Module 1 - Caribbean Society and Culture PDF

Locating and Defining the Caribbean
Wednesday, 27 May 2015 09:30 PM
Location of the Caribbean

The Caribbean is the general name for an archipelago (a chain of islands that are closely related at a
subterranean level) which forms a natural threshold, encapsulating the Caribbean Sea and
separating itself from the Atlantic Ocean.
The Caribbean can be sub divided into groups:
Greater Antilles
These are the 4 largest islands in the Caribbean Sea and includes Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica and
Puerto Rico.
Lesser Antilles
These are all islands south of Puerto Rico and north of Trinidad. This group can be further subdivided
into 2 groups.
Windward Islands
These islands are exposed to the north-east trade winds. They are south-eastern islands of the
Caribbean and include Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, The Grenadines and Grenada.
Leeward Islands
These are northern islands of the Lesser Antilles chain of islands, east of Puerto Rico and running
southward to Dominica. They include the Virgin Islands, Dominica, Guadeloupe, Montserrat,
Antigua, Barbuda, St. Kitts, Nevis and Anguilla.
The Bahamas
They consist of a chain of about 300 islands and coral banks of reefs, extending for many miles from
north-west to south-east. This was the first land of the New World discovered by Christopher
Columbus.
Western Caribbean
Those west of Jamaica and Cuba, all the way to the Caribbean Coast of North and Central America.
Southern Caribbean
A group of islands and neighbour South America. St. Lucia lies to the northernmost point of the
region, Barbados in the east, Trinidad and Tobago at its most southern point and Aruba at the most
westerly section.
Defining the Caribbean

Defining the Caribbean is a very difficult task, as the definition may be very subjective.
Geographical Definition
Module 1 - Caribbean Society and Culture Page 1

Geographers tend to define the Caribbean on physical aspects, not human.
Definition 1
The Caribbean region is washed by the Caribbean Sea, surrounded by islands and the mainland
territories of Central and South America.
Flaw 1
Countries such as Guyana and Barbados, which are Caribbean countries, are not washed by the
Caribbean Sea, but rather by the Atlantic Ocean.
Flaw 2
There are countries which are washed by the Caribbean Sea which are not considered to be
Caribbean, since they do not share similar culture and history as other countries. These countries are
Panama, Nicaragua, Honduras and Mexico (these will fall under the political definition).
Definition 2
The Caribbean may be defined using lines of Latitude and Longitude. The area stretches from 60oW
to 90oW and from the Equator (0oN) to 23.5oN.
Flaw
The definition will exclude Guyana, which extends further than 60oW, and the Bahamas, which is
around 32oN.
Definition 3
The Caribbean region can be defined as an archipelago of islands.
Flaw
This excludes Guyana, as it is on a continent. It also excludes Belize.
Geological Definition
Geologists define a region based on rock structure/type (beneath the surface of the earth).
Definition 1
The Caribbean region is defined as countries which lie on the Caribbean crustal plate.
Flaw
This excludes Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana, which lie on the South American plate.
Definition 2
Caribbean countries share similar geological hazards/landforms, such as volcanic eruptions,

earthquakes, fold mountains, etc.
Flaw
This excludes Guyana, since it is not at the edge of the Caribbean plate to experience earthquakes.

This excludes Guyana, since it is not at the edge of the Caribbean plate to experience earthquakes.
They also do not have fold mountains or volcanoes.
Historical Definition
Historians are not concerned about the physical landscape/features when trying to define a region.
They define a region according to human activities and relationships (culture). The Caribbean faced
similar history/historic events:
a) A long and continuous occupation over time.

b) A sense of belonging to a place.
c) The building of a way of life/culture.
Definition 1
Historical processes shape countries, as all of them share similar experiences, which include:
Occupation of the area by indigenous peoples.

European exploration and settlement.
Genocide and war waged against the indigenous people.
African slavery.
Indian indentureship.
Colonialism.
Development of the plantation economy and society.
Independence.
Forging of a free society out of such experiences.
Flaw
This definition cannot solely identify the Caribbean, since other regions (such as Latin America) went
through similar experiences.
Definition 2
The countries of the Caribbean represent the varied legacies of Britain, France and Spain.
Flaw
The heritage and history of some countries, such as Cuba and the Dominican Republic, will exclude
them from the Caribbean and will make them more aligned to Latin America.
Definition 3
Language embodies and defines a specific culture and group of people. According to historians, a
similar language is one of the best ways to identify and define a region.
Flaw
This definition cannot work for the Caribbean since there exists the English, French, Spanish -
speaking Caribbean. The patois/dialect is also different for Caribbean countries, e.g. the dialect is
T&T is vastly different from that of Jamaica.
Political Definition
The politics of the Caribbean region is very complex and Caribbean countries are at different stages
of political development. This diverse and varying stage of political development sets the Caribbean
region apart according to some political scientists. When defining the region as a political entity,

region apart according to some political scientists. When defining the region as a political entity,
there are still problems. The following must be considered when looking for a political definition:
The ACS is a product of the desire of the 28 Contracting States, Countries and Territories of the
Greater Caribbean to enhance cooperation within the region, an initiative aimed at building
upon obvious geographic proximity and well-documented historical linkages.
Politically, the Caribbean may be centered on socio-economic groupings found in the region.
For example, the block known as the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) contains all the
Caribbean countries which include both the Co-operative Republic of Guyana and the
Republic of Suriname found in South America, along with Belize in Central America as full
members.
Bermuda and the Turks and Caicos Islands which are found in the Atlantic Ocean are associate
members of the CARICOM, and the same goes for the Commonwealth of the Bahamas, which
is a full member of the CARICOM. Therefore, this is a more appropriate way to distinguish the
Caribbean.
CARICOM Member States
1) Antigua and Barbuda

2) The Bahamas
3) Barbados
4) Belize
5) Dominica
6) Grenada
7) Guyana
8) Haiti
9) Jamaica
10) Montserrat
11) St. Lucia
12) St. Kitts and Nevis
13) St. Vincent and Grenadines
14) Suriname
15) Trinidad and Tobago
CARICOM Associate Members
1) Anguilla
2) Bermuda
3) British Virgin Islands
4) Cayman Islands
5) Turks and Caicos Islands
Alternatively, the organisation known as the Association of Caribbean States (ACS) consists of
almost every nation in the surrounding regions which lie on the Caribbean Sea plus El Salvador
which lies solely on the Pacific Ocean.
The notion of a Caribbean citizen or CARICOM is often rhetoric, that is, there is really a cultural
yearning rather than an indication of present political reality. This is in sharp contrast to the
political entities of Central and South America, the majority of which have had a long history of
being independent, republics, with a succession of dictators and struggles with democratic
rule.
Some go as far as to state that Caribbean nationals are not as patriotic as the citizens of Latin
America. This is because, in the Caribbean, dictatorships, Revolution, armed intervention and
coup d'etat have been limited in impact and generally the region has been politically stable.

Citizenship in the Caribbean today represents a varied set of relationship between citizens and
their governments and sometimes with governments outside the region.
The Caribbean can be defined by its diverse and complex political relationships which
distinguishes it from the Latin American region.
Some state that the Caribbean region is a political haven for democracy imposed by the West,
but Haiti and Cuba present a contradiction. Haiti has a tradition of anarchy and perpetual
poverty, which undermines the stability of Western-imposed democracy.
Political Dependencies in the Caribbean
Dependencies Countries
French owned Martinique, Guadeloupe
Dutch owned Curacao, St. Maartin, Aruba, Bonaire
U.S. owned Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands
British owned British Virgin Islands
Former Spanish colony Dominican Republic
Former French colony Haiti
Diaspora
A diaspora is the movement, migration or scattering of people and their culture away from an
established or ancestral homeland. This Caribbean diaspora has been as a result of economic, social
and political factors.
Caribbean communities exist outside of the Caribbean region. These communities represent both
non-material and material culture of the Caribbean. These communities were created as a result of
migration of Caribbean nationals to certain metropoles as a result of economic and/or social
problems in their homeland.
In these Caribbean communities outside of the Caribbean, there is the presence of Caribbean foods
(doubles, roti, callaloo, pelau, etc), music (reggae, soca, chutney,etc), religion, festivals, language
(dialect), etc. These Caribbean communities outside of the Caribbean include:
Queens and the Bronx in New York

Toronto in Canada
London, Leicester, Leeds, Bristol, Cardiff, Liverpool, Nottingham and Manchester in England
In the UK census of 2001, 565,876 people classified themselves in the category 'Black Caribbean'
(about 1% of the population). New York City is multicultural. About 36% of the city's population is
foreign-born, one of the highest among US cities. The ten nations constituting the largest sources of
modern immigration to New York City are:
The Dominican Republic

China
Jamaica
Guyana
Mexico
Ecuador
Haiti
Trinidad and Tobago
Colombia
Russia

Russia

The Historical Process - Migration
Sunday, 04 October 2015 06:05 PM
Emigration
Outward migration from the Caribbean has both positive and negative effects on the economy,
society, politics and even the natural environment.
Reasons for Emigration
1) More job opportunities (high unemployment in Caribbean)
1) Higher salaries and wages (e.g. doctors, nurses)
1) Further education (certain qualifications not found in the Caribbean)
1) Poor social services (e.g. healthcare - Guyana does not have equipment for basic cataract
surgery in public hospitals)
1) High crime rates (e.g. in T&T, many kidnappings and murders have occurred in the last 15
years)
1) Political victimisation (e.g. Cuba, opponents of communist government are victimised)
1) Certain foreign countries are less susceptible to natural disasters (e.g. people in Montserrat
emigrate to England)
Negative Effects of Emigration
1) Brain Drain - where educated and skilled people leave a country and there is a void for these
workers (e.g. doctors and nurses in T&T)
1) Reduction in direct/indirect taxes for a government.
1) Shortage of labour - creates a lack of work force (e.g. T&T - Ravenstein's Law of Migration -
younger people migrate more than older people).
1) Rural neglect - people from rural areas tend to migrate more, therefore the government will
spend less money on development of these areas in terms of utilities, social services,
infrastructure, etc. (e.g. In T&T).
1) Broken homes - when a male/female (especially male) figure leaves a family, it may lead to
juvenile delinquency, as a result of the lack of a father/mother figure.
Positive Effects of Emigration
1) Spread of Caribbean diaspora - law abiding Caribbean people have carried their culture (food,
dialect, etc.) with them, promoting tourism, investments, etc.
1) Remittances - this is money that is sent back to the home country by emigrants. (E.g. There are
over a million Jamaican emigrants living in the USA. Every month, more than 250M USD is
sent to Jamaica.
1) Adds to the knowledge and skill of the workforce (when the emigrants return to their home
country). The emigrants would have learnt modern production techniques and new skills that

country). The emigrants would have learnt modern production techniques and new skills that
they could pass on and use in their mother country.
1) Ease overpopulation problems - e.g. In overcrowded schools and hospitals. When people
migrate, it eases the pressure on social services, especially in overcrowded areas.
1) Reduces impact on environment - pollution is reduced, especially in overcrowded areas (less

cars, less water pollution). Utilities like water and electricity are also conserved. (In Barbados
there is a shortage of water).
Benefits to Foreign Countries from Caribbean Immigration
1) Brain gain - the country gets skilled/educated workers which benefit their economy (e.g. T&T
doctors migrate to North America/UK).
1) Taxes - the government gets additional taxes from the Caribbean people working there (e.g.
There are over 1M Jamaicans working in USA who pay taxes).
1) Decentralization of the economy - Caribbean emigrants are skilled in many various ways
(masonry, carpentry, teaching, etc.) and when they migrate to foreign countries, they carry
their trade with them. Therefore, the foreign country gets income from a vast array of
primary, secondary and tertiary sources).
2) Reduces void for employment - for example, agriculture in the US. The US is self-dependent in
terms of food, which is why they are so wealthy. Jamaican agricultural workers who migrate to
the USA help this by adding to their labour force.
3) Add cultural diversity to foreign countries - Caribbean immigrants spread their culture to
foreign countries (e.g. Caribana in Canada was started by Trinidadians and generates millions
of dollars).
Negatives to Foreign Countries from Caribbean Immigration
1) Overpopulation - in areas such as Queen's and Bronx in New York, there is huge amount of
unemployment and underemployment, which adds to the stigma attached to some areas,
such as Park and Beans in Florida.
2) Remittances - hundreds of millions of dollars can leave a foreign country every month and is
bad for their economy (e.g. the US loses over 250M every month due to remittances from the
1M Jamaicans living there).
3) Leads to forms of discrimination - e.g. in the 1970s, the Rastafarians went abroad and could
not find employment because they looked 'dirty' and scared the population and even caused
riots. Therefore, they had to turn to crime for money.

