Stringer Bead
Fig. 4-21 Tack welds.
Some welders do not attach enough importance to
the tack welding procedure and the remelting of tack
welds in the major welding operation. There are many
instances when a welder has failed an important test
by being careless in tack welding. Tack welds must be
strong. Not only must they be able to hold the part in the
position in which it is to be welded, but they must also
be able to resist the stress exerted on them when expan-
sion and contraction occur during welding. Cold work-
ing, which is often necessary, imposes a severe load on
the tack welds.
The number and size of the tack welds depend upon the
thickness of the plate, the length of the seam, the amount
of cold working to be done, and the nature of the welding
operation. Tack welds must have good fusion and good
root penetration. They should be flat and smoothnot
convex and lumpy. It is advisable to use more heat for tack
welding than for the major welding operation.
Stringer Bead A stringer bead is a weld made by mov-
ing the weld pool along the intended path in a straight
line. With certain welding processes and electrodes a for-
ward, backward, or whipping motion may be applicable.
A stringer bead is welded along the line of travel with
little or no side-to-side or weaving motion. Because of the
faster travel speeds, stringer beads have very fast cooling
rates that can impact the grain structure and also affect
the distortion level. Figure 4-22A represents a stringer
bead motion.
Weave Bead A weave bead is a weld made by moving
the weld pool along the intended path but with a side-
to-side oscillation, Fig. 4-22B. This is generally done to
increase the weld size. Most codes or specifications will
limit the width of a weave bead. The reduced travel speed
will increase the heat input and slow the cooling rate. This
will impact the grain structure and affect the distortion
level. Controlling the maximum weave width will also
help eliminate slag inclusions and incomplete fusion type
discontinuities.
120Chapter 4Basic Joints and Welds
Weave Bead
B
Fig. 4-22 Stringer bead and weave bead identification.
From Welding Inspection Technology, 5th ed., p. 427, fig. 4.31
A BOU T WEL DIN G
Hephaestus
Hephaestus is the Greek god of fire and
blacksmithing. So in the late 1880s, Victorian researcher
Nikolai Benardos honored his arc welding methods with
the name electrohephaestus. The Roman counterpart to
Hephaestus is the god Vulcan.
Weld Positions
The four basic positions for welding are flat, horizontal,
vertical, and overhead. They are also designated with a
number system to aid in brevity in oral or written com-
munication. They are defined as follows:
Flat position (1) The flat position (number 1) is the
welding position used to weld from the upper side of the
joint at a point where the weld axis is approximately hori-
zontal and the weld face lies in an approximately horizon-
tal plane.
Horizontal position (2) The horizontal position
(number 2) is the fillet welding position in which the
weld is on the upper side of an approximately horizontal
surface and against an approximately vertical surface.
For groove welds it is the position in which the weld
face lies in an approximately vertical plane and the
weld axis at the point of welding is approximately
 Bead
Groove Welds Fillet Welds
Welds
Position of
Welding Flat Butt Corner Tee Lap
Plate Joint Joint Joint Joint

A
Flat

B
Horizontal

C
Vertical

D
Overhead

Fig. 4-23 Positions of welding.

horizontal, while the plate remains in an approximate
vertical orientation.
Vertical position (3) The vertical position (number 3)
is the welding position in which the weld axis at the point of
welding is approximately vertical, and the weld face lies in
an approximately vertical plane. Welding travel may be up
or down. When travel is up, the welding end of the electrode
or torch is pointed upward at an angle, ahead of the weld.
When the travel is down, the end of the electrode or torch
is pointed up and at an angle to the weld pool. The travel
direction up or down is an essential variable in most codes
and so the welder must follow what is stated and proven in
the welding procedure.
Overhead position (4) The overhead position (num-
ber 4) is the welding position in which welding is per-
formed from the underside of the joint. The overhead
position is the reverse of the flat position.
Figure 4-23 shows the different positions of welding.
Figure 4-24, page 122 shows examples of welds and weld-
ing positions.
When discussing groove welds, a G is used and a
number is assigned to signify the welding position (see
Fig. 4-23).
Plate Weld Designations are:
1G flat position groove weld
2G horizontal position groove weld
3G vertical position groove weld
4G overhead position groove weld
Pipe Weld Designations are:
1G flat position groove weld, pipe axis is
horizontal, and the pipe is rotated
2G horizontal groove weld, pipe axis is vertical
5G multiple-position (overhead, vertical, and flat)
groove weld, pipe axis is horizontal, and the
pipe is not rotated
6G and multiple-position groove weld,
6GR pipe axis is 45 from horizontal, and the pipe is
not rotated. The R designates a restricting ring.
Figure 4-25, page 122 represents a graphic view of
these groove weld positions on plate and pipe.

