore diameter. Asphaltenes, which are heavy fractions of oil, can also precipitate and make the reservoir
less porous and more difficult to produce.

Souring of the reservoir may produce hydrogen sulphide (H2S) with many corrosion and safety risk
implications.

At the design stage, to help the system designers and process engineers, there are computer simulations
to predict many of the anticipated effects over the predicted life of the field, well by well. The simulations
also take into consideration all the fluid variations and compositions as much as possible.

Obtaining the FLOW ASSURANCE of MULTIPHASE FLOW PRODUCTION by getting the flow regimes and
the production chemistry right is always a complicated process. With the development of deep and very
deepwater systems the problems are compounded.

83
Figure 1.84: Flow Assurance Issues
The figure illustrates the various flow assurance issues which must be addressed in any field development
study.

Source J E & P Associates

Directed Learning:
Visit the Offshore Technology website www.offshore-technology.com Look under
PROJECTS and hunt for examples of fields developed with subsea production systems.
Do you have other examples from your location area? If so share your information with
other students.

6.2 Flow Assurance and Systems Design

Flow assurance is the strategy to overcome production problems, and systems design is the methodology
used to ensure the total system produces fluids economically from the reservoir to the production
facilities over the life of the field and in all conditions.

Flow Assurance and Operability, or Production System Design

Flow assurance and operability, or production system design, encompasses line sizing, solids
management, flowline and hardware configuration, as well as overall operating strategies and
philosophies/procedures that are key to the success of most offshore development projects. System
design cant be accomplished without intimately addressing system mechanical design, flow assurance,
operability, and a host of other key aspects of the system.

In all cases, the design must consider the capabilities and requirements for all parts of the system
throughout its entire producing life. Important parameters established as part of this system design effort
include the following:

flow diameters (tubing and flowlines),


maximum and minimum production/flow rates,
insulation (tubing, flowlines, wellheads, trees, and manifolds),
chemical injection and storage requirements,
flow blockage intervention needs,
strategies and techniques,
host facility requirements (flow receivers, fluids handling, pigging, capability for blockage prevention,
intervention, and remediation), and
capital and operating costs.

All production modes, including start-up, steady state, rate change and shut-in throughout the system
life cycle, must be considered. Operating strategies and procedures for successful system designs will be
84
robust. That is, they are developed with system unknowns and uncertainties in mind and can be readily
adapted to work with the system parameters and/or characteristics that are found to exist, even when
those parameters and/or characteristics are different from those assumed during design.

Flow assurance and operability capabilities will be applied at all levels of field development; from early
concepts through pre-FEED, FEED, detailed design, to project operation. Work areas may include the
following:

Development concepts and layouts


Thermal-hydraulic design
Production flow element sizing, configuration, and insulation design
Solids prevention and control and blockage remediation
Corrosion prevention and control
Production chemical selection and injection system design
Operating envelopes
Operating strategy, philosophy, and manuals.

Systems Integration

Systems integration can be broadly described as the collection of tasks and work areas that assure that
the total system has been defined, conceived, and executed with appropriate attention to all system
requirements and constraints. Systems integration personnel work closely with client functional leaders
(reservoir, drilling and completions, operations, flow assurance, facilities engineering, process
engineering, etc.) and with other contractors and vendors throughout the life of the project to coordinate,
assist, and/or execute system-wide work activities.

Systems integration work areas may include:

Project-wide design basis development and maintenance


System-level P&ID (piping and instrumentation diagram) and PFD (process flow diagram) oversight
and approval
System-level functional specification development
Management of functional interface issues (client, contractors, project engineers)
System cost and economics assessment
Design Review leadership and/or participation

Figure 1.85a: Flow Assurance and Operability

Source IntecSea Ltd

85
Figure 1.85b: Flow Assurance and Operability

Source IntecSea Ltd

Figure 1.85c: Flow Assurance and Operability

Source IntecSea Ltd

Today the common understanding of Flow Assurance covers the topics dealing with:
Hydraulics Flow Issues

Multiphase flow hydraulics Will the reservoir fluids flow from the reservoir to the production host?