The Historical Process - Migratory Movements Until 1838
Amerindians (5000 B.C.E. - 1492)

The Amerindians were not native to the Caribbean, but in fact migrated from Central East Asia
approximately 35000 years ago. The ancestors of these people crossed the Bering Strait and entered
North America where they settled for a while.
They then migrated to South America and eventually produced cradle civilisations of Arawaks/Tinos,
communities in Peru and Brazil and Carib communities south of Brazil. From the South American
mainland, these tribes travel northwards to the various Caribbean islands. There was even
movement from North America to the Caribbean.
By around A.D. 1000, almost every island in the seas from Trinidad through to the Bahamas had
been settled by Arawak speaking people.
The Arawaks travelled to the Caribbean first and were settled through the Lesser Antilles and The
Bahamas. The Caribs were found in Eastern Puerto Rico, parts of Hispaniola and Cuba.
It should be noted, however, that the perception is that the Caribs and Arawaks who settled into the
different countries were a uniform group. The reality is that hybridisation developed differently in
different parts of the Caribbean. These hybrid groups co-existed with the pre-ceramic/Archaic
people still living in large communities in Western Cuba and remote parts of Hispaniola (Ciboneys) in
1942.
Today, significant numbers of indigenous peoples are found in Guyana (Arawaks, Caribs, Warau),
Belize (Garifuna), Dominica and Suriname (Caribs).
This is so because Guyana, Belize and Suriname were too large for Colonial masters to establish full
control over the entire territory. This meant that Amerindians could retreat into the interior and live.
On the other hand, Dominica was not greatly populated by Europeans (too mountainous to cultivate
and also lacked mineral wealth), so the Amerindians could therefore survive in such an environment.
The indigenous people were almost totally wiped out by the Spaniards because of overwork, disease
and suicide.
Amerindian Influence on Caribbean Society
TINOS/ARAWAKS
FAMILY - village settlements along river valleys, coastal areas
SOCIAL ORGANISATION - women did the farming (slash and burn); men did the hunting and fishing;
their society was hierarchal
GOVERNMENT - independent Arawak community ruled by a Cacique, hereditary ruler who was also
High Priest and Judge
RELIGION AND SPIRITUALISM - the Cacique was the High Priest
CUSTOMS - flattened forehead of babies, singing, dancing, tobacco smoking
FOODS - seafood, vegetables, pepper, pepper pot, cassava, wild meat (especially agouti)

FOODS - seafood, vegetables, pepper, pepper pot, cassava, wild meat (especially agouti)
ARCHITECTURE - rectangular houses were popular using indigenous material
TECHNOLOGY - dug-out canoes, stone tools, spears, straw baskets, hammocks and simple pottery
They were very proficient maritime explorers.
They achieved a level of sedentary living; they were no longer nomadic.
Conuco farming - reliable and highly productive supply of cassava.
In 1492, the Greater Antilles had a large concentration of Tainos.
KALINAGOS/CARIBS
FAMILY - village settlement
SOCIAL ORGANISATION - women did the farming; men did the hunting. Militaristic (war-like) society
CUSTOMS - singing, dancing, tobacco smoking, initiation into manhood, flattened foreheads of
babies
ARCHITECTURE - rectangular houses made from indigenous material
TECHNOLOGY - dug-out canoes, effective fishing methods, pottery with rims
They entered at about 1000 AD.
In 1492, they were in the islands from St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Grenada and Trinidad.
They were an extremely war-like group and were associated with cannibalism.
They were difficult to oppress and were associated with resistance and resilience.
Spaniards (1492)
On Friday 12th October, 1492, at 2AM, Christopher Columbus had rediscovered the Caribbean (The
Bahamas). Within his next 3 voyages, he discovered the other islands, such as Trinidad, Hispaniola,
Cuba and Jamaica.
By 1493, Columbus wrote Queen Isabella, telling her that he had discovered one of the islands in the
Indies (Hispaniola). Seventeen chips and 1200 men (builders, farmers, carpenters, mat-makers, etc.)
landed on the island and began building the island. Process of colonisation began.
Spanish Influence on Caribbean Society
1) New religion (Christianity)
2) The wiping out of the Amerindians
3) Horses were introduced into the Caribbean
4) New diseases (chicken pox and smallpox)
5) Names of places (San Fernando, etc.)

6) New animals (goats, pigs, cattle)
7) New crops (sugar cane, banana, citrus)
8) Different styles of dress (shirts, pants)
The colonisation process involved capturing the indigenous people and forcing them to work on the
plantations, as well as sending them to work abroad, e.g. during the quest for gold, the
conquistadors sent the Tainos to South Africa to work in the gold mines and pearl beds as slaves.
The set that were forced to work on the plantations created the start of many different systems of
production, such as encomienda and repartmiento.
The Spaniards by their many actions were responsible for the almost total eradication of the
Amerindian people in the Caribbean.
Many Tainos committed suicide to escape enslavement, many were massacred by fierce fighting
between the two groups, countless died from Spanish diseases, overwork and starvation.
By 1493, there had been between 200 000 and 300 000 Tainos on Hispaniola and by the end of 1496,
there was less than one third of them remaining.
The superior technology of Europeans became the instrument to enslave and plunder the simpler,
indigenous societies of the region. Religion was introduced as an instrument of conquest and
imperialism.
It resulted in the genocide of the Taino groups and mass murder of others. This had far-reaching
impacts on the Caribbean region, namely:
A change in the social composition of the region (e.g. whites, mestizos and amerindians) and
the stratification within the society according to caste and class.
Genocide of the Amerindians.
Maroonage, as some Amerindians fled to the safety of the mountains, forests, etc. in
territories such as Dominica, Guyana, Jamaica, etc.
They began a pattern of rebellion and resistance among people enslaved by the Europeans.
Amerindian co-operation where the Caribs and Arawaks diverted their energies from fighting
each other to fighting the Europeans.
The Africans
One of the biggest economic problems in the colonies was the rapid dwindling number of Tainos to
serve as slaves to the Spanish colonists.
To pursue a continued labour force, the King of Spain authorised slaving expeditions throughout the
Caribbean in 1511. Between 1518 and 1870, the Transatlantic slave trade supplied the greatest
proportion of the Caribbean population.
The African slaves came to the Caribbean region as a source of labour for the tobacco plantations
and eventually sugar cane estates.
This labour shortage was as a result of the genocide of the Amerindians and the failure of the
introduction of European bonded labour.

introduction of European bonded labour.
The Portuguese became the experts in the slave trade and shipped slaves mainly from West Africa
across the Atlantic to the colonies of the West Indies.
Most Africans generally came from the coast of West Africa (now Sierra Leone) and Hausa Land in
Northern Nigeria.
The Africans were targeted for slavery above other races of people because of their strength and
relative defenselessness. Their tribal ties made it difficult for them to return to their homeland and
this aided trafficking of slaves. In addition, the existence of African Princes aided the trade of slaves
as many of them negotiated with European merchants.
The justification of slavery was also founded on the notion of Las Siete Partidas, the right to rule over
heathens or pagans in order to Christianise them.
The Atlantic slave trade brought about a dramatic change into the Caribbean society - a new system
of production based on private ownership of land and people. It heralded in a new class structure
and division of labour.
This movement was a forced one and because of the success of the European planters depended on
the oppression of the Africans, forced culture change took place. The Europeans did everything in
their power to alienate the Africans from their cultural identity (necessary to avoid revolts) such as
new names, laws forbidding religious worship, scattering of different cultures, distrust if other races,
etc.
Despite these attempts, many different African cultural forms have survived. Examples, of these are
evident in: the elements of West African religious practices which can be recognised in the cults of
obeah, voodoo and Shango. These were passed down from one generation to the other. Some
African slaves in Jamaica kept a strong belief in the power of obeah and myalism (which developed
into pocomania). These practices involved sorcery, witchcraft and the use of charms. It is through
dancing and music that these cults are kept alive and active in contemporary Caribbean.
The Slave Trade Act was an Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom passed in 25 March 1807, with
the long title 'An Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade'. The act abolished the slave trade in the
British Empire, but not slavery itself, as it was still legal. Slaves were not to be bought and sold across
British territories.
In 1823, the first Anti-Slavery Society was founded in Britain. Many members had previously
campaigned against slave trade. In 1831, the slave Sam Sharpe led a Christmas rebellion in Jamaica,
an event that catalysed anti-slavery sentiment.
On 28 August 1833, the Slavery Abolition Act was given Royal Assent, which paved the way for the
abolition of slavery within the British Empire and its colonies. On 1 August 1834, all slaves in the
British Empire were emancipated (around 668 000 people in the Caribbean).
The slaves were not totally freed but were indentured to their former owners in an apprenticeship
system, especially in Trinidad and British Guiana. This apprenticeship program would require the
fieldworkers (praedials) to serve 6 years, and non-fieldworkers 4 years.
This was done to buffer the labour shortage on the plantations. This apprenticeship program net
with great resistance from the ex-slaves because they knew slavery was abolished in 1834. The
planters had no choice but to look for a source of labour elsewhere.
Before the Slave trade ended, the Caribbean had taken approximately 47% of the 10 million African
slaves brought to the Americas. Of this number, about 17% came to the British Caribbean.
Although the white populations maintained their superior social positions, they became a numerical

