Chapter 1

INTRODUCION

1.1BACKGROUND

Modern machining methods are also named as Non Traditional machining methods. These
methods form a group of processes which removes excess material by various techniques
involving mechanical, thermal, electrical chemical energy or combination of these energies.
There is no cutting of metal with the help of metallic tool having sharp cutting edge. The
major reasons of development and popularity of modern machining methods are listed below.
Need of machine newly developed metals and non-metals having some special properties like
high strength, high hardness and high toughness. A material possing the above mentioned
properties are difficult to be machined by the Conventional machining methods. Sometimes it
is required to produce complex part geometries that cannot be produced by following
conventional machining techniques. Non Traditional machining methods also provide very
good quality of surface finish which may also be an encouragement to these methods. There
can be a very long list of non conventional machining methods. These methods can be
classified as the basis of their base principle of working. Conventional machining sufficed the
requirement of the industries over the decades. But new exotic work materials as well as
innovative geometric design of products and components were putting lot of pressure on
capabilities of conventional machining processes to manufacture the components with desired
tolerances economically. This led to the development and establishment of NTM processes in
the industry as efficient and economic alternatives to conventional ones. With development in
the NTM processes, currently there are often the first choice and not an alternative to
conventional processes for certain technical requirements.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

In Abrasive jet machining abrasive particles are made to impinge on work material at
high velocity. Jet of abrasive particles is carried by carrier gas or air. The high
velocity stream of abrasives is generated by converting pressure energy of carrier gas
or air to its Kinetic energy and hence high velocity jet. Nozzles directs abrasive jet
in a controlled manner onto work material. The high velocity abrasive particles
remove the material by micro-cutting action as well as brittle fracture of The work
material. In abrasive jet machining, abrasive particles are mixed with compressed air
and directed on the target Surface through a nozzle. The particle coming out of the
nozzle with very high velocities impinges the target surface and Removes the material
by erosion. A large number of investigations which have been carried out on AJM
explain various Erosion mechanism and experiments have been carried out to
determine the effect of various input parameters on material removal rate, penetration
rate, and on surface finish. Different material removal mechanism has been proposed
by various investigators. It has been studied that due to plastic deformation, material
removal mechanism causes crack and spalling of ductile material.
Fig.1.1 Schematic layout of AJM
 Fig.1.2 Erosion process

1.3 EQUIPMENTS

A schematic layout of AJM is shown in Fig1.1. The filtered gas, supplied under
pressure to the mixing chamber containing the abrasive powder and vibrating at 50
c/s, entrains the abrasive particle and is the passed into a connecting hose. This
abrasive and gas mixture emerges from a small nozzle at high velocity. The abrasive
powder feed rate is controlled by the amplitude of vibration of the mixing chamber. A
pressure regulator controls the gas flow and pressure.
 The nozzle is mounted on a fixture. Either the workpiece or the nozzle is moved
by cams pantograph or other suitable mechanisms to control the size and shape of the
cut. Hand operation is sometimes adequate to remove surface contaminations or in
cutting where accuracy is not very critical. Dust removal equipment is necessary to
protect the environment. Commercial bench mounted units including all controls,
motion producing devices, and dust control equipment are available.

1.Air compressor

2.Air filter & Dehumidifier

3. Pressure Gauge & Regulator

4. Vibrator of Mixer

5. Nozzle

6. Horizontal and Vertical Motion Module(for xyz motion)

7.Rigid frame support to hold the workpiece

8.Abrasive material/sand

1.4VariablesinAbrasiveJetMachine:
The major components are :

The variables that influence the rate of metal removal and accuracy of machining in
this process is:

1. Carrier gas
2. Types of abrasive
3. Size of abrasive grain
4. Velocity of abrasive jet
5. Flow rate of abrasive
6. Work material
7. Geometry, composition and material of nozzle
8. Nozzle work distance (stand off distance)
9. Shape of cut and operation type

Medium Air, CO2 ,N2

Abrassive SIC,AL2O3(Of size 20m to 50m )

Flow rate of abrasive 3 to 2 gram/min

Velocity 150 to 300 m/min

Pressure 2 to 8 kg/cm2
Nozzle size 0.07 to 0.40 mm

Material of nozzle WC ,Sapphire

Nozzle life 12 to 300hr

Stand off distance 0.25 to 15 mm ( 8mm generally)

Work material Non Metals like glass,ceramics and granites.

Metals and alloys of hard materials like germanium, silicon etc.

Part application Drilling, cutting, deburring, cleaning.