Slugging The phenomena caused by the instabilities of the gas and liquid interfaces and liquid
sweep-out by gas inertial effects.

Corrosion Wearing of the pipework and flowline wall thickness due to chemistry of the produced
fluids.

86
Erosion Wearing of the manifold pipe work and the flowline walls due to solid particles such as sand
or liquids impingement passing at high velocities.

Thermal Issues

Wax/Asphaltenes The deposition of solids inside the flowlines and risers reducing flow capacity and
ultimately blocking the line.

Hydrates Formation of ice crystals incorporating methane and other hydrocarbons in low
temperatures, high pressure, wet systems producing gas, condensate or oil.

Cold Points

Multiple non-insulated devices in the system in contact with the surrounding cold water acting as fast
heat exchangers in particular during well shut down and other operating modes.

Chemical Issues

Emulsions Oil and water mixtures at approximately 40% to 60% water cut that cause excessive
pressure losses in the wells or the SPS system.

Scaling Solids build up, especially onto the well bore tubing due to the chemistry of the produced
water.
Sand Production

Sand production from the reservoir causing blockage of system components such as flowlines.

The flow assurance strategy must be adopted early in the conceptual and planning phase of the project
prior to specifying and ordering the key components of the system, such as downhole equipment, trees,
flowlines, control system and topsides equipment. Flow assurance strategy must also be applied during
detailed system design, developing operating procedures as well as offshore production operations to
maximise profitability of the field development. Based on the flow assurance analysis results, a design
philosophy and functional specifications can be developed for the following elements:

Sizing of well tubing and completion design

Sizing of all flowlines, risers and export system including subsea manifolding

Thermal management (insulation or heating)

Chemical injection system including the subsea chemical distribution, umbilical, topsides chemical
delivery system

Pigging strategy (subsea or surface launching)

Directed Learning:
Search Google for articles on Flow Assurance to add to your file.

Directed Learning:
For more information on Flow Assurance and Systems Design visit the INTECSEA
website www.intecsea.com Click on Publications. Click Capability Statements. Choose
document Flow Assurance, Capability and Experience.
For those already involved in subsea production systems have you experienced flow
assurance problems or issues? If so please share your information with other students.

87
6.3 Flow Assurance Issues

Reservoir Fluid Analysis

An important step of the design of shallow and deepwater subsea facilities is to collect and analyse high
quality reservoir fluid samples. A representative reservoir fluid sample, collected at bottom hole
pressure/temperature conditions, is recommended. Laboratory analysis of this sample will provide
quantitative information on the fluid composition (hydrocarbons, non-hydrocarbons and solids), fluid
chemistry, physical properties and tendency to form deposits such as wax, asphaltenes and hydrates.
These measurements will assist in developing cost-effective designs for downhole completions, subsea
facilities, flowlines, risers, topsides equipment and export systems. Without specific fluids information,
large safety factors and potentially unnecessary equipment will likely be specified.

Figure 1.86: Samples of Reservoir Fluids


Each Reservoir has its own mix of hydrocarbons. No reservoirs are the same each is uniquely different.
The exact chemical and physical mix will be important for:
Designing the Production System
Designing the Topsides Processing System
Eventual sales value of the oil
The picture shows a number of bottles, each containing untreated reservoir fluids. Not all oils are black
there are red, yellow, green and clear liquids. Some are very fluid others very thick.

Source - J E & P Associates

88
Figure 1.87: Oil Types by Gravity (API degrees)
One of the main physical measures of the oil type is the API gravity. This refers to the oils viscosity.
A value of 30 and above is a light oil which will probably be easy to produce and process.
A value of around 20 is a heavy oil which may be difficult to produce (may need downhole pumping) and
to process.
A value of around 10 means it is a tar and would need heat to make it flow.

Source - J E & P Associates

89
Figure 1.88: Various Sulphur levels in Crude Oil
Below 0.5% Sulphur the Crudes are termed sweet; above this figure the Crudes are termed sour

Source - David Wood

90
Figure 1.89: High and Low Quality Oil in Various Regions

Source - Wikimedia Commons


FLUID PHASES

Gas / Vapour
Liquids
Solids

The proportion of each depends on the pressure and temperature. Conditions change throughout the
production system life.