Although the white populations maintained their superior social positions, they became a numerical
minority in all the islands. In the early nineteenth century, fewer than 5% of the total population of
Jamaica, Grenada, Nevis, St. Vincent and Tobago was white, fewer than 10% of the population of
Anguilla, Montserrat, St. Kitts, St. Lucia and The Virgin Islands.
Only in the Bahamas, Barbados and Trinidad was more than 10% of the total population white. By
sharp contrast, Trinidad was the only colony in the British Caribbean to have fewer than 80% of its
population enslaved. Sugar and slavery gave to the region a predominantly African population.
African Influence on Caribbean Culture
LANGUAGE - West Africans who were forced to work and live together when they were
brought to the Caribbean invented a common language. This led to the emergence of patois
(mixture of African, French, Spanish and English dialects).
CERTAIN FOODS - found and eaten in the Caribbean are also a part of the West African
culture, which often times bears the same name (yam, cocoa, asham, fu-fu, susumba, peanut,
etc.).
MEDICINE - this involves the use and administration of herbs and bushes. Folk medicine has
survived in the Caribbean regardless of the fact that that modern medicine has been
instituted. The use of herbal medicine came through visions and experiments by the slaves
who brought the knowledge of nature and its uses.
The Obeah men were the slave doctors who administered various teas, baths, potions and oils
for the purpose of healing (love bush for fevers, leaf of life for common cold, Jamaican Quassie
for malaria, soursop leaf to expel worms from the body, etc.).
MUSIC - African music can be identified in some Caribbean churches, festivals and theatre. The
call and answer style of singing style and the use of drums is indigenous to Africa. In Jamaica,
some of the melodies brought by slaves are present in their music (spontaneity, polyphony,
complicated rhythms and speech tunes). Some African musical instruments which are still
present are: congo (talking) drum, Abeng, xylophone, bamboo fife and Jamaican banjo.
ART - much of the ceramics, carvings and sculptures reflect a deep African influence. The
styles of Caribbean artists can be recognised as being similar to those of African artists.
FESTIVALS/CELEBRATIONS - many have a strong link to West African practices. Some

examples are: Jonkonnu, Nine Night, Bruckins Party, Dinki Mini, session and yam festivals.
SOCIAL RELATIONS - these included the concept of a village raising a child, family based on
kinship; blood ties, common ancestral spirits, respect for the elders, extended family to
include all blood relations and otherwise. The Africans were able to keep these cultural forms
alive which they passed down the generations by practising them secretly and on special
occasions.
The planters attempted to brainwash the slaves by forcing them to believe that the African
culture was barbaric and inferior. To avoid punishment, slaves were forced to adopt some of
the cultural practices of Europeans.
These Africans, however, began to mix the 2 cultures together in order to plea their masters
and to remain faithful to their heritage. The African culture emerged to be the more dominant
and was able to survive. The cultural practices of the Africans were also retained through their
association with religion, song and dance, which the planters viewed as harmless, and, as a
result, they survived from one generation to the next.
The Sunday market also acted as a medium through which African culture was retained as it
became a meeting place for the slaves. It gave them the opportunity to not only sell their

became a meeting place for the slaves. It gave them the opportunity to not only sell their
goods but to also consults the obeah men, listen to stories or music and to take part in dances.
RACE OF PEOPLE - Douglas, Africans and Mulattoes (half black and half white) and black was
called a Sambo.
RELIGION - Rastafarianism, Shouter Baptist (Shakers, Spiritual Baptists) in Trinidad and St.
Lucia were derived from the mixing of Baptist (South USA) with existing traditional African
belief systems (Rada, Shango and Obeah).
Europeans
The white planters first recruited immigrants from Europe and the Portuguese Atlantic Islands -
South Western Europe (Madeira and Malta). European labour was targeted mainly by Jamaica, in
order to increase the population of whites on the island.
The immigrants were introduced into the islands according to private contracts for 3-5 years. During
the years of 1834-1838, thousands of Scots, Irish and a few German settlers began arriving.
The importation of Maltese began as early as 1835 but was suspended in 1839 for the British
government to examine the logistic feasibility scheme. From 1841-1850, many thousands more
moved to Guiana (Guyana). However, it was deemed unsatisfactory.

The Historical Process - Migratory Movements From 1838
Free Africans on the Move

When the apprenticeship ended, Trinidad, Jamaica and British Guiana all suffered major labour
shortages. British Guiana and Trinidad appointed recruiting agents to search the other islands for
labourers.
Freed Africans moved to Trinidad, as much as 10 000 especially from Barbados. In 1879
approximately 14000 Barbadians were in Trinidad. This did not solve the labour shortage on the
islands as many of the immigrants would prefer to squat on state lands or find work in the towns.
Liberated African Migration

The movements of ex-slaves from the plantations after Emancipation in 1838 led to a labour
shortage in the British West Indian colonies, especially British Guiana and Trinidad. One of the
options was African indentured immigration.
The British government supported the idea because it was one way of finding 'permanent
settlement' for liberated Africans who were being sheltered at Sierra Leone and St Helena and its
expense. These liberated Africans had been freed from slave ships captured by the British in their
anti-slave trade campaign.
African immigration was desirable in 1840 because East Indian immigration had been suspended.
The immigration of Europeans was prohibited in 1841 because of their high mortality. Madeiran
Portuguese immigration was also unwelcome for the same reason.
In 1840, the British Government legally permitted emigration from Sierra Leone to the West Indies.
It should be noted the migration of Africans in small numbers had started before this date.
British Guiana received 1 733 immigrants, Trinidad received 170 and Jamaica received 686. The
numbers later decreased because of the dismal reports given by returning headmen who had
accompanied the African emigrants to West Indies.
In addition, employers and missionaries in Sierra Leone discouraged the emigration of Liberated
Africans. The low ratio of females who were allowed to migrate did not encourage the African males
to do so either.
It is noteworthy that there was a correlation between the growth of the Brazilian slave trade and the
increase in the number of Liberated Africans at Sierra Leone.
The space trade in Brazil had increased after the passing of the Sugar Duties Act of 1846, which
encouraged the expansion of the sugar industry in Brazil and led to an increased purchase of slaves.
Brazil enslaved more people than other country in the world, acquiring between 3 and 4 million
slaves from Africa.
From 1851 the African immigration movement declined because the Brazilian slave trade ended. The
African slave trade did not revive again until the late 1850s, when the Cuban slave trade decreased.
The pool of Liberated Africans from captured Cuban slavers became the source of the African
indentured immigrants.
The second revival of African immigration came to an end with the determination of the Cuban slave
trade in the 1860s. By 1865, African immigration to the British West Indies had ceased.

Indentured African immigrants entered the Caribbean in the following numbers: 13 970 to British
Guiana; 10000 to Jamaica; 8390 to Trinidad; 1540 to Grenada; 1040 to St Vincent; 730 to St Lucia
and 460 to St Kitts.
These Africans originated from: 400 from the Kru Coast, 16290 from St Helena and 15630 from
Sierra Leone.
Chinese
The first wave of Chinese immigrants arrived in Trinidad on 12th October, 1806 on the ship
Fortitude. Of the 200 passengers who set sail, 192 arrived (between 1853 and 1866, 2 645 Chinese
immigrants arrived in Trinidad as indentured labourers for the sugar and cocoa plantations). They
came, not from mainland China, but from Macao, Penang and Canton.
This first attempt at Chinese immigration was an experiment intended to set up a settlement of
peasant farmers and labourers. The objectives of this experiment were to populate the newly
acquired British colony (Trinidad), and more importantly, find a new labour source to replace the
African slaves who would no longer be available once slavery and the slave trade were abolished. It
was felt that the Chinese immigrants could work on the sugar estates.
Upon arrival, the majority of the immigrants were sent to the sugar plantations. The rest were sent
to Cocorite where they lived as a community of artisans and peasant farmers.
Living conditions were terrible and very few of the immigrants stayed on the estates for long. Many
of those who decided to stay in Trinidad became butchers, shopkeepers, carpenters and market
gardeners. The rest returned to China on the Fortitude.
Chinese Culture in the Caribbean
Links Caribbean to China and the East
Foods - fried rice
Religion - Buddhism
Race of People - Chinese
Prominent Chinese Trinidadians and Tobagonians
Sir Solomon Hochoy - last British Governor and first Governor General of Trinidad and Tobago.
Professor George Maxwell Richards - past President of Trinidad and Tobago.
Joseph Lennox Pawan M.B.E. - he was the first person to show that rabies could be spread by
vampire bats to other animals as well as humans.
Kwailan La Borde, sailor - together with her husband Harold La Borde and son Pierre was the
first Trinidadian to circumnavigate the globe.
East Indian Migration

When slavery was abolished in the British West Indies on 1 August 1834, the newly freed slaves had
to serve a period of four years for their former masters (known as apprenticeship).
When apprenticeship ended in 1838, many left their masters to set up their own smallholdings. As a

When apprenticeship ended in 1838, many left their masters to set up their own smallholdings. As a
result, many colonies, especially Trinidad and Guyana, suffered severe labour shortages and
petitioned the government for relief.
It was the immigration from India that would save the West Indies plantations. Between 1838 and
1917, no less than 238 000 were introduced to Guyana, 145 000 in trinidad and 21 500 in Jamaica.
They also arrived in some non-British territories: 34 000 in Suriname (Dutch) and 39 000 in
Guadeloupe (French).
The Indians were from different castes: Agricultural, Untouchables and Brahmin. They were housed
together and placed in gangs regardless of their caste. For the East Indians, plantation life afforded
them privilege of retaining many of their cultural practices.
Today, the greatest concentration of East Indians in the Caribbean are in Trinidad (460 000; 40% of
the population), Guyana (400 000; 51% of the population) and Suriname (147 000; 37% of
population).
East Indian Culture in the Caribbean
Religions - Islam and Hinduism, later Presbyterianism (festivals, rituals, etc.)
Landscape - Mosques, Temples, etc.
Language - Hindi (names of places, etc.)
Food - Curries, roti, doubles (hybrid food)
Dress - dhoti, sari, etc.
Festivals - Hosay, Divali, Eid, etc.
Music - Chutney, Chowtal, etc.
Cultural - heavy emphasis on educating the young, leading many people of East Indian descent
becoming doctors, lawyers, etc. compared to other groups.
Linkage to India - Bank of Baroda, Intercommercial Bank, Ispat, etc.
Race of people - Indians, Douglas, etc.
Agriculture - irrigation, cheap labour as well as expertise in and general lifestyle. For some,
plantation life in the region was one of oppression and as soon as they could, they left the
plantations and became involved in business (peasant proprietors who worked part time on
the estate and cultivated their lands (sugar cane, rice, ground provisions, fruits)).
Other Noteworthy Additions

Addition of people to the labour force of principally British Guiana and Trinidad, but also of
Jamaica, in the immediate post-emancipation period.
The many ways in which Indo-Caribbean populations became the backbone of the sugar
industry of especially British Guiana and Trinidad in the post emancipation period.
Key Caribbean intellectuals are Indo-Caribbean, such as Nobel Prize winner for literature, Vidia
Naipaul, as well as Professor Patricia Mohammed, who writes on gender and cultural issues.