Basic Joints and Welds Chapter 4121

 Flat

Vertical

Edge Joint
Edge Weld Horizontal

Flat Horizontal

Flat

Flat

Butt Joint
Groove Weld Fillet
Weld
Lap Joint Plug Weld
Fillet Weld
Overhead Double V-Groove Weld
Butt Joint

Fig. 4-24 Examples of welds and positions of welding.

When discussing fillet welds, the letter F is

used and a number is assigned to signify the
welding position, Fig. 4-26.

Plate Positions are Designated as: Flat Welding Horizontal Welding Vertical Welding
Test Position Test Position Test Position
1F flat position fillet weld A B C
2F horizontal position fillet weld
3F vertical position fillet weld
4F overhead position fillet weld

Pipe Positions are Designated as:

1F flat position fillet weld, pipe axis is Pipe Rotated
45 from the horizontal, and the pipe is Overhead Welding Flat Welding Horizontal Welding
rotated Test Position Test Position Test Position
2F horizontal fillet weld, pipe axis is D E F
vertical
2FR horizontal fillet weld, pipe axis is
horizontal, and the pipe is rotated
4F overhead fillet weld, pipe axis is
Pipe
vertical Pipe Fixed Fixed
5F multiple-position (overhead, vertical Multiple Welding Multiple Welding Test Position Multiple Welding
and horizontal) fillet weld, pipe axis is Test Position with Restriction Ring Test Position
horizontal, and the pipe is not rotated G H I
6F multiple-position fillet weld, pipe axis is
Fig. 4-25 Groove weld positions. From AWS 3.0:2010 STANDARD TERMS AND
45 from horizontal, and the pipe is not DEFINITIONS PG 85, FIG B.17 (A), (B), (C), (D), AND PG 88, FIG B.19 (A), (B), (C), (D), (E)
rotated ARE COMBINED

122Chapter 4Basic Joints and Welds

 Flat Welding Test Position Vertical Welding Test Position
A B

Horizontal Welding Test Position Overhead Welding Test Position

C D

Pipe Rotated
Flat Welding Test Position Overhead Welding Test Position
E F

Horizontal Welding Test Position Multiple Welding Test Position

G H

Pipe
Rotated

Flat Welding Test Position Multiple Welding Test Position

I J

Fig. 4-26 Fillet weld positions. From AWS 3.0:2010 STANDARD TERMS AND DEFINITIONS PG 85,
FIG B.17 (A), (B), (C), (D), AND PG 88, FIG B.19 (A), (B), (C), (D), (E) ARE COMBINED

Figure 4-26 represents a graphic view of these fillet

ABOUT W E L DIN G
Feed Speed
How fast (and how much) filler metal goes
into a weld is called the wire feed speed and is measured
in inches per minute or millimeters per second. The higher
the speed, generally, the higher the amperage.
weld positions on plate and pipe.
The positions just described are welder test positions.
The weld test plates or pipes should be positioned as close
to those illustrated as possible. However, in production
welding it is not always possible to have the joint axis and
weld face rotations lined up vertically, horizontally, or
at 45. Figures4-27 to 4-29, pages 124126 show how to
calculate the welding position for production welds that
are not easily determined. In order to use these diagrams
you must visualize the axis of the weld and the rotation
of the weld face and apply it to the tabulated information.