CHAPTER 2

2.1 Literature review

The following papers were reviewed for the methodology used,scope of work and the
research work carried out on Bollard.
S. Naveen and Aslam A. Hirani, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sreenidhi
Institute of Science & Technology,Andhra Pradesh- streamUtlization the principle of
erosion of material while being impinged on the work-piece surface by fine abrasive
particles entertained in high velocity air or gas
S. Wang and C. H. Li, School of Mechanical Engineering, Qingdao Technological
University, China- In this paper, development status and latest progresses on high
efficiecy abrasive machining technologies relate to high speed and super high speed
grinding,hig efficiency deep cut grinding and abrasive belt grinding were summarized.
Gagandeep Singh and Raminder Singh, RBIET, Mohali, Punjab- In this paper, AJM
process parameters were verified i.e. pressure, nozzle tip distance and nozzle diameter.
Punit Grover, Sanjay Kumar, Qasim Murtaza, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Delhi Technological University, Delhi- This paper deals with the fabrication of AJM
and machining on tempered glass, calcuting the material removal varying various
performance parameters by using Taguchi Method.
J.M. Fan, C.Y. Wang, J.Wang, Faculty of Electromechanical Engineering, Guandong
University of Technology, China- The predictive capability of the models of assessed
and verified by an experimental investigation covering a range of the common process
parameters . It shows that model predictions are in good agreement with the
experimental results.
T. Gavaskar, C. Devabalan, M.A. Revanth, G. Sakthiseelan, V. Rajivranjan, K. Ashok
Kumar, H. Vishwanathan, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Karpagam College of
Engineering, Coimbatore-This paper studies about the process parameters which
involves in determining the surface roughness of the machined surface.
D.V. Srikanth, Dr. M. Sreenivasa Rao, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Abhinav Hi-Tech College of Engineering, Hyderabad, A.P., Department of Mechanical
Engineering, JNTUH, Kukatpally, Hyderabad, A.P. India- In this paper optimization of
process parameters of Abrasive Jet Machining of glass by Taguchi methodology is
presented.The values obtained in Taguchi Analysis was compared with the Analysis
Variance(ANOVA).
Ivan Sunit Rout, Kasturi Panigrahi, Banishree Pardhan, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, C.V.Raman College Of Engineering, Bhubaneshwar, India- The paper
presents the working of AJM on brittle materials by the application of high speed
stream of abrasive particles carried by a gas medium through the nozzle. It also tells
about the impact of gas pressure on material removal rate AJM.
Massimiliano Barletta, Stefano Guarino, Gianluca Rubino, Vincenzo Tagliaferri,
University of Rome Tor Vergata, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Via del
Politecnico, Rome, Italy- This paper deals with the internal finishing of tubular
components made from a high strength aluminium alloy(AA 6082 T6) by using a
Fluidized Bed assisted Abrasive Jet Machining(FB-AJM) system.
Rajeev Kumar, Gurdeep Singh Deol, C.S. Kalra, Vijay Kr Sharma, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, SUSCET, Tangori, Mohali, India- This paper presents the
effects of parameters of micro AJM on Material Removal Rate (MRR, gm/sec) and
overcut(mm) during micro machining of Silicon Glass.
Parteek Vijay Kumar, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sat Priya Institute of
Technology- This paper deals with the fabrication of the Abrasive Jet Machine and
machining on tempered glass, calculating the Material Removal varying various
performance parameters like pressure, angle and abrasive grit size so on.
Bhaskar Chandra, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, ITM University, Gurgaon,
Haryana- This paper deals with various experiments which were conducted to assess
the influence of Abrasive Jet Machining(AJM) process parameters on material removal
rate and diameter of holes of glass plates using aluminium oxide type of abrasive
particles.
R. Balasubramanium, J. Krishnan, N. Ramakrishnan, Central Workshops, Baba
Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Bombay,
India- In this paper, a semi-emperical equation is derived to obtain the shape of the
surface generated in AJM and with its help, it is shown that the abrasive jet machined
surface is reverse bell mouthed in shape with an edge radius at the entry side of the
target surface.
Goutam Shriyan, Rohit Shinde, Harshavardan Ronge, Dept. of Mechanical
Engineering, Walchand College of Engg., Sangli- In this paper, drilling work is done
on glass piece and silicon carbide as abrasive powder.The L18 orthogonal array based
on Taguchi method of design of experiment is selected based on different levels of
controlling parameters.
N.S. Pawar, R.R. Lakhe, R.L. Shrivastava, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Govt.
Polytechnic Nagpur, Maharashtra, Mechanical Engineering Dept., Yashwanrao Chavan
College of Engg. , Nagpur- The present research work gives an analysis of
performance of Sea Sand in Silicon Carbide and Mild Steel Nozzle amd their estimate
life of nozzle diameter. In this experiment, glass used as a workpiece.
Nageshwar K Rao V, D.V. Srikanth, Vijayasree K, Mech. Department & ATRI- In this
paper, the highlights are the influence of different process parameters like pressure,
nozzle tip distance and nozzle diameter on the metal removal of Epoxy Glass Fiber
Composite by Abrasive jet machining.
Mr. Sachin Kumar,Mr. Deepak Bhardwaj, Mr. Jitender Panchal, BITS Bhiwani,
Haryana- In this paper, they used abrasive jet machine at different parameters to study
the metal removal rate of Soda Lime Glass.
Tarun Batra and Devilal, ME, Branch-manufacturing technology, National Institute of
Teachers technical training and research, Chandigarh- This paper discusses the effects
of various input parameters in abrasive jet machining(AJM) on the output parameter
(MRR).
Jiuan-Hung Ke, Feng-Che Tsai, Jung-Chou Hung, Biing-Hwa Yan, department of
Technological Project Design, Ling Tung University, Taichung, Taiwan- This study
presents a novel hybrid method that self-made magnetic abrasive with elasticity
utilized to investigate machining characteristics in Abrasive Jet Machining.
Jukti Prasad Padhy, Shailesh Dewangan, Gangadharudu Talla- In this paper, drilling
experiment was done on glass as the workpiece and aluminium oxide(A12O3) as
abrasive powder on AJM. The effect of over-cut(OC) and material removal rate(MRR)
of glass material was found out by using L9 orthogonal array(OA) based on Taguchi
Design.
Sr. Author and Year ofMethodology used Conclusion
No. Publication
1. S. Naveen and Aslam A.AJM chiefly used to cut shapes inMachine was designed, fabricated a
Hirani hard and brittle materials like glass,tested different parameters like mater
Year-2014 ceramics etc. removal rate, size of abrasive particle
type of material used for the fabricatio
2. S. Wang and C.H. Li The efficiency and parameters rangeIt was concluded that high efficien
Year-2012 of abrasive machining processesabrasive machining would be
were compared. The keypromising technology in the future.
technologies of high efficiency
abrasive machining were
investigated.
3. Gagandeep Singh,L9 Orthogonal array of TaguchiMaximum Material Removal Rate 37
Raminder Singh Method is used for the optimization is obtained using Al2O3 abrasi
Year-2014 and for calculating the optimumparticle .
value for maximum MaterialThe optimum value of air pressure f
Removal Rate. higher MRR is 55 psi.
It is noted that the minimum overcut i
0.14 is obtained using Al2O3 abrasi
particle
4. Punit Grover, SanjayFabrication of the AJM andStatistically designed experiments bas
Kumar, Qasim Murtaza machining on tempered glass ,on Taguchi methods were perform
Year-2014 calculating the material removalusing L9 orthogonal arrays to analy
varying various performancethe MRR as responsible variab
parameters like pressure angle &Conceptual S/N ratio and ANOV
abrasive grit size so on. Taguchiapproaches for data analysis dre
method and ANOVA is used forsimilar conclusions.
analysis of MRR.
5. J.M. Fan, C.Y. Wang,A dimensional analysis technique isPredictive mathematical models for t
J.Wang used to formulate the models aserosion rate in hole and chann
Year- 2008 functions of the particle impactmachining on glasses by micro abrasi
parameters, target materialair jets have been developed using
properties and the major processdimensional analysis technique.
parameters that are known to effect
the erosion process of brittle
materials.
 6. Jukti Prasad Padhy,Drilling experiment was carried out onMRR and OC are mostly affected b
Shailesh Dewangan, Gangadharudu
glass as the workpiece and pressure.
aluminium
It is directly proportional to th
oxide(AL2O3) as abrasive powder on
responses(MRR,OC).The
AJM. The optimal AJM paramete
Year-2013 effect of overcut and MRR of glass was
setting
found
where
out found to be SOD=1mm, P=4bar fo
while using orthogonal array basedmaximum
on Taguchi
MRR and minimum OC

