Module Code

M2H121722

Fluid mechanics
Laboratory CALEDONIAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING SULTANATE OF
OMAN

Session LABORATORY MANUAL

Feb. 2017

Semester B

Source: tecquipment.com/Fluid-Mechanics/Nozzles-Jets-Vortex/H8.aspx

Module Leader

Asst.Prof. Natiq Department of

Joodi
Built and Natural Environment
 PREFAE

This module hand-out is intended to provide you with a concise guide in respect of
Module M2H121722 fluid mechanics Laboratory. This is intended to present the
basic laboratory experiments involved in this module and it remains as a course guide
to achieve the module objective. It is recommended that the student to go through the
text books and reference books that referred under each chapter in order to have full
understanding of the module. In this hand-out, you will find information and advice that
should prove helpful as you progress through the module.

Grateful acknowledgement is made to all the authors whose works has been cited as
examples from their books, journals and projects.

Module Leader:
Asst.Prof. Natiq Joodi

Module Tutors:
Asst.Prof. Natiq Joodi natiq@caledonian.edu.om

Ms. Najiba Aouini najiba@caledonian.edu.om

Dr. Brahim Askri brahim@caledonian.edu.om

Dr. Latifa Haouech latifa.haouech@caledonian.edu.om

Dr S.V.Satyarana satyarana@caledonian.edu.om

Dr Basim Al Khateeb basim.alkhateeb@caledonian.edu.om

Dr Sudheer Kumar Shukla sudheer.shukla@caledonian.edu.om

Mr. Ramakrishna Menon ramakrishna.menon@caledonian.edu.om

Dr Akbar Karimi akbar.karimi@caledonian.edu.om

Ms. Amani Salim Al Badi amani.albadi@caledonian.edu.om

Ms. Khuloud Nasser Al Balushi khuloud.albalushi@caledonian.edu.om

Ms. Laila Ali Ahmad Radaideh laila@caledonian.edu.om

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 2

 1. Module Details

Level and Pre Requisite

Programme Name Module Code Module Title Credits
Semester Knowledge

B. Engg. CEN M2H121722 Fluid Mechanics 10 Level 2 Knowledge of fluid

Laboratory Manual Semester B mechanics

2. And Objectives
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics will be demonstrated in a series of laboratory
exercises. Hands-on experience and communication skills will be achieved.

On successful completion of this module, the Student should be able to:

1. Read and follow directions for laboratory experiments;

2. Operate fluid flow equipment and instrumentation;
3. Collect and analyze data using fluid mechanics principles and experimentation
methods;
4. Prepare reports following accepted writing and graphical techniques;
5. Perform exercises in small teams;
6. Demonstrate principles discussed in Fluid Mechanics lecture course;
7. Demonstrate appropriate work habits consistent with industry standards.

3. Assessment Strategy

This module is assessed by Continuous Assessments

Assessments Mid Term Laboratory Test (practical) 25%

End Term Laboratory Test (practical) 25%
Viva Voce(20%)+ Laboratory Report (20%) +10% problem solving+ 50% weightage
for conduct of experiments (10% each) 50%

(Each lab experiment report will carry 30% for theoretical part and 70% for the practical
part).
Assessment Strategy Continuous Assessment: 100%

4. Learning and Teaching Strategy

The main teaching method will be based on laboratory exercises used to relate
theoretical concepts to practical fluid mechanics. Also some industrial and practical
exposure will be carried out.