Any fluid can exist in any of three phases


Dictated by conditions
Highest pressure and temperature are normally encountered in the reservoir
BUT may occur in production facilities - eg. Immediately downstream of a compressor
Model by process simulation

91
Figure 1.90: Phase Envelope for Volatile Oils

Source - Alex Hunt

Multiphase Flow

Multiphase flow analysis will be performed to optimise and define the size of downhole tubing, number
and size of flowlines and risers, and requirement for manifolding. The key drivers will be available
reservoir energy, well depths, offset distances to the host processing facility, flow rates and fluid
compositions. Flowline and tubing optimisation will consider erosional velocity constraints at high rates
and the potential for liquid slugging at low rates.

Depending on reservoir drive mechanism, fluid compositions, field layout and other parameters, ways to
improve system deliverability (i.e. increase production rate) will be investigated. Example approaches
may include one or several of the following, possibly among others:

gas lift: downhole, at subsea tree or riser base


pumping: downhole ESP or subsea multiphase
injection wells
separation: two-phase or three-phase, and downhole or seabed

92
Figure 1.91: Multiphase Flow in Vertical Pipes

Source - J E & P Associates

Figure 1.92: Multiphase Flow Regimes

By the time the reservoir fluids have reached the seabed they are often multiphase (mixtures of oil, gas
and water). The composition of these mixtures and the flow conditions lead to various multiphase flow
patterns. These must be analysed.

Source J E & P Associates

93
Horizontal Flow Regimes

More regimes for horizontal flow


Different persons use different terms (no standardisation)
As waves build up on liquid surface, slugs can form
Also possible to produce flow maps
Only simplifications
However, flow regimes (like laminar or turbulent for single phase flow) needs to be known
to determine systems pressure drops.
Inclined flow tends to increase likelihood of intermittent flow regimes (ie slugging)
Slugs are caused by flow and terrain
Liquids build up in low points of flowlines
May be swept out by large plugs of gas
May also be cleared by pigging

Directed Learning:
Go to www.thermopedia.com/content/2/ for Gas-Liquid Flow article by G F Hewitt.

Flow Hydraulics/Simulation

There are a number of steady-state multiphase flowline simulation packages currently available, such as
PIPEPHASE from Simulation Sciences, PIPESIM from Baker Jardine and GOFLOW MULTIFLOW from Azur
Offshore Ltd. Using one of these, to model the system and using fluid compositional data from lab tests,
it is possible to produce curves showing the variation in arrival temperature with flow rate.

If higher water cuts are included, it is possible to develop a range of these curves. However, it is
necessary to superimpose the production profile derived from the reservoir simulation on top of these
since, as the water cuts increase, reservoir deliverability tends to fall. Ultimately, it is possible to
determine the limiting water cut at which production is no longer possible.

By following this methodology it is possible to establish an acceptable operating envelope for the subsea
production system. This is for steady-state conditions. Shut-down and start-up requires a more
sophisticated model as explained in the following section.

94
Figure 1.93: Typical Flow Hydraulics Reservoir to Processing

Early in any field development concept evaluation is a flow hydraulics study. Will the reservoir
hydrocarbons flow from the well to the production host process system? The figure represents a headers
and levels diagram showing the flow path vertically and horizontally. This is the start of a full, computer-
based analysis to check flow options.

Source J E & P Associates

Figure 1.94: Flow Hydraulics and Mechanical Design Issues

Source - J E & P Associates

95
Figure 1.95: Pressure Profile in Deepwater Reservoirs to Production Host

Source - Alex Hun

Figure 1.96: Laminar and Turbulent Flow Characteristics

Source - J E & P Associates

96
Transient Behaviour

Following a shutdown, the flowline system is static with no net inflow or outflow of fluids. The system
therefore moves towards its settle-out equilibrium pressure and the flowline fluid inventory cools with
time.

What is important to determine is how long the system will take to reach the temperature limit for
deposition. In the case of possible hydrate formation, it may be necessary to depressurise the flowline
prior to restart, whereas for wax formation, pigging of the flowline as part of the restart procedure may
be required.