7. T. Gavaskar, C.Study of process parameters whichThe effect of various parameters on th

Devabalan, M.A. Revanth,
involves in G.
determining the surface roughness
surface of
roughness
the of the material is studied an
Sakthiseelan, V. Rajivranjan,
machined surface.
K. optimum conditions to achieve maximum surfac
Ashok Kumar, H. Vishwanathan. finish is analyzed.
Year-2016
8. D.V. Srikanth, Dr. M.To optimize the process parameters ofOptimal levels of Performance found
Sreenivasa Rao. AJM of glass by Taguchi methodology
larger is better
and MMR was identified as Air Pressur
Year-2014 compared this by using analysis (8kg/cm2)
of variance
SOD(10MM) Nozzle diameter(4mm
Optimal levels of Performance found at Smaller
better KERF was identified as Air Pressure(6kg/cm2
SOD(9mm) Nozzle Diameter(3mm).The resul
obtained by Taguchi are nearly matching wi
ANOVA results.
9. Ivan Sunit Rout,Working of AJM on brittle material i.e.Experimental results and graphs show
Kasturi Panigrahi, glass
Banishree
by the application of high speed
that stream
gas pressure
of has a direct impact on materi
abrasive particles carried by a gas medium
removal
through
rate. Hence ,when the pressure increase
Year-2014 the nozzle and also the impact of gasmaterial
pressureremoval
on rate also increases.
MRR in AJM
1 Massimiliano Barletta,Internal finishing of tubularThe machining capability of th
Stefano Guarino, Gianluca
components
Rubino,made from a high strength
developed
aluminium
FB-AJM system is verified by th
Vincenzo Tagliaferri. alloy(AA 6082 T6) by using a fluidizedconsistent
bed assisted
material removal and average roughne
Year- AJM system. trends according to leading operational variable. Th
result states that fluidized bed hydrodynam
improves the characteristics of the jet fluid an
 consequently, of the abrasive configuration an
distribution to the workpiece , leading to bette
overall finishing results.

11. Rajeev Kumar,A micro AJM setup has been

It is observed that the optimum
Gurdeep Singh Deol,fabricated.
C.S. Kalra,A tungsten carbide nozzle
parameters
having
for higher MRR are 60 psi pressure, 8
Vijay Kr Sharma. diameter 1.3mm, 1.5mm, 2.3mm is considered.
mm Nozzle SIC tip distance and 1.5 mm Nozzle
Year-2014
abrasive with grit size 70micro meter
diameter.
is selected.
It is also observed that the optimal
Another parameter ranges are pressure:
parameters
50 psi, 55
for lower overcut are 50 psi pressure, 8
psi, 60 psi, nozzle tip distance: 8mm, 10
mm mm,
nozzle
12mmtip distance and 1.2 mm nozzle diameter.
is considered.
12. N.S. Pawar, R.R.Performance of sea sand in siliconThe hardness of material of nozzle
Lakhe, R.L. Shrivastava
carbide nozzle and mild steel nozzle
playsand
a key
theirrole with respect to its erosion wear in
Year- 2013
estimate life of nozzle diameter is analyzed.
the AJM
Glass
process.
is The life of silicon nozzle is more
used as a workpiece. than mild steel nozzle.
13. Parteek VijayTaguchi method and ANOVA is usedMaterial removal rate increases with
for the analysis of material removal rate.
pressure and abrasive size in microns .
Year- 2015 Material removal rate increases with
decreasing the value of angle. The maximum MRR is
calculated as 0.0099 gm/sec by Taguchis
 optimization method.

14. Bhaskar Chandra Various experiments were conductedThe experimental results were
Year- 2011
to assess the influence the AJM process
compared
parameters
with previous results and was observed
on MRR and diameter of holes of glass
that
plates
as NTD
usingincreases , The top surface diameter and
aluminium oxide type of abrasive particles.
bottom surface diameter of hole increases. As the
pressure increases MRR also increases.
15. R. A semi-empirical equation is derivedThe equation is reversed bell mouth
Balasubramanium, J.
to obtain
Krishnan,
the shape of the surface generated
shapeinofAJM.
the AJM surface and it matches with the
N. Ramakrishnan experimental results.
As the particle size increases the MRR
at the center line of the jet drastically increases.
As the SOD increases the entry side
diameter and the entry side h radius also increases