Basic Joints and Welds Chapter 4123

 The trend in most shops is toward welding in the
flat and horizontal positions wherever possible. Weld-
80 Axis 90 ing in these positions increases the speed of welding,
Limits allows more flexibility in the choice of process, and
for E
ensures work of better appearance and quality. Ver-
tical and overhead welding find their widest appli-
cation in those industries where the fabrications are
Axis Limits for C
large and permanent. Such conditions exist in ship-
Axis Limits for D
E yards, on construction projects, and in piping instal-
D 0 lations. Vertical welding is done more often than
360 overhead welding, and most welders find it a less
80 difficult position to weld in. However, welders must
280
be able to weld in all positions. Inability to do so
0 C360
Vertical limits their possibilities of advancement to a higher
150 A Plane
210 job classification and prevents them from taking
B advantage of all the job opportunities they may
15 P
80
B
encounter.
Axis Limits 280
for A & B 0 C 360
Horizontal Plane Strength of Welds
0
In general, welded joints are as strong as, or
stronger than, the base metal being welded. It
is not always necessary that this be so. Good
Tabulation of Positions of Groove Welds
welding design specifies welds that require the
Diagram Inclination
minimum amount of weld metal that is adequate
Position Reference of Axis Rotation of Face
for the job at hand. Weld metal costs a good deal
Flat A 015 150210
more than base metal and requires labor costs for
Horizontal B 015 80150 its application.
210280 The strength of a welded joint depends upon the
Overhead C 080 080 following factors:
280360 Strength of the weld metal
Vertical D 1580 80280 Type of joint preparation
E 8090 0360 Type of weld
Location of the joint in relation to the parts joined
Notes:
Load conditions to which the weld will be
1. The horizontal reference plane is always taken to lie below the weld under consideration.
2. The inclination of the weld axis is measured from the horizontal reference plane toward the
subjected
vertical reference plane. Welding process and procedure
3. The angle of rotation of the weld face is determined by a line perpendicular to the weld face Heat treatment
at its center which passes through the weld axis. The reference position (0) of rotation of
the weld face invariably points in the direction opposite to that in which the weld axis angle
Skill of the welder
increases. When looking at point P, the angle of rotation of the weld face is measured in a
clockwise direction from the reference position (0).
Approximately inch should be added to the
designed length of fillet welds for starting and
Fig. 4-27 Production welding position diagram for groove welds stopping the arc. The craters in the welds should be
inplate. From AWS 3.0:2010 STANDARD TERMS AND DEFINITIONS PG 82, filled.
FIG B.16A The location of the welds in relation to the parts
joined, in many cases, has an effect on the strength of
The welding position is an essential variable for the the welded joint. Repeated tests reveal that, when other
welder. If the welder is attempting to weld in a position factors are equal, welds having their linear dimension
that he or she is not qualified for, it will cause the code transverse (at right angles) to the lines of stress are
work being done to be rejected. approximately 10 to 15 percent stronger per average