There are currently several transient multiphase flow computer simulation packages available, including
OLGA from Scandpower, PLAC from AEA Petroleum Services, TACITE from IFP and so on.

Warm-up during restart is a much more complicated matter. Unlike cool down, there is no flow through
the system to be taken into account and hence a changing temperature gradient along the flowline with
time. During flowline warm-up, the critical time is taken for the fluids in the system to exceed the
deposition limit. Before this temperature is exceeded, it will be necessary to inject inhibitors in order to
protect the system. The sections of line closest to the wellheads warm up fastest, whilst the fluid
temperatures at the host platform or FPSO are the slowest to rise.

Using such tools, it is possible to determine for how long it is necessary to inject inhibitor. If the required
concentration is known, then the total volume of inhibitor needed for restart may be determined. This
data is useful for two reasons: both to develop operational restart procedures dependent upon the
duration of a shutdown and to optimise the quantities of injection chemical required.

Liquid Slugging

At low flowing velocities, depending on fluid composition and line size, the liquid can accumulate in the
line and form liquid slugs. Both hydrodynamically induced and terrain-induced slugs can form and
potentially arrive at the host facility. Depending on slug volumes and frequency, the liquid slugs can
potentially overload the topside processing system and result in frequent process upsets and shut
downs. One remedy is to install large slug catchers at the topsides. Other options include using smaller
diameter lines, riser-base gas lift, subsea separation, flow and pressure control via surface chokes, etc.
Transient, dynamic analysis of the flowline and risers must be conducted to evaluate the potential
severity of liquid slugging. Based on this type of analysis, an appropriate strategy to control slugging can
be developed. This can be performed with transient, multiphase simulation tools such as PLAC or OLGA.
FMC currently has a licence for PLAC.

97
Figure 1.97: Slugging Regimes

The multiphase flow can lead to formation of slugs in the flow. These may be a full separation into slugs
of all oil or slugs of all gas. These slugs can have serious consequences at pipe bends or valves (i.e.
impact of relatively high loads on the equipment) or cause problems in risers prior to arrival at the
processing host.

Source J E & P Associates

Figure 1.98: Slug Flow and the need for Slug Catchers in Production Design.

Source - Alex Hunt

98
Corrosion Inhibition Design

Corrosion inhibition philosophy depends primarily on the produced fluid composition (mainly CO2 or H2S),
water chemistry, operating pressures and temperatures, and to some extent the flow regime. The
recommended solution may be either the use of carbon steel flowlines combined with continuous
corrosion inhibitor injection or the use of corrosion resistant alloys. For low CO 2 concentrations, typically
carbon steel flowlines may be used. Empirical models can be used to predict the corrosion rate with and
without the chemical inhibitor to develop an appropriate design. A corrosion allowance is generally
included in the pipe wall thickness specification to account for the corrosion rate and to provide a margin
in case of a temporary failure in the chemical injection system.

Erosional Velocity Limits

As a baseline, the American Petroleum Institute (API) 14E recommended equation (C Factor of 100) can
be used to predict the erosional velocity limit and the maximum allowable production rate. Field
experience suggests that this approach may be conservative, especially when very little or no sand is
present in the flow stream. Alternatively, more accurate methods are available to predict erosional
velocity rates based on sand content, flow compositions and velocities. The alternative approaches may
allow operating at higher velocities without risk of erosion so that the production rate can be increased.

Various types of sand and erosion monitors are available for installation within/on subsea tree and
manifold piping. These devices can be used to monitor erosion and optimise well flow rates, often well
above the API 14E recommended limit.

CORROSION AND EROSION

CORROSION TYPES OF CORROSION

External corrosion due to Many different corrosion


dissolved oxygen in mechanisms
seawater
Limited effect in deepwater,
serious in shallow water
Internal Corrosion cause by
sour components

Figure 1.99: Corrosion and Erosion in Subsea Systems

Source - Alex Hunt


Hydrate Management

Most wells produce some water, either condensed or free water, over the life of the field. Natural gas
combined with produced water can form hydrate plugs under combination of low temperatures and high
pressures. Hydrates can form and plug the downhole tubing, tree/manifold piping, flowlines and/or risers.
The likelihood of hydrate formation is greatest during shut-in conditions when the production system is
cold and the pressures are high. Depending on the flowing pressures and temperatures, plugs can also
form during flowing conditions.