16. Goutam Shriyan, RohitThe L18 orthogonal array basedThe result was analyzed
Shinde, Harshavardan Ronge
on Taguchi method of design of using
experiment
ANOVA.
is From analysis it was
Year- 2015 selected based on different levels concluded
of controllingthat the pressure and
abrasive size both are significant for
MRR and only pressure for taper angle.
17. Nageshwar K Rao V, D.V.Experiments were conducted withWith the help of response
Srikanth, Vijayasree K different process parameters like pressure,
surface NTD
methodology of the process
Year- 2015 and nozzle diameter on the MRR of
parameters
epoxy glass
and the regression analysis
fiber composite. of ANOVA, the optimization has been
successfully studied.
 18. Mr. Sachin Kumar,Mr.To study the MRR of soda limeAfter conducting various
Deepak Bhardwaj, Mr.
glass Jitender
various parameters such tests
as pressure,
on AJM parameters it is been
angle, abrasive size, NTD, time, concluded
initial weight
that MRR is minimum when
Year- 2014 and final weight are taken into consideration
pressure is minimum.
to
achieve the desired objective. MRR has been
found by using L9 values.
19. Tarun Batra and Devilal Further difficulties and futureImproper mixing chamber
Year- 2015 developments in Abrasive jet machining
construction
arecauses various problems
such as abrasive powder stratification,
powder compaction, powder
humidification, etc.
20. Jiuan-Hung Ke, Feng-A novel hybrid method that selfThe magnetic field is the
Che Tsai, Jung-Chou Hung,
made magnetic
Biing- abrasive with elasticity
main factorwas
for Ra and MR. It enhances
utilized to investigate machining characteristics
more uniform main processing area and
Year- 2012 MRR but also have slip-scratch effect
to obtain better surface roughness than
traditional machining.

3.1 Gap analysis

Chapte r3
3.2 PROBLEM DEFINITION

In this project, a model of the Abrasive Jet Machine is designed by taking into
consideration of commercially available components.
Care has been taken to use less fabricated components ratherthan directly procuring
them,becausethe lack of accuracy in fabricated components would lead to a diminished
performance of the machine.
3.3 OBJECTIVES

To Design the abrasive jet machine.

To fabricate the machine.

To remove material from workpiece (glass) by application of high speed stram of

abrasive carried in a gas stream medium from a nozzle.
To cut fragile and heat sensitive materials without damage

3.4 METHODOLOGY (flow chart)

Sr. Name of Item Quantity Cost per Unit Total Cost Of Item
No.

1. Reciprocating Air Compressor 1 10,000 10,000

2. FR Unit 1 1500 1500

3. Abrasive Container 1 500 500

4. Tungsten Carbide Nozzle 1 2100 2100

5. Abrasive Material 3kg 100 300

6. Air Filter 1 2000 2000

7. Pressure Regulator 1 800 800

8. Pressure Gauge 1 700 700

Total 17,900

1 Rs.700

REFERENCES
1. Design and fabrication of Abrasive Air Jet Machining by S. Naveen and Aslam
A.Hirani.
2. Application and development of high efficiency abrasive process by S. Wang
and C.H. Li.
3. Investigation on glass machined by abrasive jet machine by Gagandeep Singh
and Raminder Singh.
4. Study of aluminium oxide abrasive on tempered glass in abrasive jet machining
using Taguchi Method by Puneet Grover, Sanjay Kumar and Qasim Murtaza.
5. Modelling the erosion rate in micro abrasive air jet machining of glases by
Wang Chengyong and Jian Wang.
6. Optimization of Abrasive Jet Machining process using Taguchis Quality Loss
Function by Jukty Prasad Padhy, Shailesh Devangan and Gangadharudu Talla.
7. Analysing the factors affecting surface roughness in Abrasive Jet Machining by
T.Gavaskar, C. Devabalan, M.A. Revanth, G. Sakthiseelan, V. Rajivranjan, K.
Ashok Kumar, H. Vishvanathan.
8. Metal Removal and cerf analysis in Abrasive Jet drilling of Glass Sheets by
D.V.Srikanth and Dr. M. Sreenivasa Rao
9. Effect of pressure on MRR on glass using AJM by Ivan Sumit Rout, Kasturi
Panigrahi, Banishree Pradhan.
10. A study of effect of process parameters of AJM by Bhaskar Chandra and Jagtar
Singh.
11. Progress in fluidized bed assisted abrasive jet machining(FB-AJM): Internal
polishing of aluminium tubes by Massimiliano Barletta, Stefano Guarino,
Gianluca Rubino, Vincenzo Tabliaferri.
12. Analysis on performance of different parameters during Abrasive Jet
Machining by Taguchi Method by Rajeev Kumar, Gurdeeo Singh Deol,
C.S.Kalra, Vijay Kr Sharma.
13. A Comparative Experiment Analysis of Sea sand as an abrasive material using
Silicon carbide and mild steel Nozzle in vibrating chamber of Abrasive Jet
Machining process by N.S.Pawar, R.R.Lakhe, R.L.Shrivastava.
 14. Study the MRR of Tempered Glass by Using Silicon Carbide Abrasive at
Different Parameters of Abrasive Jet Machine by Parteek Vijay Kumar.
15. Study of Effect Of Process Parameters On The Performance of Abrasive Jet
Machining by Goutam Shriyan, Rohit Shinde, Harshavardhan Ronge.
16. Optimization of Process Parameters of Abrasive Jet Machining on Epoxy Glass
Fiber Composite by Nageshwar K Rao, D. V. Srikanth, Vijayasree
17. A research paper on the study of MRR of soda lime glass at different
parameters of AJM by Sachin Kumar, Deepak Bhardwaj, Jitender Panchal
18. Literature review on Abrasive Jet Machining by Tarun Batra and Devilal
19. Characteristic study of Flexible magnetic abrasive in abrasive jet machining by
Jiuan-Hung Ke, Feng- Che Tsai, Jung- Chou Hung and Biing- Hwa Yan
20. A study on the shape of the surface generated by abrasive jet machining by R.
Balasubramaniam, J. Krishnan and N. Ramakrishnan.
WEBSITES
1. www.scopus.com
2. www.science direct .com.
3. www.thk.co.in
4. www.apex.com
5. www.elgi.com
6. www.indiamart.com
BOOKS
1. Production technology, HMT publication.
2. Elements of workshop technology, S K Hajra Choudhury, S K Bose, A K
Hajra choudhury, Niranjan Roy, VolII, Media promoters and media
publications
3. Modern machining process, S Pandey and H N Shah, S. Chand and co.
 ABRASIVE JET MACHINING
What Is Airbrasive Jet Machining?