5. Weekly Teaching Schedule

Week Date of Topics to be covered References E-brary Remarks

No. commencement
of week

Introduction, Rules and R1, R2 E1, E2

1 25 Feb. 17 policies

Health and safety at work

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 3

 Experiment 1: R1, R2 E1, E2
2
4 March. 17 Bernoullis Theorem
demonstration

3 11 March17 Experiment 2: Discharge R1, R2 E1, E2

coefficient through orifice
meter

Experiment 3: coefficient of R1, R2 E1, E2

4 discharge through V-Notch in
18March17 open channel flow

5 20 March17 Revision

6 25 March 17 Midterm Exam Week (Viva)

01 April 17 Midterm Exam Week (Practical)

Experiment 4 R1, R2 E1, E2

7 8 April 17
Head losses in pipe flow

Experiment 5: R1, R2 E1, E2

8
15 April 17 Impact of jet

Experiment 6: R1, R2 E1, E2

9 22 April 2017
Cavitation demonstration

12 13 May 17 End Term Exam (Practical)

R1: Bansal, R.K . (2010), Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics Machines (10th Edition). SI Units.
Laxmi Publication.

R2: Hamill, Les., 2001. Understanding Hydraulics. 2nd ed. United Kingdom: Palgrave
Publication.

E1: Brewster, Hilary D. (2009), Fluid Mechanics: Global Media ebrary [Online] Available from:
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/caledonian/docDetail.action?docID=10417573

E2: Kundu, Pijush K. Cohen, Ira M. Ayyaswamy, P. S. ( 2009), Fluid Mechanics (4th Edition):
Academic Press. ebrary [Online] Available from:
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/caledonian/docDetail.action?docID=10378782

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 4

 6. Guide to Laboratory Work and Reports
6.1 Procedures and Credits:
1. Experiments will be carried out in assigned groups.
2. Individual reports will be prepared and submitted.
3. A student must participate in collecting all lab data used in a report.
4. Students not attending the lab class need to repeat the experiments after proper
arrangements with lab instructors.
5. Reports are due one week after performing the lab exercise.
6. No late reports will be accepted without approved legitimate reason.

6.2 Report Format

1. Lab report must be submitted with handwritten or typed after each experiment
2. Lab report on experiment work should contain :
a. objective of the experiment
b.Apparatus and tools (with brief description).
c. Procedure
d.Observations and calculations(An accurate record of all observations and
measurements)
e. Results /results interpretation
f. Conclusion and discussions or comments
g.List references used.
3. Lab report grades are based on the following factors:
a. Technically correct
b.Grammatically correct
c. Adherence to the assigned Format
d.Quantify the errors whenever possible.

6.3 Important Notes:

Exams: Any student who misses an exam will be awarded with a zero for that test. All
students must take all the exams on the announced time in class. There is no make-up
exam.

6.4 Safety
At all times you must not put yourself at risk of injury during visit to laboratory. Instructions
and safety regulations by the lab instructors must be followed at all times including
respect for the work operations and privacy.

7. Indicative Marking Threshold for Coursework (Beng Programme)

Indicative
Commentary
Mark

Outstanding
Truly outstanding work to be recognized in all aspects- New invention, novel
technology, new idea worth applying for patent, evidence of excellent
90% and above communication skills, clearly communicated report, results critically analyzed ,
Outstanding alternate solutions and appropriate suggestions put forward
Exceptionally superior work in both content and presentation
Indicates highest level of achievement + points below

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 5

 Excellent
Exceptionally clear, well-structured and theoretically informed.
Standard of English excellent,
Exceptionally good powers of analysis and interpretation.
80 - 89%
Adequate References
(EXCELLENT) Solutions to problems
All steps in a meticulously structured manner
Use of relevant units and interpretations,
Use of intelligent and innovative methods + points given below

High
Displaying a thorough understanding of the topic.
Focusing clearly on the question
Demonstrate extensive reading to support analysis
70-79% Soundness of judgment
Coherently reasoned statement with empirical evidence.
(VERY GOOD)
Suggestions for improvement
Solutions to problems
All steps in a structured manner with relevant units of quantities.
Answers to show accurate results ( may miss simple steps)
Good interpretations of Solution (may be incomplete)

Generally Good
Solid piece of work which answers the question,
A clear conclusion in a generally focused and well written manner,
Use of citations, quotations and references.
60-69% Evidence of wider reading and deep analysis
Solutions to problems
(GOOD)
Contain necessary /important steps with relevant units.
Accurate results, (may miss some steps which are not very critical to problem
solving)
Reasonable level of interpretation of results.
Proper referencing