99
Figure 1.100: Gas Hydrates
Gas hydrates, a chemical combination of methane and water, has the potential to block flowlines and
subsea equipment.

Source Wikimedia Commons United States Geological Survey

Figure 1.101: Hydrate Terminology

Source - Alex Hunt

100
Figure 1.102: Hydrate Growth / Blockage Mechanisms

Source - J E & P Associates

To prevent and manage hydrate formation, combination of either chemical treatment and/or thermal
insulation may be used.

For gas and gas/condensate wells, typically, chemicals such as methanol or ethylene glycol may be
injected continuously to inhibit formation of gas hydrates. For low water production rates, these
chemicals may be continuously injected downhole and/or at the subsea tree. Depending on fluid
compositions and system operating conditions, use of kinetic gas hydrate inhibitors can be evaluated.
While these chemicals do not prevent hydrate formation, they prevent agglomeration of crystals into
large blockages. These chemicals can be used in relatively small dosage quantities compared with
methanol or glycol so that chemical consumption cost may be reduced.

In cases where the water production rate is very high, such as in many oil wells, continuous hydrate
inhibitor injection is prohibitively expensive. In these cases, the flowlines and risers can be thermally
insulated to maintain the flowing temperatures above the hydrate formation temperature. Thermal
insulation can be designed to prevent rapid cool-down below the hydrate formation temperature during a
shut down.

The cool-down time can be designed to be sufficient for the operator to take remedial action. Remedial
action may include flowline/riser pressure blow-down to reduce the flowline pressure below the critical
hydrate formation pressure. However, in deepwater flowlines, even after bleeding the pressure off from a
riser, the hydrostatic head of the liquids (oil and water) in the riser and flowline may be sufficient to
accommodate hydrates. To prevent hydrates, the flowlines and risers can be pigged and displaced with
an inhibited fluid.

101
Figure 1.103: Hydrate Prevention and Mitigation
Prevention and/or mitigation of hydrate blocking is a major part of flow assurance studies.

Source J E & P Associates

Figure 1.104: Mississippi Canyon Express Gas Flowline System in the Gulf of Mexico
The line is continuous flooded with up to 15% methanol / MEG to prevent hudrate blocking in the
flowline. The additive chemical is removed at the processing platform and recycled.

Source - Wikimedia Commons

102
Figure 1.105: Chemical Injection Additives to minimise Hydrates forming

Source - Alex Hunt

Figure 1.106: Example of Hydrate build up on the Flowline Wall and Removed by Pigging

Source - J E & P Associates

103
Figure 1.107: Subsea Processing to avoid Hydrates
One of the potential methods for avoiding hydrate formation is to remove one of the chemical
constituents in their make-up, namely water. Thus subsea processing, where water is separated from the
hydrocarbon constituents, is considered as a possible reduction measure.

Source Azur Offshore Ltd

If hydrate plugs are under pressure both sides of the plug, then if releasing the plug involves
depressurising for only one side of the plug, then its release can lead it to become a mobile projectile
(driven by the differential pressure the other sides). The mobile plug can smash pipe bends or valves in
its way.

104
Figure 1.108: The Release of a Hydrate Plug can lead to Mechanical Damage in the Flowline or
Pipeline

Source - Azur Offshore Ltd

Directed Learning:
To learn more about gas hydrates go to Google and search Wikipedia Methane
Clathrates. Look up other references to hydrates and share your findings on the course
forum.

Wax/Asphaltenes

Depending on the oils cloud point temperature (the temperature at which wax starts crystallising out of
the oil) and paraffin content, paraffin wax or heavier components may deposit on the walls of the tubing,
flowline and risers. Depending on the deposition rate, the paraffin deposit may eventually completely
block the flow passage. An important element of the paraffin management process is to collect a
representative reservoir fluid sample for laboratory analysis.