The Historical Process - Diasporic Communities
From 1838, with the abolition of slavery as well as the non-profitability of indentured labour,
thousands of ex-plantation workers in the Caribbean were left without work (Indians, Africans in
particular). It is this hard economic time which led many Caribbean nationals to migrate within the
Caribbean (inter-regional migration) and seek work on other Caribbean islands/countries.
In the larger Caribbean territories (Jamaica and Hispaniola), the British West Indians migrated to
Cuba and Panama, the reason being the closeness to their homeland.
The British West Indians from the smaller Lesser Antilles (Barbados, St. Vincent, Grenada, etc.)
moved to Trinidad, which was closer than Cuba and Panama.
Some British West Indians also migrated outside of the Caribbean region (London, New York) to find
work and a better standard of living.
Cuba and Dominican Republic

In the early 1900's (up to WWI), many British West Indians from Jamaica in particular, migrated to
Cuba (before Castro revolution) and the Dominican Republic with the hope of finding employment
on the plantations as well as the ports in these countries.
Few workers came from the southern Caribbean countries e.g. Trinidad, Barbados, etc. because of
the far distances involved. The plan of the British West Indies was to seek employment, make money
and then migrate back to their country of origin.
The plantations were run by American companies and the wages were considered to be excellent. In
Cuba, there were tobacco and sugar plantations and in the Dominican Republic were sugar
plantations as well. There were even jobs on the newly developed ports of Cuba and Dominican
Republic and porter jobs were available.
After workers worked on the plantations and ports, many of them migrated back to their British
West Indian Territory. Some indicate that this internal migration helped spark labour riots and
movements in Trinidad and other countries (the returning British West Indians workers from
Trinidad were accustomed to higher wages on the American plantations and ports and when they
were back home, they realised that the wages were very poor and many of them clamoured for
better wages by staging labour riots and forming labour movements.)
Trinidad
In the early 1900's after Emancipation, thousands of British West Indians from the Lesser Antilles
(Barbados, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, St. Lucia and Grenada) migrated to Trinidad looking for
work in the oil sector, plantations (sugar cane) as well as the port in Port-of-Spain. The majority of
migrants chose to locate close to the city and the slums of the Beetham and Lavantille was created.
Thousands of these small islanders were also brought to Trinidad for votes (Dr. Eric Williams) for the
PNM and were also placed in the Beetham and Lavantille. Up to this day the communities of
Lavantille and Beetham, are mainly third generation Lesser Antilleans. These 2 communities are
poverty stricken.
It was also the returning workers to Trinidad that started labour riots, marches, etc.
Panama

Panama
Because the isthmus holds a central position as a transit zone, Panama has long enjoyed a measure
of ethnic diversity. Broadly speaking, Panamanians viewed their society as composed of 3 principal
groups: the Spanish-speaking, Roman Catholic mestizo majority; the English-speaking, Protestant
Antillean Blacks; and tribal Indians. Small numbers of those of foreign extraction - Chinese, Jews,
Arabs, Greeks, South Asians, Lebanese, West Europeans, and North Americans were also present.
Black labourers from the British West Indies came to Panama by the tens of thousands in the first
half of the 20th century. Most were involved in the isthmus transportation system, but many came
to work in the country's banana plantations as well.
By 1910, the Panama Canal Company had employed more than 50 000 workers, three-quarters of
whom were Antillean Blacks. The majority of workers came from Jamaica, followed by Barbados.
London
After World War II (1945-1948) there was mass migration to London. Knotting Hill Carnival was
started by Caribbean immigrants.
In these Caribbean communities outside of the Caribbean, there is the presence of Caribbean foods
(doubles, roti, callaloo, pelau, etc), music (reggae, soca, chutney,etc), religion, festivals, language
(dialect), etc. These Caribbean communities outside of the Caribbean include:
Queens and the Bronx in New York

Toronto in Canada
London, Leicester, Leeds, Bristol, Cardiff, Liverpool, Nottingham and Manchester in England
In the UK census of 2001, 565,876 people classified themselves in the category 'Black Caribbean'
(about 1% of the population). New York City is multicultural. About 36% of the city's population is
foreign-born, one of the highest among US cities. The ten nations constituting the largest sources of
modern immigration to New York City are:
The Dominican Republic

China
Jamaica
Guyana
Mexico
Ecuador
Haiti
Trinidad and Tobago
Colombia
Russia

The Historical Process - Systems of Production
In the Caribbean region, the Europeans employed many systems of production in order to produce
commodities/goods (gold, silver, sugar cane, tobacco, etc.) to sustain society.
The Spaniards revolutionised systems of production where the desired goal was the production of
gold and silver. The reason was that they thought that access to gold and silver would make them
the most powerful country in the world. These systems of production included:
Encomienda
This was a forced legal labour system that was employed mainly by the Spanish crown during the
colonisation of the Americas.
It is a process by which a grant of natives is given to the Spanish settler or encomenderos whom had
the right to extract some sort of tribute such as produce, gold or personal services in return for
Christianising and teaching them Spanish.
The native population was mainly put to work in the mines. This system of labour was a get-rich-
quick scheme and was very similar to slavery. However, it was not seen as slavery because the
natives were not displaced from their lands or family.
However, most of the encomenderos used their influence and power to take more land from the
natives, increase taxes and ultimately force the natives into slavery. This exploitation of the
indigenous natives eventually led to the breakdown of the entire encomienda system.
Repartimiento
With the New Laws of 1542, the repartimiento was instated to substitute the encomienda system
that has come to be seen as abuse and promoting unethical behaviour.
The repartimiento was not slavery, in that the worker is not owned outright - being free in various
respects other than in the dispensation of his/her labour - and the work was intermittent. It however
created slavery-like conditions in certain areas.
In practise, a conquistador or later a Spanish settler or official would be given a number of workers
to supervise, who would labour in farms and mines.
The one in charge of doing the reparto (distribution) of workers was the Alcalde Mayor (local
magistrate) of the city.
Native communities that were close to Spanish populations were required to provide a percentage
of their people (2-4%) to work in agriculture, construction of houses, streets, etc.
The demise of the number of natives in the Americas came about due to European diseases
(smallpox, influenza, measles and typhus), to which the native populations had no resistance, as well
as to desertion of the work fields, led to the substitution of the encomienda system and the creation
of privately owned farms and haciendas.
Many native people escaped the encomienda and repartimiento by leaving their communities. Some
looked for wage labour; others signed contracts (asientos) for 6 months to 1 year, during which the
worker was required to be paid a salary (something the Spanish Crown did not enforce or support)
and provided living quarters as well as religious services.
There were many cases in which both wage and repartimiento labourers worked side-by-side on

There were many cases in which both wage and repartimiento labourers worked side-by-side on
farms, mines, obrajes or haciendas.
It should be noted that some indicate that the encomienda and repartimiento systems of production
was not exploitative in nature as they offered benefits to the natives:
Tainos were oppressed by Kalinagos through raids and enslavement of women folk, therefore
they were given protection.
Tainos were hunters/gatherers of their food, which led to malnutrition in many cases, as food
was hard to find. They were provided with food by the Spaniards.
The natives were given religion (Roman Catholic).
They were educated in Spanish and given a language.
They were provided with shelter and clothing.
Slavery
Slavery is a production system under which people were treated as property under which people
were bought and sold and forced to work. In the Caribbean, it is synonymous with the African
people.
The slaves were housed in simple huts, made of thatched roofs. Most slave quarters only had one
window and one door. The huts were not living quarters, but sleeping quarters.
The males were separated from the women and children so family life was not permitted.
The slaves were given arbitrary names by planters (e.g. Nero, Dido, etc.) and their owners kept
stockbooks which listed them like cattle/livestock.
They were classified according to the work they did, e.g. Field slaves, domestic slaves, artesian
slaves, etc.
The field slaves were treated the worst and were required to work long hard hours and if he did not
keep pace with other slaves, he would be beaten by the driver or another slave.
The runaway slaves, if captured, were severely beaten in front of the others to set an example
Slaves were treated in the most in humane manner, being deprived of the basic necessities such as
food, medical attention, proper clothing and suitable shelter.
Indentureship
This is a process by which labourers were contracted for employment for a specific number of years
for a wage. Many indentured labourers came to the Caribbean from India, Malta, China, etc.
This meant that they would work on plantations in similar conditions to slavery. However, when the
terms of their contract had terminated (usually 5 years), they were allowed to leave. The bonded
worker, however, was given a very basic salary.
The indentured were treated very harshly, in many instances, their wages were withheld or they
were given a tremendous, unrealistic amount of work to complete in a time frame and therefore the
labourers were by even earning a minimum wage.
The labourers were held in barracks along with their families. Very few barracks had cooking

The labourers were held in barracks along with their families. Very few barracks had cooking
facilities, sanitary conveniences or a regular water supply.
On each plantation, a hospital was required. These hospitals were usually holding bays of the former
slaves. Conditions were so bad that the authorities had to pass a 3 month sentences for running
away.
The labourers were supplied with poor food, which often lead to malnutrition and other illnesses.
The barracks were infested with parasites, such as hookworms and grounditch. In Trinidad in 1911,
there were 10000 registered immigrants and 24000 cases of reported illnesses. There were over
8400 cases of malaria.
In many instances, runaway indentured labourers were severely beaten and they were not allowed
to move freely around the country. They were restricted to the plantations for the duration of their
labour.
If the planters found that the labourers were not working hard enough, they used the magistrate's
court in their favour as they summonsed poor labourers for poor work or some offense that would
mean a fine or jail time if they were found guilty. (E.g. In Trinidad, between 1898 and 1905, planters
charged more than 1 in 5 for absence, desertion, vagrancy and idleness.
At the end of the contracted labour, the indentured labourer was free to return to his/her
homeland.
Differences Between Slavery and Indentureship
Indentured labourers were paid for their work, no matter how low the wages were. Slaves
were not paid.
Indentured labourers were free to return to India when their contract had expired. The slaves
were not sent back to their homeland.
Slavery was hereditary but indentured labour was not.
Slavery could only end if the slave master set them free, whereas indentured labour stopped
when the contract expired.
Slaves could not give evidence in court for ill-treatment, but the indentured could.
The indentured were allowed to carry on family life as well as their cultural trades. However,
the slaves could not.
Similarities of Slavery and Indentureship
Both groups were overworked to the point of some actually dying.
Both groups were beaten by planters for running away, poor work, etc. if caught.
Both lived in very unsanitary conditions, e.g. lack of running water, etc.
Both groups at the end of slavery and indentureship were treated as 2nd class citizens as they
shared the lower stratas in the social hierarchy.
Both groups were converted to Christianity at some point.
Both labour systems were exploitative of nature as they were treated unfairly and taken

Both labour systems were exploitative of nature as they were treated unfairly and taken
advantage of by the plantations owners for economic gains.
The Plantation System

The plantation system was an exploitative situation in which the planter took advantage of different
groups of people to produce goods and services.
This system of production included slavery, indentureship, encomienda, etc. as a means of

producing goods.
Characteristics of the Plantation System
It was an agricultural system based on cash crops. It was a monoculture system, e.g. sugar
cane, tobacco, etc.
A productive labour force involved forced labour, such as slavery and encomienda.
The population was not self-sustaining, i.e. there was always a reduction in the labour force
and had to constantly be resupplied.
The agricultural enterprise was organised in large-scale capitalist plantations. (It was a free
market and profits were maximised).
It was feudal
It encouraged long distance trade - the goods were not only transported to great distances
(metropoles)
There was political control by the metropole on the colonies.
Slash and Burn

Definition and history
Characteristics of Slash and Burn
It is for peasant/subsistence farmers.
It is practised in high relief areas, e.g. Blue Mountain
The farmer burns down the forested area to clear the land and to fertilise the soil.
Various food crops are planted to maximise space.
After productivity has declined, the farmer moves on to another area.

The Historical Process - Responses to Oppression &
Genocide
Friday, 9 October 2015 3:53 PM
The Amerindians and the Africans suffered severely under the system of plantation production. Their
subjugation by European colonists was certainly linked to the exploitation of labour in order to
derive surplus value.
Both communities suffered, but they did not necessarily suffer in silence. Their disagreement with
their subjugation was manifested in several practices.
Amerindians' Resistance
Violent Revolts
These revolts were easily contained by the Spaniards because of their advanced weaponry.
The Arawaks were seen as peaceful people, but when colonised, they were known to attack the
Spaniards, even though the attacks were without much success.
In the early years of colonialism, as the Europeans were trying to capture islands of the Lesser
Antilles, the Caribs would launch surprise attacks which were quick and calculated and then retreat
into the interior of the islands for safety.
These attacks frustrated the Europeans, but eventually, because of their influx and superior
weaponry, drove the Caribs out of most islands. They then retreated to Dominica and Grenada. It
took many years to fully colonise some of these islands because of the battles with the Caribs.
Joining With Other Groups
In some instances, the Amerindians joined with other groups to fight the colonisers because they
shared a similar goal. E.g. In St. Lucia, they mixed with the Africans to form a new group called the
Black Caribs.
This group did fierce battles with the British, but was eventually deported to the Port of Belize. Their
descendants are the Garifuna people of Belize.
Suicide
This was a passive form of rebellion as many Amerindians rationalised that life after death would
have more dignity than serving as slaves.
Runaways
Many of the Amerindians ran away from the plantations and settled into areas of countries which
were difficult for the Spaniards to get to, e.g. Mountainous areas of Dominica and forested areas in
Guyana.
Case Study of Tainos Rebellion
The Spanish began to create permanent settlements on the island of Hispaniola, soon after
Columbus' arrival in the Caribbean.
The coast of Cuba was not fully mapped until 1509, when Sebastian De Ocampo completed the task.