50-59% Average
Substantial room for improvement, (e.g. in terms of the standard of written
(Satisfactory)
English, the sharpness of focus on the question)
Insufficient analysis of the results

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 6

 References included, but not adequate
Solutions to problems
Steps for solving problem based on theory and principles (may lack some
steps towards the final answers)
No substantial interpretation of the final result

Poor
Exhibits some potential / degree of standard (falls down in at least one of the
40-49%
categories indicated above)
(FAIL) Solutions to problems
Missing important steps for solving the problem
Initial steps correct but mistakes towards final result

8. Learning and Teaching expectations

a) What is expected from students w.r.t the module?

i. Attend all classes regularly.
ii. Read text books once the topic is discussed in the theory classes.
iii. Participate actively in the classes by interacting with the teacher to enhance
their learning and understanding of the subject clearly.
iv. Submit the lab report, and write the examination as per the specified date.
v. Be courteous to the teacher and to the fellow students.
vi. Read the assigned topics before each lecture.
vii. Inform module tutor/class advisor when you dont understand the material.
viii. Read this handbook carefully.
ix. Check the Black board and notice board regularly for information/
announcement, such as submission dates etc.
x. Use of mobile phones not allowed during the lecture hours.

b) What the students can expect from staff?

i. Act with academic integrity and courteous to the students.
ii. Prepare and present informative lectures.
iii. Motivating the students by creating an interactive learning environment that
promotes balanced student participation and attention.
iv. Supporting topics with useful classroom exercises.
v. Providing clear statement of the purpose of the topic and discussing
relationship to previous topics.
vi. Clear statement of the learning objectives and presenting topics with a logical
sequence.
vii. Relating new ideas at appropriate times and using variety of methods in
teaching.
viii. Presenting examples to clarify points and providing reasonable time to allow
students to take notes.
ix. Summarizing all the key points discussed at the end of the lecture

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 7

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 8
 CALEDONIAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

LABORATORY / WORKSHOP RISK ASSESSMENT

Risk assessment in Student Project work and during a practical session is a compulsory
requirement. It involves a careful examination of possible events that may adversely affect the
intended outcome of the project or may cause harm to people or damages to properties.
Appropriate precautions should be taken well in advance to minimise the likelihood of such
adverse events and to ensure the satisfactory achievement of the expected result from the
project/ practical work. All students doing experiments in laboratory/workshop must read
and understand the risk involved in the usage of equipment and follow safety
procedures. They have to sign the risk assessment form and attach with the lab report.

Student ID, Name& Department

Name of the Laboratory/workshop

RISK ASSESSMENT

Possible Precautions/control measures to eliminate or

Risk Involved minimize the risk
Hazard

Electrical Overheating/ Safety induction & Supervision

Electric shock/ Electrical safety inspection & maintenance, circuit
hazard
Accidents breakers, earthing, No overloading, Good electrical
cables and proper insulation, Personal protective
equipment (PPE) such as lab coat and foot protection,
Proper maintenance of equipment, Use of safety mark
Plugs, Switch off power before you leave the lab.
Ergonomic Falls/health risk Suitable chair, Ergonomic safety while using
hazard/ such as pain on computers/ Laptop
prolonged
seating neck etc.
Fire Fire, Burning Electrical safety & Fire safety:
injury, Property Fire detection and alarm system, Fire extinguishers
hazard loss, Accidents. Fire wardens and Fire emergency procedure

Signature of Student: Signature of Laboratory instructor/ Module leader:

Date: Date:

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 9

EXPERIMENT NO 1

BERNOULLIS THEOREM DEMONSTRATION

Objective: is to validate Bernoullis assumptions and theorem by experimentally

proving that the sum of the terms in the Bernoulli equation along a streamline always
remains a constant.