Airbrasive Jet Machining is an effective way to cut, abrade, deburr, deflash,

etch, drill and restore a variety of materials. The Airbrasive jet machine is a
pneumatic device powered by forced air. Applications are made possible as
the forced air joins with a very fine powder in the attached pressure chamber
and a powerful abrasive mixture is produced. The abrasive mixture is then
sent through the hand piece and nozzle creating a precise abrasive stream.
The Airbrasive jet machine is very easy to use. The hand piece and nozzle
have been designed to give the user flexibility and control. As a result, the
Airbrasive jet machine can be used to create precise cuts or intricate patterns
on various metals, glass or plastic, whether on the surface of the object or in
the hard to reach places that other tools are not flexible enough to reach.
 GLAS TO BE AIR FROM
CUT ABRASIVE COMPRESSOR
SLURRY

FIG : A SCHEMATIC 2-D VIEW OF ABRASIVE JET TYPE CUTTING MACHINE

 CHAPTER-03
ABRASIVE PARTICLES

Grain type is the key :- The common elements in all abrasive products are
the abrasive grains whose physical and chemical properties produce the
cutting and finishing characteristics of wheels, belts, and other products.

Surprising as it may seem given the diversity of trade names for abrasives and
products, nearly all abrasive products are made with one of five abrasives
minerals: aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, zirconia, cubic boron nitride, or
diamond. The first three are often called conventional abrasives; the latter two
are called superabrasives. An exception to this limited variety of minerals are
the abrasives used in polishing and buffing compounds. In those compounds,
oxides, natural minerals, and other materials are common. Abrasives are
manufactured by a handful of manufacturers that specialize in the manufacture
of ceramics and raw abrasive materials. With a few exceptions, raw
conventional abrasives are manufactured outside the US and transported to
the US for crushing, sizing, coating, and other processing to prepare abrasive
grains for use by customers in the abrasive industry. Superabrasives are made
in the US by GE Superabrasives or sold by representatives of other
manufactures in Europe, Russia, China, or other countries on the Pacific Rim.

The larger diversity of grain types used by abrasive product makers comes
from a few synthetic abrasives with modifications to crystal structure, level of
purity, and/or properties of the processed grain. The new ceramic abrasive or
sol gel abrasives, for example, are a sintered form of aluminum oxide. There is
a trend, particularly in superabrasives, toward companies making abrasives
tailored for specific types of products, such as metal bond grinding wheels.
Specific forms of abrasive grains are the starting point for the manufacturer of
products such as grinding wheels or coated abrasives.
Abrasives come as close to being a universal tool as any item used by
manufacturing today. But, like other manufacturing tools, each has its unique
attributes as well as limitations. There are literally thousands of products made
with abrasives and thousands of unique applications for those grinding wheels,
coated abrasive belts, polishing compounds, etc.

Free abrasives

A classification of products is possible by looking at the way abrasive grains

are used to make products. Abrasive grains are used either as loose abrasives
or in a bonded form.Used in a loose form, abrasive grains can be mixed with a
liquid to form a lapping or polishing compound. Also, loose grains can be
entrained in a high pressure water stream for abrasive particle jet cutting or
propelled by a high velocity air stream in sandblasting. As used in polishing
and lapping compounds, a wide variety of abrasives can be used to produce
extremely flat and highly polished surfaces using specialized equipment.
Compounds can also be applied to a buffing or polishing wheel for off hand or
robotic polishing of work pieces. These applications use abrasives in very
small grit sizes.

Strictly speaking, all other products are bonded products because they all use
a binding material to hold abrasives in place. However, in practice, the
abrasives industry is segregated into two independent groups: one, companies
making bonded abrasives such as grinding wheels and stones, and two,
companies making coated abrasives such as sanding belts. Products made by
bonding abrasive grains to the fibers of a no woven fabric constitute another
group of products, which commonly are grouped with coated abrasive
products. What is important about these groupings is that bonded, coated, and
no woven represent essentially independent technologies with regard to
research, development, production, and applications in industry.

Wheels, stones, other bonded forms :-

Bonded products include familiar forms of grinding wheels and stones. The
wheel

for the common bench or pedestal grinder typify wheels, and stones used to
sharpen knives typify the latter. Of course, these represent only the tip of the
iceberg, so to speak, since there are many types of wheels used by industry
and many different kind of stones designed for specialized uses. All wheel
products are round except for segmented grinding wheels, which are curved
stones that fit together to make up a large grinding wheel.

A classification of products is possible by looking at the way abrasive grains

are used to make products. Abrasive grains are used either as loose abrasives
or in a bonded form. Used in a loose form, abrasive grains can be mixed with a
liquid to form a lapping or polishing compound. Also, loose grains can be
entrained in a high pressure abrasive stream for abrasive jet cutting or
propelled by a high velocity air stream in sandblasting.
As used in polishing and lapping compounds, a wide variety of
abrasives can be used to produce extremely flat and highly polished surfaces
using specialized equipment. Compounds can also be applied to a buffing or
polishing wheel for off hand or robotic polishing of work pieces. These
applications use abrasives in very small grit sizes. Strictly speaking, all other
products are bonded products because they all use a binding material to hold
abrasives in place. However, in practice, the abrasives industry is segregated
into two independent groups: one, companies making bonded abrasives such
as grinding wheels and stones, and two, companies making coated abrasives
such as sanding belts. Products made by bonding abrasive grains to the fibers
of a nonwoven fabric constitute another group of products, which commonly
are grouped with coated abrasive products. What is important about these
groupings is that bonded, coated, and nonwoven represent essentially
independent technologies with regard to research, development, production,
and applications in industry.
Airbrasive Powders

S. S. Whites Airbrasive Powders are will aid you when working with the
toughest

metals or the gentlest ceramics. Depending on your needs, S. S. White will be

able to supply a dependable abrasive mixture to satisfy you.

Super abrasive are relatively newer to industry with serious uses beginning in
the 1960s, while use of conventional abrasives dates to the 1800s. Both
groups have experienced significant product improvements in the last two
decades.