The coast of Cuba was not fully mapped until 1509, when Sebastian De Ocampo completed the task.
In 1511, Diego Valazquez De Cuellar set out from Hispaniola to form the first Spanish settlement in
Cuba, with orders from Spain to conquer the island.
The settlement was at Baracua, but the new settlers were to be greeted with great resistance from
the local Taino population.
The Tainos were initially organised by Cacique Hatuey who had himself relocated from Hispaniola to
escape the brutality of the Spanish rule on that island.
After a prolonged Gorilla Campaign, Hatuey and successive chieftains were captured and burnt alive,
and within 3 years, the Spanish had gained control of the island.
In 1514, a settlement was founded in what was to become Havana. It took the Spaniards years to
contain this Gorilla Warfare, even though they had advanced weaponry.
African Slave Resistance

Sabotage of plantations and estate houses - tools and machinery would be damaged and
cattle/horses maimed. They would also secretly damage the roots of crops.
The women were delayed weaning their children until as late as their second year.
Some slaves tried to poison their masters.
Some of them committed suicide.
Exaggerated illnesses and injuries which made them unfit for work.
Impromptu revolts.
Slave revolutions (Barbados 1816, Haitian revolution, etc.)
Bussa Rebellion (Barbados 1816)
The British Slave Trade was abolished in 1807 and the slaves mistook it for emancipation.
There was a registry or registration bill also called the registration of slaves (1812-1815) in which
planters or owners had to register their slaves, this was passed so as to stop excessive punishment
as well as the illegal sale of slaves.
The planters were infuriated over the passing of this bill and saw it as interference in their domestic
affairs. The slaves misinterpreted this as being angry about a plan for their emancipation.
Some slaves who were literate such as Nanny Grigg, had access to local and English newspapers
from which they learnt about what was happening in England, Haiti and elsewhere.
An able leader, Bussa, emerged among the slaves. He was African-born. He worked as a ranger on
'Bayley's Plantation' in the parish of St. Philip around the time of the rebellion.
This privileged position would have given him much more freedom of movement than the average
slave and would've have made it easier for him to plan and coordinate the rebellion.
He commanded some 400 freedom fighters and was killed in battle. His troops continued the fight
until they were defeated by superior firepower. Although the rebellion failed, the impact was
significant to the future of Barbados.

The rebellion that he led is often referred to as the Bussa Rebellion and began on Sunday April 14th
1816. Bussa's Rebellion was the first of 3 large-scale slave rebellions in the British West Indies that
shook public faith in slavery in the years leading up to emancipation.
The Bussa Rebellion was followed by a large-scale rebellion in Demerara, Guyana in 1823 and then
by an even bigger rebellion in Jamaica in 1831-32.
Collectively, these are referred to as late slave rebellions, which were distinct from early slave
rebellions in terms of their scale, goals and composition.
Early slave rebels had generally been people born in Africa who organised themselves along ethnic
or geographical lines.
Late slave rebellions, on the other hand, tended to be dominated by Creoles (people born in the
colonies) and by acculturated Africans. Therefore, even though Bussa was apparently born in Africa,
the majority of his followers and other rebel leaders may have been Creole.
To some extent, Bussa's Rebellion seemed to have inspired the later rebellions, especially the
Guyanese insurrection. The Bussa Rebellion was planned by collaborators such as Washington
Franklin and Nanny Grigg, a senior domestic slave on Simmons' estate, as well as other slaves,
drivers and artisans.
Haitian Revolution
The Haitian Revolution of 1804 revealed that the slaves of St. Domingue made a concerted and
planned attempt to overcome the evils of capitalism and slavery. This spectacular rebellion was
inspired by the activities of the French Revolution of 1789.
The slaves organised themselves into a formidable force, led by Toussaint L'ouverture, Henry
Christopher and Jean Jacque Desalines.
The significance of the Haitian Revolution is based in the impact it had in neighbouring colonies to
ignite revolution. It toppled the aristocracy in Haiti and allowed for several migrs to flee to other
islands.
The end result of the revolution was the independence achieved by Haiti in 1804. It also successfully
repelled France and England. Both nations attempted to suppress the revolution, but failed.
Maroonage
Maroons were runaway slaves who settled in hilly terrain of the Americas. Maroonage thrived in the
larger territories because of the availability of land for runaways to settle on and the smaller
Caribbean islands offered no place for isolation.
The first runaways to set up their communities were some of the first African slaves taken to the
Spanish island of Hispaniola.
The most famous maroon communities were found in Suriname, in Las Villas in Cuba and in the Blue
Mountain and Cockpit Country of Jamaica.
The Maroons were responsible for fighting several battles with planters in an attempt to gain food.
Their guerilla tactics were quite successful, to the extent that the British were forced to sign a treaty
of peace conceding Maroon independence in 1739.
The maroons established their own independent communities. Some of the more successful

The maroons established their own independent communities. Some of the more successful
maroons built villages where they ruled themselves under their chosen leaders. They grew their own
food, provided their own medical care and often traded with other maroons.
Indentured Resistance
Runaway - Muharram Massacre
The Hosay massacre (aka the Hosay riots or Jahaji Massacre) took place on Thursday October 30,
1884 in San Fernando, Trinidad, when the British colonial authorities fired on participants in the
annual Hosay procession (local name for Shi'a Festival of Muharram) who had been banned from
entering the town.
After the emancipation of slaves in the British Empire, the plantation owners of Trinidad were
desperate for new sources of labour.
In 1839, the British government began a programme of recruiting Indian labourers (Coolies) in
Calcutta to be sent to Trinidad. They bound themselves to work as indentured labourers for a set
number of years on the plantations.
The mostly Hindu and Muslim labourers were required to work 7.5 hours per day, 6 days a week for
3 years, receiving about 13 cents per day.
At first, half of the recruits were women, but, in 1840, the proportion was reduced to a third of the
number of men. In 1844, the period of indenture was extended to 5 years with a guarantee that, if
they wished, they would get a free passage home at the end of the service period.
In 1853 the law was again amended to allow the indentured labourers to re-indenture themselves
for a second 5 year term, or, if they wished, to commute any portion of their contract by repayment
of a proportionate part of their indenture fee.
Industrial unrest in the plantations was gaining momentum to be followed by a deepening

depression in the sugar industry in 1884. This atmosphere was also fueled by frequent strikes. In the
previous year, there were restrictions on the use of torches by the African community celebrating
'Canboulay' and this resulted in violence.
The decisions by the authorities to restrict the Indians from entering towns with their processions,
which began on the estates were regarded as an arbitrary and unjust measure by the Indians. They
protested with a petition led by the Hindu Sookhoo and 31 others.
On the 26th of October, Administrator John Bushe consulted the Executive Council in the 'final
arrangements to made for preserving the order during the Hosay'. Acting Colonial Secretary, Mr.
Pyne informed the Inspector Commandant of Police, Captain Baker, instructing him on the
'deployment of police, marines, from the HMS Dido and a volunteer force'.
On the 27th of October, Captain Baker personally monitored the situation. The next day, Baker
reported that the Indians would make no attempt to enter San Fernando. In a series of telegrams,
Baker attempted to avoid an armed confrontation with the Indians. However, Mr. Pyne appeared
bent on such a confrontation to show the Indians who was in charge.
At midday, the first procession of 6000 was sighted approaching San Fernando, reaching Cross
Crossing at about 2:30 pm and proceeded along to the entrance of Cipero Street. There, the Indians
were met by British troops under Major Bowles of the First North Staffordshire Regiment.
The local magistrate, Mr. Child, read the Riot Act and when the crowd failed to disperse, Child
proceeded to order the police to fire upon the unarmed Indians. Two volleys of gunfire hit a stunned
Indian crowd.

Indian crowd.
At the Mon Repos junction of the Princes Town and Circular Roads, a similar fate was to meet the
Indians there. The procession was in sight about 3:30 pm. Captain Baker gave the order to fire a
single volley of bullets after the Riot Act was read.
Some reports suggest that 9 people were killed and 100 wounded at Toll Gate (south side of town),
while others were injured at Mon Repos (on the eastern side of the town) and Pointe-a-Pierre Road
on the north. However, Indian historian Prabhu P. Mohapatra suggest a higher figure of 22 dead, and
over a hundred injured.
After Slavery and Indentureship

Ideological resistance - e.g. Calypso, negritude, Pan - Africanism.
Upward social mobility of the peasant groups through education.
Migration out of the region.
Labour riots (1930s), trade unionism, political party formation, strikes, petitioning, etc.
Purchased contracts, thus freeing themselves and going into business, e.g. indentured
labourers and Chinese.
Accepting Christianity or practising African religion, e.g. Voodoo, Obeah, etc.
Demonstrating riots, looting and burning (e.g. 1990 Coup), protest songs, radio and TV talk
shows, strikes, sick-outs, go-slows.
Development of Peasantry
Peasantry refers to mixed production where farming is done for family use and sale. In the
Caribbean, it began in the second half of the 19th century, which was a major step in the lives of the
peasant groups.
They struggled to make an existence for themselves in a society that still had many of the prejudices
of the pre-Emancipation era.
Despite the fact that their legal position had changed eventually (emancipation), the peasant groups'
socio-economic positions changed very little.
The ex-slaves recognised that that their economic futures depended on their own efforts and began
to purchase parcels of land and squatted on others in order to grow crops that they had grown on
the slave plots.
It began with the maroons in the mountains of Jamaica and the bush-negroes in Suriname and
Guyana.
Early peasantry started during slavery, where in order to increase the food supply, slaves were
provided with plots of land for cultivation.
Practice varied according to the size of the territory and the nature of the land, e.g. Barbados could
not afford to give up much land for growing food, whereas Jamaica could.
The provision ground, however small it was, gave the slaves a 'breadbasket' of sorts. Eventually, it
developed into a free village system whereby the black population could become increasingly
dependent and self-sufficient.

dependent and self-sufficient.
The numerous crops that were planted on a large scale by the emerging peasant population in the
Caribbean were crops that had been in existence before the abolition of slavery.
Individual peasant farms average less than 5 acres in area, often in disconnected plots. The variety of
crops included fruits (e.g. mangoes, plantain, breadfruit, etc.), yam, etc.
Peasant farming by the ex-slaves and later by the indentured labourers is what led to the
monoculture system to the agriculture diversification.
For the purpose of peasant farming, the ex-slaves sought out the only land available, which were the
hills and mountains. Unfortunately, this land was unsuitable for agriculture because of the thin and
eroding soil.
Factors that Encouraged Peasant Farming in the Caribbean
Availability of Land in Larger Colonies (e.g. Jamaica, British Guiana, Trinidad)
Ex-slaves pooled their money to purchase plots of land.
Missionaries bought large pieces of land and divided it into small plots and sold them to ex-
slaves at lower prices. This also acted as an incentive for the ex-slaves to convert to
Christianity and to become members of Christian churches.
Many ex-slaves squatted on crown land, where available. Some estates were abandoned and
the land was sold at low cost to the ex-slaves.
Experience as Small Scale Farmers During Enslavement and Indentureship
The enslaved Africans were allowed to cultivate ground provisions on the plots of land that
was not useful for the plantations and this experience helped convince the move away from
the plantations and encouraged the peasantry.
Some had sold their produce in the Sunday Market and were able to save small amount of
money which helped to buy land when they become free.
The indentured also cultivated the land with food crops. These lands were given to them at
the end of their contracts as well as purchased from the savings in which they earned.
The Work of Missionaries
Various missionary groups, e.g. the Baptists in Jamaica, assisted in the acquisition of land for
the ex-slaves.
They helped in the growth of the free villages by setting up schools, e.g. the Presbyterians
Christianising and educating the indentured labourers.
In Jamaica, the Baptist ministers assisted by bargaining with land owners to get land at a lower
cost.
Factors that Hindered Peasant Farming in the Caribbean
There were problems with the acquisition of land for the peasants due to the high rents, lack
of crown land and the planters' reluctance to sell land.
The planters used legislation, such as the Squatters Act and the Tendency Act to make it