Apparatus

Apparatus for the verication of Bernoullis theorem and measuring tank with stop
watch setup for measuring the actual ow r at e .

Theory

The Bernoulli theorem is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and

elevation, and is valid in regions of steady, incompressible ow where net frictional
forces are negligible.

Bernoullis equation states that the sum of the kinetic energy (velocity head),
the pressure energy (static head) and Potential energy (elevation head) per unit
weight of the fluid at any point remains constant.
Bernoulli's law indicates that, if an inviscid fluid is flowing along a pipe of varying
cross section, then the pressure is lower at constrictions where the velocity is higher
and higher where the pipe opens out and the fluid stagnates. The well-known
Bernoulli equation is derived under the following assumptions:

1. Fluid is incompressible (density is constant);

2. Flow is steady:

3. Flow is frictionless

4. along a streamline

Bernoulli's equation shows that the sums of the three quantities :

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 10

 = pressure head

= velocity head

Z = Elevation head are constant (horizontal).

Therefore the three terms must be interchangeable so that, for example, if in a

horizontal system the velocity head is increased the pressure head must be
decreased

+ + Z = constant.

Where: P = the pressure. (N/m2)

= density of the uid, kg/m3

V = velocity of ow, (m/s)

g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81m/s2

Z = elevation from datum line, (m)

Procedure
1. Open the by-pass valve given on the water supply line.
2. Switch on the main power supply and switch on the pump.
3. Close by pass valve to allow water to fill in overhead tank
4. Regulate water flow with the help of valve provided at the end of test section.
5. Measure the raise of water in the tank as well as volume of water collected.
6. Measure the time taken to collect a known volume of water.
7. Measure the height of the water level in each piezometer tube, velocity head as
well as pressure head.
8. Repeat the experiment by changing the flow rate.

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 11

 RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS:

A: area of the tank = 0.1 m2

d: Depth of water in the tank

V: volume of water collected =A* d

Depth of water in the tank (d) Volume collected Time Discharge Q

(m) V/T
d*A (m3) (s)
( m3 /S )

Tube Cross section Tube Reading h Tube reading Velocity V Velocity head Pressure Total head H
.N Area a Q/a
head =h
(m2) (cm) (m) (m/s ) (m) (m) (m)
1 6.16*10-4

2 4.34*10-4

3 2.69*10-4

4 1.54*10-4

5 2.69*10-4

6 4.34*10-4

7 6.16*10-4

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 12

EXPERIMENT NO 2

COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE THROUGH ORIFICE METER

Objective:
The objective is to determine the co-efficient of discharge for a given orifice meter.

Apparatus:

Fluid friction apparatus with orifice

Measuring tank.
Stop watch.

Theory:

Orifice meter is a device used to measure the rate of flow of a liquid through a pipe. It
consists of a flat circular plate with a circular hole called orifice, which is concentric with
the pipe axis. If the geometric characteristics of the orifice plus the properties of the
fluid are known, then the orifice meter can be used to measure the flow rate.

The derivation of discharge equation is based on Bernoullis equation. Considering the

flow through orifice, the streamlines continue to converge a short distance downstream
of the plane of the orifice. Hence the minimum flow area is actually smaller than the
area of the orifice. The minimum flow area, often called the contracted area of the jet or
vena contracta. The ratio of the contracted area to the area of the orifice is called
coefficient of contraction.

The coefficient of discharge Cd is given as the ratio between actual discharge Qact and
theoritical discharge Qth where : Qact

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 13

 Q th = Where A1: area of the pipe in m2

(d1=2.4 cm)
A 2: area of the orifice in m2
(d2=2 cm)

g: acceleration due to
2
gravity(9.81m/s )

h: Mano-metric head in m

Procedure:

1. Connect the upstream side and down streamside of the flow to the water
manometer.
2. Switch on the pump to make the water to flow in the pipe.
3. Open the delivery valve slightly to vary the rate of flow.
4. Note the manometer reading.
5. Determine the time taken to collect certain quantity of water.
6. Gradually increase the discharge to repeat the experiment.
7. Calculate the coefficient of discharge for the orifice meter.