105
Figure 1.109: Wax Deposition Types

Source - Alex Hunt

Figure 1.110: Resins and Asphaltenes Deposition Types

Source - Alex Hunt

Based on the laboratory measurements, multiphase flow and thermal simulations of the production
system, the potential severity of paraffin deposition in the production system can be evaluated.

Both initial and late life conditions should be evaluated to assess the potential for paraffin deposition. To
prevent and manage paraffin deposition, combination of thermal insulation, chemical treatment and
pigging may be used. A cost/benefit analysis of these solutions should be conducted before final selection
of a paraffin management strategy is made.

106
Figure 1.111: Wax Deposition and Prevention
Many crude oils contain wax. As the crude oil in the flowline cools there is the possibility of the wax
depositing on the inner pipe wall and eventually blocking the line.

Source J E & P Associates

107
Figure 1.112: Pigging
Pigging is one of the defences against wax deposition in flowlines. A scraper pig is used to clear the line.
In order to conduct pigging, the flowlines must be arranged in a pigging loop where the pig is launched,
from the host platform or floater, in the water injection line. At the manifold it is switched into the
production flowlines and returns to the host. An alternative is a one way pigging trip, where the pig is
launched from a subsea pig launcher mounted on the manifold. Such pig launchers usually hold four to
six pigs and each pig is launched periodically. When all the pigs have been used the subsea launcher
must be retrieved to the surface and loaded with further pigs.

Source Wikimedia Commons and CD Engineering Ltd

Directed Learning:
To learn more about Pigging go to Google and search Wikipedia Pigging. Look up other
references to pigging. Share your findings on the course forum.

108
Cold Points

Figure 1.113: Temperature Profile in Deepwater to Production Host Profile

Source - J E & P Associates

Multiple non-insulated devices in the system in contact with the surrounding cold water act as fast heat
exchangers, in particular during well shut down and other operating modes. Also cooling may result
downstream of locations of pressure reduction in the flow, leading to Joule-Thompson cooling (where gas
is compressed and allowed to expand, causing a cooling effect like a fridge). Identifying and taking
measures against this cooling is necessary. This may lead to insulation on trees, manifolds and pipe
bends and flanges which in the past have not been insulated.

109
Figure 1.114: Cold Points
The development of the early deepwater fields (e.g. Girassol Field 1,300 m in 1999) led to a further
recognition of how cold points in the subsea production equipment can lead to various thermal-based flow
assurance problems.

Source J E & P Associates

Figure 1.115: Insulation Materials for Flowlines


New Technology Nano-Gel Insulation

Source - Azur Offshore Ltd

110
Figure 1.116: Subsea Equipment Insulation
Flowlines have been insulated over their normal straight length, but the new insulation requirements
require insulation on manifold piping, pipe bends and pipe connections such as flanges.

Source Trelleborg Ltd

Chemical Injection System

Depending on fluid characteristics and system materials, a wide range of chemicals may be injected into
the subsea wells and the flowline. The following parameters should be defined to design the chemical
injection system:

produced fluid and flow assurance analysis to define the need for various chemicals such as hydrates,
wax, asphaltene, scale, corrosion, and so on.

compatibility of various chemical mixtures

injection rate for each chemical

injection schedule for start-up/shut down and normal flowing.

Based on the above information, the chemical injection system can be defined, consisting of the following
components:

injection ports in the downhole tubing and at the tree

appropriate materials for conduits in the umbilical

chemical compatibility with the umbilical conduits

topsides chemical injection pumps.

In a typical subsea development, to simplify the design, a dedicated line is used to deliver each chemical
mixture from the topsides to individual wells. This approach can become expensive for long offset
distances and for a large number of wells. One option is to consider a subsea chemical distribution
system to minimise the number of tubes in the umbilical.

111
Emulsions

These are oil and water mixtures (at approximately 40% to 60% water cut) that cause excessive
pressure losses in the wells or the SPS system. The normal approach is to reduce the effect by chemical
injection.