The planters used legislation, such as the Squatters Act and the Tendency Act to make it
difficult for peasants to acquire land.
Role of the Peasantry and their Descendants in Developing Caribbean Society
The groups stressed resistance to the planter class, who attempted to block the development
of the peasantry and then frustrate their efforts to create a free society.
The introduction and expansion of crops, such as bananas, cocoa, coffee, ginger, pimento, etc.
which exists to this day in many areas, e.g. banana cultivation in St. Lucia.
Peasants became self-sufficient and developed networks in rural areas and market towns; this
allowed for a certain level of independence among Caribbean people. This also developed
rural areas which were neglected by the planters and also created self-employment.
Peasantry gave rise to the money earned by the former slaves and indentured, as they no
longer had to work on the estates for low wages. It introduced them to being independent by
having to organise themselves for a new market and brought them knowledge of the trading
world, since crops were exported to other islands.
Since the peasants entered this business, the rigid class divisions that existed for many years
began to lessen. The whites at the top of the social strata now traded with the peasants at the
bottom of the social strata. From trading, they learnt how to manage their money. Time
management was also learnt since they no longer toiled for the average 16.5 hours a day on
the estate.
The establishment of free villages and squatter settlements on crown land.

The Historical Process - History of Carnival
Tuesday, 13 October 2015 09:24 PM
In 1498, Christopher Columbus landed in Trinidad and, as was the practice in the so called age of
Discovery and Exploration, took possession of the island in the name of the King and Queen of Spain.
The island did not have the promise of immense wealth like the other countries in Spains Western
empire. Trinidad was, therefore, largely ignored for over two hundred and fifty years.
In 1776, out of concern for this state of affairs, the Spanish king issued a Cedula of Population, which
opened the island to colonization by the French. A second Cedula followed in 1783. This saw an even
larger influx of planters from the French West Indian islands of Martinique, Guadeloupe and Saint
Dominigue. Arriving also were Free Coloureds and Africans. The French brought with them their
cultural traditions, language, dress, food and customs.
In 1797, Trinidad was captured by the British and was made a crown colony of Great Britain. The
British immediately began the process of colonization as they had in Barbados and Jamaica two
centuries before.
In this era, the period between Christmas and Lent was marked by great merrymaking and feasting
by both the French and English.
Historians of the nineteenth century wrote about the balls, fetes champetres (country style parties)
and house to house visiting engaged in by the white upper class. It was also the custom of the British
to impose martial law during the Christmas season. Military exercises were performed at the start of
this martial law.
The Carnival celebrations between 1783 and 1838 were dominated by the white elite. Africans and
coloureds (persons of mixed race) were forbidden by law to participate in street festivities. This is
not to say that they did not celebrate in their own way in their compounds.
During this period also, there were numerous balls, parties and other entertainment. This gave the
Africans some measure of freedom to enjoy themselves and engage in merry making. These
festivities, along with the pomp and ceremony involved in imposing martial law, provided the
Africans with ideas for some of the earliest masquerades for Carnival.
The pre-emancipation Carnival saw whites costume themselves as Negues Jadin (Negres Jardin -
French for Garden Negroes) and mulatresses. They also reenacted the Cannes Brules (French for
Burning Canes): the practice of rounding up slaves to put out fires in the cane field. With the
emancipation of the slaves in 1838, however, the door was opened for the full participation of the
Africans in the Carnival.
Cannes Brules
While Emancipation brought freedom for the Africans, it also brought new concerns for the whites.
The British were entrenching themselves as the new Colonial power in the West. The French had lost
their dominance in society. All the whites were caught up in the problems of labour, low
productivity, and financial structures. Therefore, the opportunity was provided for Africans to take
over Carnival and embrace it as an expression of their new-found freedom.
In the beginning they celebrated the anniversary of their freedom (August 1) by reenacting scenes of
Cannes Brules. Cannes Brules had its genesis during slavery. Whenever a fire broke out in the cane
fields, the slaves on the surrounding properties were rounded up and marched to the spot, to the
accompaniment of horns and shells.
The gangs were followed by the drivers cracking their whips and urging them, with cries and blows,
to harvest the cane before it was burnt. This event became known as the Cannes Brules Later

to harvest the cane before it was burnt. This event became known as the Cannes Brules Later
called Canboulay.
After Emancipation the slaves used this celebration as a symbol of the change in their status. They
engaged in masking, dancing, stick fighting, mocking the whites and reenacting scenes of past
enslavement. The August 1st celebration lasted for about a decade, after which it was transferred to
the pre-Lenten season.
The Canboulay usually started from midnight on the Sunday. This was, in essence, the beginning of
the Africans Carnival. During this period the whites and coloureds ceased their participation in the
street festival, thereby bringing an end to an era.
Cannes Brules to Carnival
Africans were unperturbed by the preoccupations of whites and coloureds and proceeded to
celebrate with gay abandon. They introduced their own musical instruments and dance movements.
The drum replaced the fiddle, the poui stick dethroned the sword, while the nut and minard gave
way to the Kalenda and Bamboula. The vigour and vibrancy of the African masquerade, the
militaristic nature of the Kalenda dance and the violence of the stick fighting rituals, were frowned
upon by the ruling class.
The Kalenda (Calinda), a stick dance probably of African origin, was a popular form of entertainment
for male slaves. It is an agile and dexterous dance performed to drums and chants while the dancers
engage in mock combat with their sticks (bois). In the second half of the 19th century Canboulay and
stick-fights dominated the Carnival. The main activity in the Canboulay was the stick-fight.
The term Kalenda emerged as a general term for the stick-fight, the dance, the songs and other
performances that accompanied it. The stick-fight involved two persons at a time with sticks three
and a half to four feet long, who would Karay take up a defensive position in the middle of a
circle (gayelle) and try to draw blood.
The stick fighters were organized into bands representing different social groups. They were lead by
a lead singer called a chantuelle or chanteuse, whose duty it was to egg on the fighters. The
chantuelle was supported by a chorus of women. The purpose of the singing was to deride the
opponent in song. These activities were all part of the Cannes Brules and they preceded the street
carnival of Monday and Tuesday.
The torchbearers, carrying flambeaux, led the march. They were followed by the batonnieres or stick
fighters, then came the king and queen and royal attendants, body of supporters, substitute stick
men, paraders, chanteuse, lead band. They all marched to kalenda songs accompanied by horns,
conch shells, rattles and skin drums. Cannes Brules marked the beginning of the organized carnival
bands.
The Jamette Carnival

This term was used by the French and English to describe the Carnival celebrations of the African
population during the period 1860 to 1896. It comes from the French word diametre meaning
beneath the diameter of respectability, or the underworld . It was used at that time to describe a
certain class in the community.
The Jamettes occupied the barrack yards of East Port of Spain. They were the stickfighters,
prostitutes, chantuelles, matadors and dustmen. They lived in appalling conditions in areas which
were rife with all the conditions for social instability: crime, vagrancy, disease, prostitution,
unemployment, sexual permissiveness and dysfunctional families. It is no wonder, therefore, that
Carnival was embraced with such fervour. For the Jamettes, it was a necessary release from the
struggle that was their daily lives.

The view of the whites was that the Carnival activities were immoral, obscene and violent. The
kalenda, the drumming, the dances and the sexually explicit masquerades were thought to be totally
objectionable. They were fully supported in this view by the contemporary press. Throughout this
period there was a sustained attack on Carnival in most newspaper editorials.
This ranged from outright condemnation to calls for a total ban. This was also the era of repressive
legislation. The British Colonial Government passed several laws banning many of the activities
associated with the Carnival including dancing to drums, carrying lighted torches and obscene songs
and dances.
However, it took more than legislation and police batons to stop the Carnival. The more repressive
the legislation, the more aggressive were the responses. Finally, in 1881 masqueraders carried out a
planned resistance against the police who attempted to stop the revelry.
In the aftermath of the riot of 1881 Governor Freeling addressed the people and declared There
shall be no interference with your masquerade. (qtd. in Liverpool 310). By acknowledging the
importance of the Carnival to the people he proved that it was much more than just music,
masquerade and dance but rather a necessary form of cultural expression.
Unfortunately, this reprieve was short-lived. The following years saw an increase in governmental
control over Carnival and pressure from the media to suppress the more objectionable aspects of
the Carnival. The people's Canboulay Festival was abolished in 1884 and replaced with a restricted
festival which took place at dawn on the Monday preceding Ash Wednesday. JOuvert (breaking of
the day) became well established, with the tamboo bamboo replacing the African drums.
The Canboulay and the stickfighters were eventually driven underground. Stickfighting, however,
continued to flourish in rural areas from Tunapuna to Sangre Grande in the east and Freeport to
Moruga in central and south Trinidad.
Carnival in the 20th Century

The first two decades of the twentieth century marked the gradual re-entry of the upper classes into
the festival, after having withdrawn from the celebrations for most of the latter half of the
nineteenth century. They returned after the Carnival was purged of some of its 'coarser' elements.
However, they did not take to the streets but came in their decorated trucks and lorries. It took
another forty years before they rejoined the street masquerade. Until then, they restricted their
participation to house parties, club dances and fancy balls.
Once again, Carnival took on a more organised and European character. Fancy dress balls were held
at the Princes Building opposite to the Queens Park Savannah. In 1922, the first major Carnival stage
spectacle was presented by the Les Amantes de Jesus Society a voluntary organization under the
leadership of M. Joseph Scheult. The Society gave an annual charity ball on Carnival Monday night.
This started in the 1920s and continued until 1948. This period saw increased participation by the
various ethnic groups and classes in society. The private sector also became involved, organizing
competitions and sponsoring prizes.
The Carnival Sunday night Canboulay procession of the post Emancipation was replaced by a
Dimanche Gras Show. This annual masquerade ball was organized by the Society of Les Amantes De
Jesus, when a new venue necessitated a change from a ball to a stage spectacle. This stage
presentation attempted to weave together all the main strands of Carnival dance, costume and
characters.
The Dimanche Gras Show was inaugurated in 1948 as a vignette in the Carnival Queen Show. It was
celebrated on Carnival Sunday night under the auspices of the Carnival Committee and continues to
be the premier Pre-Carnival celebration. Although it has undergone several changes it is still seen as