Though contemporary trade literature emphasizes super abrasives, it is

incorrect to assume that super abrasives are superior and will replace the
older conventional abrasives, particularly when in consideration of the diverse
uses of grinding wheels. The importance of super abrasive technology is
primarily focused on wheels used for machining and finishing. Conventional
abrasives have many applications including wheels for cut off machines or
hand held tools used in metal fabrication where loss of abrasive grains is
difficult to control and conventional abrasives are clearly more economical.
Abrasives:- It is a substance that is used for grinding, polishing and recently
cutting operation. It should be pure and have uniform physical properties of
hardness, toughness and resistance to fracture to be useful in manufacturing
jet cuttings and grinding wheels.
Abrasives may be classified in two principle groups:-
(a) natural and (b) artificial or manufactured.
(a) Natural:- The natural abrasive includes sandstone or solid quartz,
emery, corundum and diamond.
Sand stone or quartz:- It is one of the natural abrasive stone from which
grindstones are shaped. The quartz or cutting is relatively soft so that
materials harder than quartz cannot be abraded or removed rapidly.
Emery:- It is a natural aluminium oxide. It contains 55 to 65 % alumina, the
remainder consists of impurities.
Both emery and corundum have a greater hardness and better abrasive
action than quartz.
Diamond:- diamonds of less than gem quality are crushed to produce
abrasive grains for making grinding wheels to grind cemented carbide tools
and to make lapping compound. As a result of the impurities and lack of
uniformity of these natural abrasives, only small %ge of grinding wheels
are produced from natural abrasives.
Artificial:- It includes chiefly (a) silicon carbide and (b) aluminium oxide.
Silicon carbide:- (Sic) It is manufactured from 56 parts of silica sand, 34
parts of powdered coke, 2 parts of salt, and 12 parts of saw dust in a long,
rectangular electric furnace of the resistance type that is built up of loose
brickwork. Sand furnishes silicon, coke furnishes carbon, sawdust makes
the charge porous, salt helps to fuse it, and gases may escape through the
open joints in the brickwork.
There are two types of silicon carbide abrasives: green grit which
contains at least 97 per cent silicon carbide, and black grit which contains
at least 95 per cent silicon carbide. This form is harder but weaker than the
latter.
Silicon carbide follows the diamond in order of hardness, but it is not as
tough as aluminium oxide. It is used for grinding materials of low tensile
strength such as cemented carbides, stone and ceramic materials, gray
cast iron, brass, bronze, copper, aluminium vulcanised rubber, etc. This is
manufactured under the trade names of Carbourdum, Crystolon, Carbolon,
Electrolon, etc. and denoted by the letter S.
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) is manufactured by heating mineral bauxite, a
hydrated aluminium oxide clay containing silica, iron oxide, titanium oxide,
etc., mixed with ground coke and iron borings in a arc-type electric furnace.
Aluminium oxide is tough and not easily fractured, so it is better adopted to
grinding materials of high tensile strength, such as most steels, carbon
 steels, high speed steels, annealed malleable iron wrought iron, and tough
bronzes. This is manufactured under the trade names of Aloxite, Alundum,
Borolon, Electrite, Albrasite, etc., and denoted by the letter A.

CHAPTER-04

COMPONENTS

The abrasive jet consists of a stream of ultra-high pressure abrasive carrying

abrasive at velocities of up to 2500 feet per second. The cutting is done by an
erosive and shearing action of the material. The abrasive acts as tiny knives
cutting away the material, in the same manner as saw cuts, only on a much
smaller scale and in rapid succession.

Compressors

FIG: AIR COMPRESSOR

RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSORS

It's the extra principle at work that gives Elgi Air Compressors that distinct
edge. Extra Engineering at every stage of design, development and
manufacture. Backed by Extra Service. So that every Elgi Air Compressor
works longer, smoother and better. For you.

Elgi reciprocating air compressors are designed for optimum efficiency with
minimum maintenance, to meet satisfactory requirements of compressed air.
They are available in stationary /portable and electric/diesel powered models.
Custom-build models for specific applications are also available, on request.

Higher free air delivery at lower pressure for your specific requirement can
also be offered. For base mounted units, vertical air revivers upto 10,000 litres
capacity and working pressure 15kgf/cm 2 can be supplied. Water cooled after-
cooler, moisture separator and oil absorption filter can also be supplied for
specific requirements. Elgi also offers high pressure vertical air revivers upto
1,000 litres capacity and 65 kgf/cm 2 pressure. High pressure compressed air is
used to pressurize the abrasive particles for applying the blasting pressure to
exert flow rate of traditional pneumatic blasting methods.

Mixing Tube

The stream of abrasive which emerges from the nozzle is then mixed with the
high pressure air. This takes place in the mixing tube, which is usually
constructed out of tungsten-carbide. Wear of the mixing tube, due to the
abrasive, is a problem and it ends frequent replacement. When the tube
becomes worn, the jet no longer is cohesive and loses power and cutting
ability rapidly. At this point the stream with the abrasive leaves the mixing
chamber and is ready to cut almost any material. The diameter of the stream
varies from 0.020 to 0.090 inches, which accounts for the small kerf width
associated with abrasive jet cutting. The abrasive type and size varies
depending on the application. Garnet sand is the most common abrasive type
due to its abundance and relatively low cost. Aluminum oxide is also fairly
common. It is harder than garnet sand, but it is also more expensive.

Catchers

After the cut has been made the abrasive, abrasive material is collected in a
catcher. In a field situation there are still problems catching the waste material.
Often catchers need to be custom designed for a specific job.

Nozzle

Once the abrasive is pressurized, it is forced through a sapphire nozzle which

is composed of the natural sapphire stone due to the strength of the stone.
The nozzle can have diameters ranging from 0.003 to 0.026 inches. The
diameter of the nozzle can be varied depending on the application for which
the abrasive jet is being used. A damaged nozzle leads to poor cohesion of the
stream, thereby reducing the cutting ability greatly. The nozzle typically will last
100 to 200 hours before it needs to be replaced.