Observations:

Are of pipe:

Area of orifice:

SI.NO Volume Time Manometer Actual Theoretical Coefficient of

(m3) (seconds) Head h discharge discharge discharge
Qact=V/T Cd= Qact/ Qth
1

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 14

EXPERIMENT NO 3

DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT OF V NOTCH

Objective:

The objective is to determine the co-efficient of discharge for a given V-notch.

Apparatus:

Volumetric hydraulic bench attached with flow measuring tank

Open channel flow +V notch
Stop watch.

Theory:

In hydraulic engineering, weirs or notch are commonly used to regulate flow in rivers
and open channels, where the relationship between the water level upstream of the
weir and the discharge is known, the discharge at any time may be found out by noting
the upstream water level.

The figure below shows a V-shaped notch weir, in vertical plates. Such notches usually
have sharp edges so that the water springs clear of the plate as it passes through the
notch.

The discharge in V- notch is given by the equation:

Q= Cd tan H5/2

Where Q= discharge in m/s

= angle of V-Notch

H=head over the V-notch in m

Cd= coefficient of discharge.

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 15

Procedure:

1- Before commencing the experiment ensures that the water in the weir channel is in
the same level with the bottom of the notch.
2- When the correct level has been obtained, the depth gauge should be set to
coincide with the free water surface, and his reading his used as datum.
3- Take measurement of discharge and head on the weir, by regulating the flow using
the bench supply valve.
4- For each flow rate allow conditions to become steady, measure and record H and
take reading of volume and time using the volumetric tank to determine the flow rate.
5- Repeat the experiment by changing the rate of flow.

Observations:

Apex angle of the V-notch =90or 30

SI Volume time H (head actual theoretical C

d average
NO (m3 ) (seconds ) ) discharge discharge C
d
(m) (m3/s) (m3/s)

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 16

EXPERIMENT NO 4

Friction Factor f for a smooth pipe

Objective:

To measure the friction factor through pipelines.

To determine the relationship between friction coefficient and Reynolds
number for flow of water through smooth pipe.

Apparatus:

1. Fluid friction apparatus

2. Measuring tank

3. Stop watch

Theory:

When the water is flowing in a pipe, it experiences some resistances to its motion,
whose effect is to reduce the pressure and ultimately the head of water available in the
pipe or there are two types of loses in the pipe.

Major losses: major loss is due to frictional resistance of the pipe only. The
frictional resistance of the pipe depends upon the roughness of the pipe. More
the roughness of the inside surface of the pipe, greater will be the resistance.
This friction is known as fluid friction and the resistance is known as frictional
resistance.

Minor losses: the minor losses are caused due to change in velocity of flowing
fluid. The change in velocity is caused by, change in sections of pipe, change
in direction, obstruction, pipe fitting.in case of long pipes these losses are very
small as compared to the frictional loss and hence they are termed as minor
loss.

Friction factor: it is also known as coefficient of friction and denoted by It is

dimensionless quantity.it is not constant but its nature depends upon the
roughness condition of pipe surface and Reynoldss number.

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 17

 Formulae: 1) hf=4 fLv2 /2g D Where:

hf = head loss due to friction in m

f = friction factor. Therefore f = 2gDhf / Lv2

L = length of pipe in m

D= diameter of pipe in m

g= acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)

v= velocity in m/sec

2) Discharge Q= volume/ time in m3/s

3) Velocity = Q/ A in m/sec

4) Reynolds number:

Where:
V = Velocity of fluid (m/s)

D = Diameter of pipe (m)

(nu) = Coefficient of Kinematic viscosity of fluid (m/s)

Note: in order to find out the friction factor you have to find out the Reynolds number
first following the above formula and then to be used in Moody diagram to do so.
Moody diagram attached in the references pages

Procedure:

1. Ensure that all manual valves to all the pipes are closed and measure the
temperature degree of water flow used.
2. Open the manual valve only to the pipe under study.
3. One person should operate the stop-watch and the solenoid switch, which
starts the flow, Open the solenoid valve and start the stop-watch
simultaneously.
4. Collect the volume of water required.
5. Note down the manometers reading.
6. Note down the time needed to collect such volume of water.
7. repeat the experiment and Take readings at a number of different flow rates
(altering the flow using the control valve on the apparatus )

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 18

 Note: For accurate measurements, the solenoid and the stop watch must be
turned on and off at the same time. If there is a time lag between the two,
repeat the measurement

Observations:

1. Length of pipe L =1 m

2. Diameter of the pipe, D= A=

3. Temperature of water =

4. Kinematic viscosity, v=

R Volume Time Discharge Velocity Reynolds Head loss Friction Calculated % of

U (m3) (sec Q Nr. h1-h2 factor (f) Friction (f) difference
N ) (m3/s) from
(m/s) Re= VD/ MOODY
(Fanning)
f = 2gDhf /
Lv2
diagram

2
3
4

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 19

Standards waters viscosity values in given temperature degree

Note: for viscosity values in different temperature degree (To degree in between the
scale given bellow and not mentioned in the following table) you have to draw a chart
with viscosity value in X-axis and temperature degree in Y-axis.

temperature Dynamic viscosity Kinematic Viscosity

-- --
2 -3
(N s/m ) x 10 (m2/s) x 10-6
0 1.787 1.787
5 1.519 1.519
10 1.307 1.307
20 1.002 1.004
30 0.798 0.801
40 0.653 0.658
50 0.547 0.533
60 0.467 0.475
70 0.404 0.413
80 0.355 0.365
90 0.315 0.326
100 0.282 0.294
2
1 N s/m = 1 Pa s = 10 poise = 1,000 milliPa s
1 m2/s = 1 x 104 cm2/s =1 x 104 stokes = 1 x 106 centistokes.

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 20

 M Moody (Fanning) Diagram

Semester A P a g e | 21
EXPERIMENT NO 5

IMPACT OF JET
Objective:
The objective is to measure the force generated by a jet of water and to compare it
with the momentum flow rate in the jet (theoretical).
Apparatus: Impact of jet apparatus H8, Hydraulics bench, and Stop watch.

Source: https://www.scribd.com/doc/38008443/Impact-of-Jet

The bench supply is led to a vertical pipe terminating in a tapered nozzle. This
produces a jet of water which impinges on a vane in a form of a flat or a
hemispherical cup. The nozzle and the vane are contained within a transparent
cylinder at the base of the cylinder where there is an outlet by which the flow may be
directed to the weighing tank.
The vane is supported by a lever which carries a jockey weight, and which is
restrained by a spring. The lever may be set to a balance position (as indicated
by the tally suspended on it) by placing the jockey weight at its zero position, and
adjusting the knurled nut above the spring. Any force generated by the impact of
the jet on the vane may now be measured by moving the jockey weight along the
lever until the tally shows that the lever has been restored to its original balance
position.

Procedure

1. The apparatus should be leveled and the lever set to the balanced position with
the jockey weight as its zero position referring to the tally.
2. Admit water through the bench supply valve.
3. Note down the position of the jockey weight y which restores the lever to the
balanced position.
4. Note down the discharge by collecting a known volume of water and measuring
the time required to do so.
5. Repeat the experiment with decreasing the flow rate.
Results and calculations

Density of water = 103 kg/m3

Diameter of nozzle = 10 mm

2
Cross-sectional area of nozzle (A) = 78.5 mm

Mass of jockey weight = 0.6 kg

Distance from the center of vane to pivot of lever = 0.15 m

The jockey weight weighs (0.6 g) newton. When its moved a distance y
meters from its zero position, the corresponding actual force Fa on the vane is
obtained by taking moments about the pivot as:

Fa 0.15 = 0.6 g y so Fa = 4 g y (N)

The mass flow rate is calculated as m = AV0 (kg/s)

The velocity V1 of the jet as it is deflected by the vane is less than the velocity ,
V0 at exit from the nozzle because of the deceleration due to the gravity and
maybe calculated from :

V12 = V02 -2 g d where d = is the height of vane above tip of

nozzle=35mm
V1= V02-2gd , Theoretical Force Ft= Ft = m*V1

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 23

Mass of
water(kg) Volume Time mass flow V0 V1 Ft = (m*V1 ) Fa =4gy Error%
m3 (s) rate Discharge y (m) (m/s) (m/s) (N) (N) Ft Fa / Ft
(kg/s)
(m3/s)

Semester A P a g e | 24
EXPERIMENT NO 6

CAVITATION DEMONSTRATION
Objective:

The objective is to demonstrate the appearance and sound of

cavitation in a hydraulic system and to demonstrate the
conditions for cavitation to occur (liquid at its vapour
pressure).
Apparatus

1. Cavitation unit demonstration with :

Upstream pressure gauge: 63 mm diameter, range 0 to 1 Bar.

Throat vacuum gauge: 100 mm diameter, range -1 to 0 bars.

Downstream pressure gauge :63 mm diameter , range 0-1 bar

2. Stop watch

3. Thermometer.

Theory:

Under certain conditions, areas of low pressure can occur locally in a flowing fluid. If
the pressure in such areas falls below the vapour pressure, there will be local boiling
and a cloud of vapour bubbles will form. This phenomenon is known as cavitation.

Cavitation can affect the performance of hydraulic machinery such as pumps, turbines
and propellers, and the impact of collapsing bubbles can cause local erosion of metal
surfaces. In accordance with Bernoullis equation, the pressure at the throat of the
Venturi-shaped test section falls as the velocity of the water increases. However, the
pressure can only fall as far as the vapour pressure of the water at which point the
water starts to vaporize - cavitation occurs. Any further increase in velocity cannot
reduce the pressure below the vapour pressure, so the water vaporizes faster -
stronger cavitation occurs and Bernoullis equation is not obeyed.

Procedure

1. Open the ball valve (right hand end) fully then close the inlet diaphragm (left
hand end) fully.

2. Close the flow control valve on the hydraulic bench. Switch on

the hydraulic bench pump then slowly open the flow control
valve in the hydraulic bench until is fully open.

3. Slowly open the inlet diaphragm valve and allow water to flow
through the cavitation apparatus until the clear acrylic test section
and flexible connecting tube are full of water with no air
entrained.
 4. Continue to open the inlet diaphragm valve slowly until fully open
to obtain maximum flow through the system. Note the milky
formation within the test section indicating the presence of
cavitation.

5. Close the inlet valve until there is no visible cavitation in the test section
typically 0.1 Bar on the inlet pressure gauge. Ensure that the test section
remains full of water.

6. Take reading for P1, P2 and P3 from the Borden gauges.

7. Perform a timed volume collection using the hydraulic

bench and a suitable stopwatch.

8. Slowly open the inlet valve by a small amount. Record the new values of P1,
P2 and P3 and perform another timed volume collection.

9. Repeat this procedure multiple times, opening the inlet valve a

little more at each step.

10. On a graph, observe the relationship between flow rate and static pressure

(P 2 ).

Observations and calculations

S. Temperature Volume Time Discharge P1 P2 P3

N
Of water (m3) (s) (m3/s) Upstream Pressure at Downstream
water the throat water pressure
pressure
(Bar) (Bar)
(Bar)

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 26

Results

For each set of readings calculate the volume flow rate, and then plot the graph of
P2 against volume flow rate Q for each set of results.
If the temperature of the water is known, determine the vapour pressure of the
water using the table below. From your results determine the minimum static
pressure achieved at the throat of the test section and confirm that this agrees with
the vapour pressure of the water.