be the premier Pre-Carnival celebration. Although it has undergone several changes it is still seen as
an attempt to create a valid theatrical experience out of the mass of Carnival material (Hill).
In the early 1950s, with the rise in nationalism, the government decided that Carnival was too
important a national festival to be left in the hands of private enterprise. The CDC (Carnival
Development Committee) was therefore set up in 1957 and given the responsibility of managing the
carnival celebrations. The festival began to resemble its present day form with Jour Ouvert (later
anglicized to J'Ouvert) opening Carnival Monday from 4.00 am to 12.00 noon.
By mid-century, Carnival was completely under the control of the central government. This meant
more funding, more structure and increased participation by all sectors. This was the Golden Age of
Carnival. Bandleaders and designers sought inspiration from history, films, great personalities and
world events as they conceptualized their portrayals winning pieces.
The economic aspect of Carnival was evident even then as businessmen responded to the
opportunities created for the importation of fine fabrics and accessories for costumes.
Masqueraders too, were aware of the benefits of being crowned King or Queen of Carnival.
By the mid-1950s, mas became very competitive and a "Band of the Year" award was initiated in
1955 to recognize the effort that was being put into the presentations. In 1956, participation was on
the increase and more than ten bands crossed the Queen's Park Savannah stage with over 300
masqueraders. From 1957 to 1959, the Band-of-the-Year first place winner was awarded $500.
In 1957, an innovative bandleader from Woodbrook, Port-of-Spain, by the name of George Bailey,
made a stunning appearance on the mas scene, at the young age of 21, and changed the face of
Carnival forever. The authenticity of his presentation Back to Africa won Bailey Band-of-the-Year
honours that year when he beat back other breathtaking presentations such as Irwin McWilliams'
Ten Commandments and Harold Saldenahs The Glory That Was Greece. The extensive research that
was reflected in the splendour of Bailey's presentation compelled others to follow suit in later years.
In 1961, the first prize for the Band-of-the-Year was increased from $500 to $1,000 and, in 1963, a
breakthrough was scored by steelbands when the Silver Stars Steelband of Newtown, Port-of-Spain,
copped the Band-of-the-Year title with its presentation of Gulliver's Travels. It would be the first and
only time in the 20th century that this feat would be accomplished by a steelband. By the
mid-1960s, bands began to move from historical to fantasy themes and by 1969, the masquerading
population was on the increase.
Today, Carnival is Trinidad and Tobagos main tourist attraction and has inspired several Carnivals in
cities where citizens of Trinidad and Tobago have settled, including New York, Toronto, Miami and
London. Other Caribbean islands such as Jamaica, St.Vincent and Grenada have similar festivities but
Trinidad and Tobago Carnival remains the greatest show on earth.

The Historical Process - Movements Toward
Independence
Thursday, 15 October 2015 08:50 PM
Political Enfranchisement
Political enfranchisement refers to the right of the people/nation to determine their own affairs.
Emancipation propelled the process towards constitutional decolonisation (the process whereby the
colony achieves independence).
This idea of political enfranchisement came about of a number of reasons:
The internal migration of Caribbean people, as many former slaves and indentured labourers
migrated to different regions for employment, such as the Panama Canal, the oil refineries in
Venezuela and Aruba and the modern sugar plantations in Cuba and Puerto Rico.
The work experience that was gained exposed the workers to new and different ideas of
politics and economics and some indicate that this brought about a sort of independent
thinking for political freedom.
Caribbean men who had served the British army in the World War in far areas, on returning to
the Caribbean, were unwilling to accept their position in the society as low status individuals.
This is because they were exposed to different ideas and political philosophies.
The ideas and speeches of Marcus Garvey of Jamaica which infiltrated the entire Caribbean
brought about a black consciousness and nationalistic sentiments to the British West Indians.
The bad economic conditioning and violence of the 1930's also had an influence on achieving
political enfranchisement in the Caribbean.
During this time, there was widespread unemployment, low wages, dangerous working
conditions, etc. which led to labour riots, strikes and wide-scale protests across the Caribbean.
These acts of resistance were led by charismatic leaders in the labour movement, such as
Uriah Buzz Butler, Adrian Cola, Captain A. A. Cipriani in Trinidad, Norman Manley of Jamaica,
Grantley Adams of Barbados and Nathaniel Critchlow of Guyana. This was the birth of the
Trade Union Movement.
The early trade union movement also focused on improvements in health, education, as well
as social welfare. The leaders of the trade union also realised that the labour movement had
to be represented in the government, as that was the only laws could protect the union's
activities and the rights of the workers.
The traditional makeup of the legislative bodies only comprised members of the planter class
so they did not have the working class at heart.
The plan of the leaders of the union was to get elected to office so they could form a lobby
group with some influence and eventually push for internal self-governance and then full
independence.
The working class in the Caribbean looked up to these leaders who were fighting for them and
for the first time in the region, a uniform group challenged the colonial system.
The colonial system depended on the division in the classes and even races to foster their
agenda of exploitation of people, resources, etc.

The union movement brought the races together and it was the first time that the 2 races
were working together (East Indians and Africans) for a common purpose, setting aside
distrust created as a result of colonialism.
NOTE: It was the above factors which led to political enfranchisement as well as the influence of the
Moyne Commission paved the way for Universal Adult Suffrage.
Even though there were elections held in Trinidad as early as January 17th 1925, much of the
population was not permitted to vote (the franchise was determined by income, property, academic
qualifications and was limited to men over the age of 21 and women over the age of 30.
The Moyne Commission
Following the British West Indian labour unrest of `1934-1939, the imperial government sent a royal
commission to investigate and report on the situation while also offering possible solutions.
The report of West Indian Royal Commission, also known as the Moyne Report/Commission,
published fully in 1945, exposed the horrendous living conditions in Britain's Caribbean colonies.
This was seen as a turning point in Colonial attitudes. The uprisings were not seen as unprovoked
violence, as they had often been framed in the past, but rather as a justified opposition to a pathetic
existence.
Members of the commission asserted that the resistance that disrupted the Caribbean was not a
spontaneous uprising with false causes, but rather a demand from the labouring class for better and
less restrictive lives.
The commission made recommendations to improve the education, health and labour situation in
the colonies. One such recommendation was also to allow more citizens to vote for their leader of
choice (adult suffrage).
Adult Suffrage
Universal Adult Suffrage is the right of citizens in a given society who are entitled to vote in an
election to select, at periodic intervals, when these elections are called, and a government to
represent them.
In Trinidad and Tobago, the first-time universal adult suffrage elections was put into practice was in
1946 (all citizens 21 and over) and in 1976, the age for the suffrage was lowered to 18 years.
Trinidad Adult Suffrage
In the English-speaking world, certain conditions were attached to the franchise. Great Britain, from
whom Trinidad and Tobago inherited its system, started the franchise in 1832.
All registrations during the 19th century concerned men while women had to wait until 1918, the
precondition being that they should be 30 years and over based on residence, occupation of
land/business and the qualifications of their husbands in order to vote at local government
elections.
By 1928, women from 21 years old were given the franchise. Although the change vastly increased
the number of persons eligible to vote, the principle of one man-one vote only came into effect in
1948. The process gained further momentum in April 1959, when Britain reduced the age
qualification to 18 years.
The call for Universal Adult Suffrage together with internal self government was largely the basis of

The call for Universal Adult Suffrage together with internal self government was largely the basis of
the social unrest which occurred in Trinidad in the 1930's, popularly known as the Butler Riots.
In 1945, the British Parliament granted Universal Adult Suffrage to T&T, limiting the grant of the
franchise to persons 21 years and over. However, the 1976 constitution of the Republic of T&T
extended the franchise to persons attaining the age of 18 years.
The first elections to the then legislative council in T&T under Universal Adult Suffrage were held in
1946. In the other Caribbean countries, Universal Adult Suffrage was practised in the following
years:
Jamaica - 1944
Trinidad and Tobago - 1946
Barbados - 1950
Antigua and Barbuda - 1951
St. Lucia and St. Vincent - 1951
At this point, there was an internal self government but sovereignty was still not achieved because
the head of state (Governor General), Solomon Hochoy, represented the British Empire.
It should be noted, however, that internal self governance was not achieved into by pressure from
the British colonies. The British actually pushed/lobbied for the formation of The West Indian
Federation because the colonies were now economically unsuccessful.
It was not until Trinidad got full independence in 1962 that the Head of State was an internal person
(President). Some argue whether T&T and the rest of the Caribbean countries left its colonial post
behind when independence was achieved.
Many Caribbean countries still have a residual respect for their former colonisers. This respect was
accentuated by T&T being a member of Commonwealth. Even when drafting the constitution of
Trinidad, elements were still retained.
Rise and Fall of the West Indian Foundation
Governmental Stages of Independence
Ministerial System
The head of government department is chosen from the elected members of the legislation.
Cabinet Government
The government is directed by a body of ministers chosen by the head of government.
Economic Enfranchisement
This is a condition whereby a country or achieves the right to determine how it will develop its
system of production. The downturn in the sugar prices in the 19th century caused the decline in the
plantation economies.
Numerous plantations were closed down, especially in the smaller territories, e.g. Grenada,
Barbados, St. Lucia. There was no work for the ex-slaves as well as the indentured, so both groups, in
order to survive, started growing fruits, vegetables and provisions for their survival. The excess was
then sold in local Sunday markets.
As the years went by, the peasant farmers started to increase their produce and eventually, export
markets started to develop within the Caribbean and the outside world. Some crops that were

markets started to develop within the Caribbean and the outside world. Some crops that were
grown included bananas, coffee, arrowroot, coconuts, etc. Some even reared animals, e.g. Cows,
goats, sheep.
Without the Afrcians or Indians even knowing this, the local economy started to diversify, whereby
there was the moving from only one source of income from cash crops like sugarcane etc. there was
not food crops and pastoral farming as a new source of income for Caribbean people. There was also
a certain level of self sufficiency for the Caribbean people for the first time.
The Peasant Farmers/System Developed an Economic Basis for Independence

from the Plantation Society and the Colonial Rule By:
1) Developing a diversified local economy.
2) Freed slaves became self-sufficient as they received little or no support from colonial
authorities.
3) The both groups (ex-slaves and indentured) became independent of the plantations and low
wages offered by the plantation owners.
4) It started and developed an export market for the both groups.
After Trinidad became independent and the constitution drafted, business activity started to flourish
and there was now a functioning internal self-government which was now able to regulate business
activities/operations with reference to laws.
This meant that Trinidad was able to do to business without the colonial powers with other
countries, which allowed for more goods and services to enter the country.
This is where economic enfranchisement was achieved. With more goods and services entering the
country, ordinary people were able to become entrepreneurs (shop-keeping, savings society).
Entrepreneurial Activities Including Shop-keeping and Savings Society

Entrepreneurial activities after slavery and indentureship also aided in the road to independence.
The shop-keeping and savings society made Caribbean people more financially independent, but
more importantly, less dependent on Europe.
With financial independence, Caribbean people not only became financially stable but also
generated tremendous wealth, some of whom later financed political parties, developed businesses,
which generated more employment, provided goods and services, forged trading links with distant
countries, e.g. China.
These activities began very early in the Caribbean, where indentured labourers came up with side
businesses since they were not properly paid and started peasant farming, buying land to earn extra
cash.
Some indicated that this made them independent of the plantations. The indentured involved their
family to run the business and it expanded over time.