Figure 1.117: Emulsions and Foams

Source - Alex Hunt


Sand

Sand is produced from the reservoir due to the function of the produced fluids when they pass through
the formation into the well. This may be affected by the structure of the formation, but more likely by
very high draw-down (pressure drop) into the well. Perhaps the best way to deal with sand is not to
produce it, by reducing production rate and thus the draw-down. In addition to the problem of system
blockage and erosion of system components, the effect of produced sand in the well can be catastrophic.
As more sand is produced, a void appears at the bottom of the well, and as this grows it becomes
unstable. This can lead to a collapse in which the well casing and tubing are buckled, thus the well is
effectively destroyed.

112
Figure 1.118: Sand Control
Gravel Packs and Sand Screens are used to control the flow of sand into the production tubing.

Source - Wikimedia Commons

To reduce flow in a well(s) whilst maintaining field production, the economics of drilling an additional well
should be examined closely at design time.

If produced sand is to be expected, and if deposition in system flowlines is likely to occur, then a means
of pigging/flushing flowlines may have to be incorporated. This may be a looped system allowing the
flowline to be flushed from the platform, or a subsea pig launcher attached to the template/manifold with
de-flushing fluid pumped from a DSY.

For design purposes, sand production should be avoided at all costs, unless it is impossible to prevent
due to the formation structure, then seabed sand separation needs to be investigated, and piping
systems wall thickness monitored.

Any quantities of produced sand will eventually arrive and collect in the process plant separators. These
will need to be equipped with an on-line sand removal system.

113
Figure 1.119: Separator Vessels - On Line Sand Removal System
Most wells produce a certain amount of sand (1 Kg per day to 100 Kg per day. This will arrive at the
topsides process vessels. If there is no on-line method of sand removal it will have to be dug out (by
hand). On-line removal systems, using jet pumps keep the separator vessels clear of the sand.

Source - J E & P Associates

Scale

Scale may be Barium Suphate or Calcium Carbonate. It can reduce reservoir productivities or cause
blocking of the production tubing. Chemical Injection is used to minimise the build-up of such scales.

Figure 1.120: Scale Deposition

Source - Alex Hunt

114
Corrosion and Erosion

Figure 1.121: Corrosion and Erosion Monitoring

Source - A Hunt
Modelling of Flow Issues

There are a number of computer programs covering flow modelling. These cover both steady and
transient states.

Figure 1.122: Flow Modelling

Source - Alex Hunt

115
Summary of Flow Assurance Issues

Understanding the flow assurance issues and having the correct defences against the problems is
considered to be one of the most important and challenging aspect of a field development process
involving subsea completions.

Figure 1.123: Summary of Flow Assurance Issues

Source - Intecsea Ltd

116
Figure 1.124: Subsea Forecast

Source - Douglas-WestWood Ltd

Figure 1.125: Subsea Forecast by Water depth

Source - Douglas-Westwood Ltd

117
Figure 1.126: Subsea capex Forecast by Component (Relative)

Source - Douglas-Westwood Ltd

Figure 1.127: Subsea Capex Forecast by Region (relative)

Source - Douglas-Westwood Ltd

Online Assessment:
Log on to the Learning Management System to complete the online assessment for this
module. If you dont achieve at least 75%, you may revise the module and attempt the
test again to improve your score.

118
APPENDIX A

119
APPENDIX B

Geological Settings
Origins of Oil and Gas
Migration
Trapping Oil and Gas
Forces that shape the Earth's crust
The Crust around Britain
Foundations
Forces
Western Basins
North Sea Basins
The North Sea - The Southern
Gasfields
Oil and Gas from the Buried Rift
Valley
A closer look at some North Sea fields
Oil and Gas from the Western Basins

Exploration
Discovering the Underground
Structure
Drilling
Getting the most out of a well

Development
Developing a Discovery
How Much Oil and Gas?

Production
The Offshore Challenge
Production Platforms
Construction and Installation
Functions of a Production Platform
Production Wells
Getting every last drop out
Working Offshore
Getting Oil and Gas Ashore

Sustainability, Safety and the


Environment
Sustainability
Safety
Environment
Organising Offshore Development
The Future

Credits
Credits

120

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