124Chapter 4Basic Joints and Welds

 than by a single weld or welds close together. In
Fig. 4-31, page 126, a single weld at A is not as ef-
80 90 fective as welds at both A and B in resistance to the
Axis
Limits turning effect. Two small welds at A and B are much
for E more effective than a large single weld at A or B only.
If possible, welded joints should be designed so that
bending or prying action is minimized.
Axis Limits for C
In some designs it may be desirable to take into
E account the stress distribution through the welds in
Axis Limits for D
125 0
a joint. Any abrupt change in surface (for example, a
D 360 notch or saw cut in a square bar under tension) causes
235 stress concentration and increases the possibility
of fracture. As an illustration of this principle, the
weld shown in Fig.4-32, page 126 would have con-
150 0 C
A 360 Vertical siderably more concentration of stress than that in
B 210
125
B
Plane Fig. 4-33, page 126. The weld shown in Fig. 4-34,
15 235 P page 126 allows a minimum of stress concentration
Axis Limits
and improved service. Under many load conditions,
for A & B 0 C the stress is greater at the ends of the weld than in
360 Horizontal Plane
the middle. Therefore, it is advisable in such cases
0 to box the bead around the joint as indicated in
Fig. 4-35, page 126. When this is done, far greater
resistance to a tearing action on the weld is obtained.
Tabulations of Positions of Fillet Welds The length of this boxing (end return) should be a
Diagram Rotation minimum of twice the size of the weld specified. If
Position Reference Inclination of Axis of Face flexibility is required in this joint, the boxing should
Flat A 015 150210 not exceed four times the size of the weld specified.
Horizontal B 015 125150
210235 Common Weld and Weld-Related
Overhead C 080 0125 Discontinuities
235360
General Considerations
Vertical D 1580 125235
E 8090 0360
A weld discontinuity is any interruption in normal
flow of the structure of a weldment. The interruption
Notes: can be found in the physical, mechanical, or metal-
1. The horizontal reference plane is always taken to lie below the weld under consideration. lurgical characteristics of the material or weldment.
2. The inclination of the weld axis is measured from the horizontal reference plane toward the If the discontinuity exceeds the acceptance criteria
vertical reference plane.
3. The angle of rotation of the weld face is determined by a line perpendicular to the weld face
being used, it becomes a defect. All metals, heat-
at its center which passes through the weld axis. The reference position (0) of rotation of affected zones, and welds have discontinuities. The
the weld face invariably points in the direction opposite to that in which the weld axis angle heat affected zone (HAZ) is the base metal next
increases. When looking at point P, the angle of rotation of the weld face is measured in a
clockwise direction from the reference position (0). to the weld that did not melt but was hot enough
to change its mechanical properties or its micro-
Fig. 4-28 Production welding position diagram for fillet welds in plate. structure properties. As all metals are crystalline
From AWS 3.0:2010 STANDARD TERMS AND DEFINITIONS PG 83, FIG B.16B
structures, the interruptions at each of the grain
boundaries reflect an interruption of the normal flow of
the material. But size, location, extent, and other factors
unit length than welds that have their linear dimension must be applied to see if the product is fit for a purpose.
parallel to the lines of stress, F ig.4-30, page 126. When a defect is indicated, it means that the defect ex-
Resistance to a turning effect of one member at a joint ceeds the acceptable limits of the code or specification
is best obtained by welds that are well separated, rather being applied.

Basic Joints and Welds Chapter 4125

 5 0
15 10
20
25
30
35
e
40 of Pip Size
45 Axis
50
55
60
65
70 Flat Size
75 Horizontal 45
Fig. 4-35 Example of weld
80 Vertical boxing around the corners to
85 Overhead obtain resistance to tearing
90 action on welds when sub- Fig. 4-36 Desirable
jected to eccentric loads. fillet weld profiles.
Fig. 4-29 Production welding position diagram for groove welds
in pipe. Positions for circumferential groove welds indicated by
shaded areas for pipe with axis varying from horizontal (0) to vertical
(90). From AWS 3.0:2010 STANDARD TERMS AND DEFINITIONS PG 83,
FIG B.16B J OB T IP

This weld approximately Calling about a Job

30% stronger than When calling a business about a job, start
this weld per by briefly saying who you are and that you are looking for
unit length employment with the company. Give a couple of qualifica-
A B tions you have for the job you want. Ask if you can provide
your resume, and when it would be good to talk with
someone further. If you write this all down on an index
card, then the call wont be as hard to make.

Fig. 4-31 Example of

Fig. 4-30 Transverse welds proper placement of welds Fillet Weld Profiles
are stronger than welds parallel to resist turning effect of one
Figure 4-36 shows flat and
to lines of stress. member of the joint. W
concave fillet weld profiles
that are considered desirable. Size
Figure 4-37 illustrates a slightly
convex profile that is also ac- Size
ceptable. Thus we are again re- C
Fig. 4-32 A lap weld having poor distribution of stress through minded that the welder should
the weld. Excessive convexity. Convexity, C, shall not
try to avoid excess convexity. exceed 0.15 0.03 inches
Convex fillet welds are accept-
able, providing the convexity is Fig. 4-37 Acceptable
fillet weld profile.
within the limits indicated by
Table4-1, page 117.
Fig. 4-33 A lap weld having a more even distribution of stress Figure 4-38 shows profiles of weld defects that result
through the weld than that shown in Fig. 4-32.
from poor welding technique.