Airbrasive Nozzles

S.S. White Airbrasive Nozzles are available with tips in a variety of shapes and
sizes. The opening at the tip of the nozzle will vary according to the type of
work you wish to do. It can either be round or rectangular, large or small. A
rounded tip will provide the user with the greatest control when doing detailed
work. A rectangular shaped tip will allow the user to cover a greater surface
area in a shorter time.
Airbrasive Nozzles come in three mounting styles: straight, right angle and
obtuse. A straight mount will be most effective on an open workspace that is
easy to reach. Both the obtuse and right angle mounts while usable on an
easy to reach surface, will also allow its user to reach into narrow holes and
areas at deep angles.

Airbrasive Dust Collectors

S. S. Whites Dust Collector is recommended for use within clean-room

Airbrasive Jet Machining environments. A self-contained fabric filter ensures a
highly efficient, sealed system capable of removing powder, cuttings and
debris from work chambers.
Airbrasive Work Chambers

S. S. White's Work Chambers have been specially designed to assist in hand-

held work. Made from enameled steel, our Work Chamber's can be used with
all Airbrasive Jet Machine models and easily attached to our Dust
Collectors.
The Airbrasive jet machine is a versatile tool useful for any creative or
automated work environment. Metalworkers, sculptors, etchers, engravers and
dental lab technicians alike enjoy this machine's boundless potential; a
potential only limited by the imagination.

CHAPTER-05
WORKING
How Does Airbrasive Jet Machining Work?

There are six key factors involved in the machining process. Each factor is a
variable that can be altered by the user in order to produce the desired effect.
Each is briefly explained below. Abrasive Cutoff is economical for severing of
plate, bar, castings, forgings, and tube, abrasive cutting is a versatile all-
purpose severing process that competes with sawing, shearing, flame cutting,
laser, and abrasive jet. Abrasive cutting works faster than sawing. It leaves a
smoother cut edge, particularly on high-carbon and alloy steel.

Abrasive-cut off no reinforced wheels are used on fixed-base cutoff machines

with the work securely clamped. Aluminum-oxide abrasive in non reinforced
wheels cuts all metal alloys except for titanium; silicon-carbide abrasive cuts
titanium alloys and non-metallic.

Air Pressure
Air pressure will directly effect the strength of the abrasive mixture and
ultimately, the machines ability to cut into various materials. Simply, the higher
the air pressure, the more agitated the powder mixture will become, producing
a stronger stream. Likewise, the lower the air pressure, the gentler the final
abrasive mixture. Essentially, how you want to use your Airbrasive jet
machine will determine the amount of air pressure you will need to use.
* Please note that for safety reasons the Airbrasive jet machine should never
be pressurized beyond 120psi.

Powder Flow Rate

The amount of powder that leaves the nozzle in one minute equals the powder
flow rate. Therefore, the powder flow rate will be directly related to your
chosen air pressure. A higher powder flow rate will result in more precise cuts
to your work surface.

Nozzle Size
Nozzle orifices are shaped to be either round or rectangular. The nozzle widths
vary in size from .005 inches up to .032. The size of the nozzle determines the
area that will be impacted by the powder. The larger the nozzle, the greater the
area.
The shape of the nozzle is important for getting into unusually shaped spaces.
A rectangular nozzle can lightly cover a large width or, when turned, heavily
impact a narrow space.
Type of Powder
Perhaps the most important variable in the machining process is the type of
powder you choose to work with. S. S. White Powders are blended from a
variety of materials including aluminum oxide, glass beads, crushed glass,
sodium bicarbonate and silicon carbide. S. S. White will recommend the best
powder to suit your needs.

Nozzle Distance to Surface

Aside from the powder flow rate, the distance you hold the nozzle away from
your work surface will also play a large part in determining your results.
Holding the nozzle close to your surface will force a concentrated stream of
abrasive against your material resulting in more precise cuts. On the other
hand, holding the nozzle a distance away from your surface will disperse the
abrasive stream over a greater area with the effect being less attention to
detail. Figure A shows the distance between nozzle tip distance and the cutting
rate. Figure B represents the cutting action of .018 diameter nozzle at varying
distances from the workpiece.
Angle of Contact
Simply, the angle with which you approach your surface with your nozzle will
play a great role in determining the speed and efficiency of your work. There
are two options to choose from. You can either approach your material directly
by holding your nozzle at an angle of 90, or you may approach your material
at an angle by holding your nozzle at less than 90 and leaning to either the
right or the left.
By choosing the first option, show in Figure C, you will be operating under the
Theory of Brittle Failure. This theory describes that by holding your nozzle at
90, brittle failure of your work surface will occur when the abrasive stream
impacts it and literally blasts material out of way.
By choosing the second option, show in Figure D, you will be operating under
the Theory of Ductile Failure. This theory describes that by holding your nozzle
at an angle less than 90, ductile failure of your work surface will occur as the
abrasive stream steadily chips away at the material.
Tests have shown that maximum material removal for ductile materials occurs
between a 15 and 45 degree angle of incidence. For a brittle material,
maximum removal occurs at an angle of 90 degrees. The figures below
represent the comparative material removal rates for both hard and soft
substances that have either brittle or ductile properties.
 CHAPTER-06
MATERIAL SELECTION