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 27

 Vapour Vapour Vapour Vapour
Temp. Temp.
pressure pressure pressure pressure
C C
KN/m2 Bar (abs.) KN/m2 Bar (abs.)

4 0.8130 0.0081 28 3.7814 0.0378

5 0.8720 0.0087 29 4.0074 0.0401
6 0.9348 0.0093 30 4.2451 0.0425
7 1.0015 0.0100 31 4.4949 0.0449
8 1.0724 0.0107 32 4.7574 0.0476
9 1.1477 0.0115 33 5.0332 0.0503
10 1.2276 0.0123 34 5.3326 0.0533
11 1.3123 0.0131 35 5.6264 0.0563
12 1.4002 0.0140 36 5.9451 0.0595
13 1.4974 0.0150 37 6.2793 0.0628
14 1.5983 0.0160 38 6.6296 0.0663
15 1.7051 0.0171 39 6.9967 0.0700
16 1.8180 0.0182 40 7.3812 0.0738
17 1.9375 0.0194 42 8.2053 0.0821
18 2.0639 0.0206 44 9.1075 0.0911
19 2.1974 0.0220 46 10.094 0.1009
20 2.3384 0.0234 48 11.171 0.1117
21 2.4872 0.0249 50 12.345 0.1235
22 2.6443 0.0264 52 13.623 0.1362
23 2.8099 0.0281 54 15.013 0.1501
24 2.9846 0.0298 56 16.522 0.1652
25 3.1686 0.0317 58 18.160 0.1816
26 3.3625 0.0336 60 19.933 0.1993
27 3.5666 0.0357

Table 1: Vapour pressure of water at different temperature

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 Problem Solving Context

1- A tank of water empties by gravity through a horizontal pipe into another tank (Figure-
1). There is a sudden enlargement in the pipe as shown. At a certain time, the
difference in levels is 3 m. Each pipe is (last two digit of your ID) m long and has a
friction coefficient f = 0.005. The inlet loss constant is K = 0.3. Consider all losses
(major and minor), calculate the volume flow rate at this point.

Figure-1

5%

2- A vertical Jet of Oil (=900kg/m3) issues out of a 10cm diameter nozzle at a velocity of
15 m/s. The Jet directed upwards and is defected by horizontal fixed plate at a height
of (1+ last digit of your ID) m above the nozzle exit. Estimate the force of impact of
the Jet and its direction on the plate.

5%

Note: this exercise to be submitted with the final report.

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 Skills Card
Module Name: Fluid mechanics lab
Module Code: M2H121722

Student Name : Student Number :

Programme : BENGCE Sem : B
Year : 2017 Level : 2

Sl.No Nature of skills Assessed Poor Satisfactory Good Excellent Remarks

Identification of Measuring Instruments, Machines and Equipment in the lab
1 Orifice meter
2 Flow through V-Notch
3 Bernoullis theorem
apparatus
4 impact of jet
5 friction in-pipe
6 cavitation apparatus
Operation of Machines and Conduction of Experiment
7 Orifice meter: Ability to
operate control valve, collection
of water for known time and
observation of manometer
reading and measurement of
coefficient of discharge
8 Flow through V-Notch: Ability to
operate control valve, collection
of water for known time and to
adjust the tip of the hook gauge
to record the sill level of the
notch.
9 Ability to verify Bernoullis
theorem
10 Ability to measure the force
generated by the jet of water
11 Friction in-pipe : Operation of
control valve, collection of
water for known time and
observation of manometer
readings
12 Ability to measure the pressure
downstream and to verify the
relation between the discharge
and the pressure
Ability to plot Graphs and Analyze
15 Ability to compute the results
using given formula
16 Ability accurately tabulate the
results
17 Ability to plot graphs
18 Analyze and interpret the
experimental results

Instructors Student Module Tutor

Name & Signature Name &
Signature Signature

Fluid mechanics Laboratory Manual Feb.2017 Rev: 01 Semester B P a g e 30