Fillet Weld with Insufficient ThroatReduction of the

e ffective throat, Fig. 4-38A, materially reduces the size
of the weld. This abrupt change in the face concen-
Fig. 4-34 A lap weld in which there is a uniform transfer of trates stress at the center. The smaller size of the weld
stress through the weld. and the stress concentration weaken theweld and invite

126Chapter 4Basic Joints and Welds

 Size Size Size
Insufficient Throat Excessive Convexity Undercut
A B
Fig. 4-38 Defective fillet weld profiles.
joint failure. This defect
is usually caused by too
fast travel and excessive
Overlap weldingcurrent.
Fillet Weld with Exces-
sive ConvexityThe weld
metal in this type of defect,
Fig. 4-38B, may contain a
Fig. 4-39 Overlap is an
great deal of slag and po-
overflow of weld metal beyond rosity. There may also be
the toe of the weld. poor fusion at the root of
the weld and poor fusion
of the weld metal to plate surfaces, Figs. 4-39 and 4-40.
Stress concentrates at the toe of the weld. This weld defect
is usually caused by low welding current and a slow rate
of travel.
Fillet Weld with Excess Undercut Figure 4-38C shows the
melting away of the base metal next to the weld toe. This
cutting away of one of the plate surfaces at the edge of the
weld is known as undercut. Excess undercut like this one
decreases the thickness of the plate at that point. Any ma-
terial reduction in plate thick-
ness leads to plate weakness.
The situation invites joint
failure because the designed
load of the joint is based on
the original plate thickness.
The possibilities of failure at
this point are increased when
undercutting occurs at the toe
of the weld, a point where
A B there is high stress concentra-
tion. This weld defect is usu-
Fig. 4-40 At problem ally caused by excessive arc
area A, there is incomplete
length, incorrect electrode
fusion in the fillet welds. At
problem area B, the weld has angle, incorrect electrode lo-
bridged the joint root and is cation, fast travel, and exces-
an incomplete fusion. sive welding current.
Size Size
Overlap Insufficient Leg
C D E
Fillet Weld with Overlap Overlap, shown in Figs.4-38D
and 4-39, is protrusion of the weld metal beyond the weld
toe and base metal. It can be likened to applying a wad
of chewing gum to a surface. When load is applied to the
gum, it will peel from the surface. The welded joint will
act in the same way under load, and the result will be weld
failure. It is obvious that overlap must be avoided if we
are to prevent a peeling off of the weld metal when load
is applied. Failure of the joint is certain when overlap is
located in the weld. This is a serious defect and should be
avoided. It may be caused by low welding current, slow
travel, or improper electrode manipulation.
Fillet Weld with Insufficient LegA reduction in leg
length, Fig. 4-38E, means a reduction in the size of the
fillet weld. If the demands of a joint require a fillet of a
certain size, any reduction of that size results in a weld
that does not possess the physical properties needed for
safe operation. Failure is sure to result. This defect is usu-
ally caused by improper electrode angle and faulty elec-
trode manipulation. In addition, these faults in welding
technique may be accompanied by too fast travel.
Fillet Weld with Incomplete Fusion This defect is usu-
ally found at the root of the weld and at the plate sur-
faces (fusion face), Fig. 4-40. Incomplete fusion is usually
caused by welding with the current too low, an improper
speed of travel, and/or improper electrode manipulation.
When these conditions exist during welding, the depos-
ited weld metal may have slag inclusions and porosity (gas
entrapment).
Fillet Weld with Various Other Discontinuities
Figure 4-41, page 128 represents many of the possible de-
fects that can be encountered in the base material or the
weld bead.
Porosity Porosity is cavity-type discontinuities (referred
to as pores) formed by gas entrapment during solidifica-
tion. The discontinuities are spherical and may be elon-
gated. Contamination of the filler metal or base metal or
Basic Joints and Welds Chapter 4127