The proper selection of material for the different part of a machine is

the main objective in the fabrication of machine. For a design engineer it is
must that he be familiar with the effect, which the manufacturing process and
heat treatment have on the properties of materials. The Choice of material for
engineering purposes depends upon the following factors:
1. Availability of the materials.
2. Suitability of materials for the working condition in service.
3. The cost of materials.
4. Physical and chemical properties of material.
5. Mechanical properties of material.
The mechanical properties of the metals are those, which are associated with
the ability of the material to resist mechanical forces and load. We shall now
discuss these properties as follows:
1. Strength : It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied
 forces
2. Stress: Without breaking or yielding. The internal resistance offered by
a part to an externally applied force is called stress.
3. Stiffness: It is the ability of material to resist deformation under stresses.
The modules of elasticity of the measure of stiffness.
4. Elasticity: It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after
deformation when the external forces are removed. This property is
desirable for material used in tools and machines. It may be noted that
steel is more elastic than rubber.
5. Plasticity: It is the property of a material, which retain the deformation
produced under load permanently. This property of material is
necessary for forging, in stamping images on coins and in ornamental
work.
6. Ductility: It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire
with the application of a tensile force. A ductile material must be both
strong and plastic. The ductility is usually measured by the terms,
percentage elongation and percent reduction in area. The ductile
materials commonly used in engineering practice are mild steel, copper,
aluminum, nickel, zinc, tin and lead.
7. Brittleness: It is the property of material opposite to ductile. It is the
Property of breaking of a material with little permanent distortion. Brittle
materials when subjected to tensile loads snap off without giving any
sensible elongation. Cast iron is a brittle material.
8. Malleability: It is a special case of ductility, which permits material to be
rolled or hammered into thin sheets, a malleable material should be
plastic but it is not essential to be so strong. The malleable materials
commonly used in engineering practice are lead, soft steel, wrought
iron, copper and aluminum.
9. Toughness: It is the property of a material to resist the fracture due to
high impact loads like hammer blows. The toughness of the material
decreases when it is heated. It is measured by the amount of absorbed
 after being stressed up to the point of fracture. This property is
desirable in parts subjected to shock an impact loads.
10. Resilience: It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist
rock and impact loads. It is measured by amount of energy absorbed
per unit volume within elastic limit. This property is essential for spring
material.
11. Creep: When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high
temperature for long period of time, it will undergo a slow and
permanent deformation called creep. This property is considered in
designing internal combustion engines, boilers and turbines.
12. Hardness: It is a very important property of the metals and has a wide
verity of meanings. It embraces many different properties such as
resistance to wear scratching, deformation and mach inability etc. It also
means the ability of the metal to cut another metal. The hardness is usually
expressed in numbers, which are dependent on the method of making the
test. The hardness of a metal may be determined by the following test.
a) Brinell hardness test
b) Rockwell hardness test
c) Vickers hardness (also called diamond pyramid) test and
d) Share scaleroscope.
The science of the metal is a specialized and although it overflows in to realms
of knowledge it tends to shut away from the general reader. The knowledge of
materials and their properties is of great significance for a design engineer.
The machine elements should be made of such a material which has
properties suitable for the conditions of operations. In addition to this a design
engineer must be familiar with the manufacturing processes and the heat
treatments have on the properties of the materials. In designing the various
part of the machine it is necessary to know how the material will function in
service. For this certain characteristics or mechanical properties mostly used
in mechanical engineering practice are commonly determined from standard
tensile tests. In engineering practice, the machine parts are subjected to
various forces, which may be due to either one or more of the following.
1. Energy transmitted
2. Weight of machine
3. Frictional resistance
4. Inertia of reciprocating parts
5. Change of temperature
6. Lack of balance of moving parts
The selection of the materials depends upon the various types of stresses that
are set up during operation. The material selected should with stand it. Another
criteria for selection of metal depend upon the type of load because a machine
part resist load more easily than a live load and live load more easily than a
shock load.
Selection of the material depends upon factor of safety, which in turn depends
upon the following factors.
1. Reliabilities of properties
2. Reliability of applied load
3. The certainty as to exact mode of failure
4. The extent of simplifying assumptions
5. The extent of localized
6. The extent of initial stresses set up during manufacturing
7. The extent loss of life if failure occurs
8. The extent of loss of property if failure occurs

Materials selected in m/c

Base plate, motor support, sleeve and shaft
Material used
Mild steel
Reasons:
1. Mild steel is readily available in market
2. It is economical to use
 3. It is available in standard sizes
4. It has good mechanical properties i.e. it is easily machinable
5. It has moderate factor of safety, because factor of safety results in
unnecessary wastage of material and heavy selection. Low factor of
safety results in unnecessary risk of failure
6. It has high tensile strength
7. Low co-efficient of thermal expansion
Properties of Mild Steel:
M.S. has a carbon content from 0.15% to 0.30%. They are easily wieldable
thus can be hardened only. They are similar to wrought iron in properties. Both
ultimate tensile and compressive strength of these steel increases with
increasing carbon content. They can be easily gas welded or electric or arc
welded. With increase in the carbon percentage weld ability decreases. Mild
steel

serve the purpose and was hence was selected because of the above
purpose

BRIGHT MATERIAL:
It is a machine drawned. The main basic difference between mild steel and
bright metal is that mild steel plates and bars are forged in the forging machine
by means is not forged. But the materials are drawn from the dies in the plastic
state. Therefore the material has good surface finish than mild steel and has
no carbon deposits on its surface for extrusion and formation of engineering
materials thus giving them a good surface finish and though retaining their
metallic properties

MATERIAL USED FOR OUR PROJECT:-

S.N COMPONENTS MATERIAL CODE SPECIFICATION

1 Frame m.s. angle C-25 40x40x5mm angle for

C-25 7500 mm length
2 Vertical shaft Mild steel C-30 20 x 400mm shaft

3 Roller mild steel c.s.-3 10 x

 30mmx25mm-2nos
4 Wheels Cast steel C.S.-3 10 x 50 x 70

6 Table M.S. C-30 200 x300x8mm plate

7 Support bracket Plain carbon C-25 15 x15x 5 srips

steel
8 Bearing Chromium steel 204 no. 20 x57x17 single row
ball bearing.
9 cylinder Aluminium 25x 35x60mm
10 Nozzle Cast steel & C.S. & 25 mm
copper copper
11 Square rod M.S. C-30 10x10xfor 1600mm
length
12 Nut bolt & washer M.S. C-30 M8 & M10

13 Bushes Gun metal 25 x 100 mm

15 Pin Bright steel C-40 12.5x 50mm

16 Sheet M.S. C-30 200x300x4mm

REFERENCES

Thermal Engineering R.S.Khurmi

Machine Design R.S.Khurmi

Work Shop Technology S.K.Hajra,

Chaudhary