Characteristics of Society and Culture
Monday, October 26, 2015 1:58 PM
Society
A society is a collection of people living in the
same area overtime, sharing common interests.
Any notion of society popularly acknowledges

that the society functions in terms of a defined
territorial space. Therefore one characteristic
definition of a society in terms of a geographical
perspective is a defined territorial space.
The geographical perspective is important

because it suggests that people living in a
region/place develop ways of interacting
according to the location, e.g. the people
living around Soufriere Hills Volcano in
Montserrat have an intimate knowledge
about the areas to avoid and the areas
which contain the natural resources such
as sulphur deposits. These people, over
the years, have learnt to deal with and live
next to the active volcano. They share a
common goal.
In understanding the Caribbean society,

we must also take into consideration the
diaspora, i.e. the areas regarded as
Caribbean outside of the Caribbean, e.g.
Queens in New York.
The notion of society also has an ecological

perspective as its seems to suggest that
people develop ways of adapting to their
natural environment as well as adapting
their own environment using their own
knowledge and expertise, e.g. the
Caribbean islands are surrounded by water
and as such, there is no Caribbean island
without fishermen.
Historians locate society in 'time' and

belonging to a certain period, e.g. the
Roman society flourished at a certain
period. They also see society as having a
set of dynamic relationships. When
historians speak of a society, they tend to
stress the social formation - the structure
of groups and their relationships.
The anthropological view of society

stresses on the traditions which were
passed on from generation to generation
in different societies, e.g. the Roman

in different societies, e.g. the Roman
Society does not exist today, but legacies
of their culture has remained up to this
day (law, language, engineering,
architecture, etc.), and these elements of
their culture has even spread all over the
world.
In this case, the definition suggests that a

society may only exist where there is
continuity over time and space regarding
their culture, e.g. Hindus passed on certain
cultural legacies, e.g. language, foods,
clothing, etc. and this has been going on
for generations.
In society, certain behaviours, values and

norms are expected of its members. This
expected behaviour is necessary to
maintain law and order, cohesion of
members and continuity over time,
otherwise there would be chaos and the
basic structure of a society would cease to
exist.
In many instances, the society itself acts as

a guide to behaviour for its members, e.g.
it is acceptable to drink alcohol, but not
smoke marijuana. In many societies, this is
kept in check by social institutions.
Political scientists see the society as having

power relationships occurring. This is so
because a society is seen as a specific
geographical area which must be governed
by people in authority so that some
measure of order is maintained to keep
people together.
Common Characteristics of a
Caribbean Society
CULTURALLY DIVERSE - many different

races, religions, etc. live together for a
common purpose. The Caribbean has a
higher tolerance level to different
religions.
HYBRIDISATION/CREOLISATION - music
such as chutney, soca, etc. have originated
as hybrids of other genres. Also, food such
as pelau is a mixture of cultures.
Additionally, different races have mixed to
form new races, such as Mestizos.
SIMILARITIES IN ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES -

most Caribbean countries still primarily

most Caribbean countries still primarily
depend on fishing and agriculture for
income.
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION - this still exists.

People are characterised according to
certain traits, such as colour of skin, sexual
orientation, economic wealth. People have
been placed in an upper class because they
possess certain characteristics we may find
superior.
THE LOVE OF HUMOUR, RUMOUR AND A

FRIENDLY DISPOSITION.
Culture
A culture is a way of life of a group of people -
the behaviours, beliefs, values and symbols that
they accept and that are passed along from one
generation to the next.
Culture consists of beliefs, behaviours, objectives

and other characteristics common to the
members of a particular group or society.
Through culture, people and groups define
themselves, conform to a society's shared values
and contribute to society.
Culture includes many societal aspects, including

language, customs, values, norms, rules,
technologies, products, organisations and
institutions, etc. Common institutions are the
family, education, religion, etc.
Culture and society are intricately related. A

culture consists of the objects of a society,
whereas a society consists of the people who
share a common culture.
Culture is a powerful human tool for survival, but

it is constantly changing and may easily be lost.
Culture is a part of our everyday lives and
accounts for the unprecedented successes of the
human species in adapting to extreme
environments.
Characteristics of Culture
In sociology, the word is defined as the full

range of learnt human behaviour
patterns. Culture is learnt and shared and
it focuses on the way of life of a people.
The term focuses not on the specific

patterns of behaviour, but on how people
come to develop those behaviours in the

come to develop those behaviours in the
first place.
People who live together (society) develop

symbols that each member has to learn
about (gestures, habits, religion, values,
etc.). These symbols have meaning to the
individual and the society as well, so there
is shared meaning. Therefore, culture is a
learnt behaviour common to all human
beings.
This would indicate that values and beliefs

are at the heart of culture. However, as
people move forward into the future, their
values and beliefs will change, and this
suggests that culture is also adaptive.
Although behaviour is learnt, there is a

guide to these learnt behaviours (norms
and values in one's culture). In other
words, norms and values provide a guide
to acceptable behaviour.
Social Norms
These are the behavioural expectations and cues

within a society/group. The term has been
defined as the rules that a group uses for
appropriate and inappropriate values, beliefs,
attitudes and behaviours.
These rules may be explicit (law) or implicit (not

guided by law). Failure to follow the rules can
result in severe punishment, including exclusion
from the group.
The social norms indicate the established and

appropriate ways of doing things in terms of
dress, speech and appearance. These vary and
evolve not only through time, but also from one
age group to another and social classes.
Social Values
These are the beliefs of a person or social group

in which they have an emotional investment
(either for or against something). The core of a
culture is formed by values.
Many values remain unconscious to those who

hold them. Therefore, they often cannot be
discussed, nor can they be observed by others.
In addition to learning behaviours through norms

and values, they are also learnt from many social
institutions which prescribe behaviour (school,

institutions which prescribe behaviour (school,
education system, religion, family, social justice
system). e.g. the institution of marriage can help
dictate the behaviour of a husband or wife in
public, as their behaviour in society would be
different from a single person. Also education,
through hidden communication, teach
acceptable behaviour to its members, e.g.
manners.
The explanation of culture must include the

following:
Learned behaviour common to all human

beings.
Norms and values which provide a guide to
behaviour.
Institutions which prescribe behaviour.
Material Culture
This refers to the physical objects, resources and

spaces that people use to define their culture.
These include architecture, foods, ornaments,
technology and. . All of these physical aspects
of a culture help to define its members'
behaviours and perceptions.
Non-Material Culture
This refers to the non-physical ideas that people

have about their culture, including beliefs,
symbols, music, dance, values, language, etc. e.g.
the concept of religion consists of a set of ideas
and beliefs about God, worship, morals and
ethics.
Aspects of East Indian Culture
Material Culture
Indian clothes e.g. kurta, shalwar, dhoti

Food e.g. roti, paneer
Musical instruments e.g. harmonium,
dholak
Buildings e.g. temples, mosques, etc.
Non-Material Culture
Hinduism, Islam, fasting, etc.

Bhajans
Hindi (language)
Divali, Eid (festivals)
Dance
Extended family (family organisation)
How a Volcano Affects People's

How a Volcano Affects People's
Culture
Agriculture - soil will be fertile due to ash

containing sulphur.
Religious beliefs - threats of disaster brings
people closer to God. Persons would have
performed rituals to prevent eruption.
Perception of the natural hazard - the
citizens would have had an intimate
knowledge of the landscape to know which
areas are safe and which are not.
Settlement patterns - scattered settlement
pattern due to volcano.
High level of togetherness as communities
come together to help each other.
Interculturation
This is the mixing of cultures that goes on

between group of people living together in a
society. The groups do not necessarily give up
their own culture but participate in various ways
in each other's cultures and lives e.g. the mixing
of the East Indians although they do not share
the same religion.
Acculturation
This is the opposite to interculturation as this is

the erasure of one culture by a more dominant
culture, e.g. the erasure of the pure African
languages when they came into the Caribbean by
the more dominant European culture, e.g.
English.
Cultural Erasure
This is the dying out of elements of a culture or

group of people as a result of acculturation, e.g.
Hindi, the first language of the East Indians, is
almost non-existent.
Cultural Retention
This is the act of retaining specific elements of a

culture, especially when there is a reason to
believe that the culture through inaction may be
lost, e.g. basketry design in Dominica by the
Caribs and J'Ouvert in Carnival.
Cultural Renewal
This occurs when a group goes through a

conscious rejuvenation process and returns to
some elements of its culture, e.g. the Black
Power Movement.

Power Movement.
Cultural Pluralism
This is a concept often combined with cultural

diversity. In a plural society, 2 or more ethnic
groups share the same space but do not mix to
any significant extent. They may mingle in the
workplace or at school but live in different areas
and usually do not intermarry, e.g. Guyana and
Suriname.

Identity and Social Formation
Wednesday, 11 November 2015 09:03 PM
Cultural Diversity
This refers to a range of different societies in people of different origins, religions and traditions all
living and interacting together.
The Caribbean has benefitted from diversity throughout its history and is currently one of the most
culturally diverse regions in the world.
As various groups came into the Caribbean under the plantation system, they brought with them
various aspects of their culture (foods, religions, music, festivals, languages, etc.). It is these different
cultures living in one society which make it very culturally diverse.
It is not uncommon for the Caribbean region to be referred to as the most culturally diverse region
in the world. In fact, in 2012, T&T was voted as the best tourism destination by the European
Tourism Council based on cultural diversity.
As these different groups came into the Caribbean, they brought with them material and non-
material aspects of their culture.
These practices by the different ethnic groups have all been incorporated to create what is known as
the Caribbean culture. e.g. In Trinidad, one can find a Catholic school, a Presbyterian church, a
Muslim community centre and a Hindu temple in one village.
Eventually, there was the merging of some aspects of the different cultures as a result of prolonged
contact and some hybridisation/creolisation took place. E.g. the curry brought by the East Indians
have now been incorporated into African foods (e.g. yam and cassava) to create local creole dishes.
Some islands, however, are not as culturally diverse as others, e.g. the twin island of St. Kitts and
Nevis. This is because the population is mainly of African ancestry with similar cultural and historical
experiences.
Cultural Diversity Influencing Caribbean Society
Positive Effects of Cultural Diversity
It presents individuals with alternatives in terms of food, religion, etc. E.g. someone born into
a Christian home may want to become a Hindu.
Economic development is boosted, e.g. in 2012, T&T was voted as the best tourism destination
by the European Tourism Council based on cultural diversity.
Appreciation for other cultures - e.g. in Trinidad, a person will attend school to find people of
various races, religions, etc. in one class, and will learn to appreciate other cultures and may
reduce discrimination.
It provides alternatives in behaviour.
Hybridisation, mixing of music, food, races, etc. New ideas/values/beliefs can also develop.
Negative Effects of Cultural Diversity

Ethnic prejudices - some races, religions may be favoured over others.

Ethnic superiority - the 'us vs them' syndrome
Ethnic politics could develop in the country, e.g. in T&T.
Feelings of discrimination and distrust - civil unrest, labour riots, ethnic violence.
Ethnic and Cultural Differences
Ethnicity
This refers to social and cultural belonging - ties that bind people who see themselves as similar in
some way and who regularly interact. The most popular types of ethnic groups are race, religion and
nationality.
Race
This grouping of people is based on genetic inheritance, e.g. colour of skin, distinctive hair, facial
features, etc.
In the Caribbean, because of colonisation, there are many different races, e.g. East Indian, African,
Chinese, European, etc. Each race will bring its culture with it.
The different races interact and mix to create hybrids, e.g. Dougla (African and East Indian). These
hybrid races will also establish their own culture, e.g. Douglas can participate in Divali and
Emancipation.
Even among the same races of people, e.g. Africans in Jamaica would assume that they share similar
cultures. The Bush Negroes, Rastafarians, etc. all share the same race, but their cultural practices
and beliefs and totally different.
Religion
The different groups of people brought their different religions, e.g. East Indians brought Hinduism
and Islam. Europeans brought Christianity, Africans brought Ashanti, etc.
Creolisation of religions occurred, where religions merged (syncretism) to form hybrid religions, e.g.
Shouter Baptists (Baptists from America and Rada and Shango from Africa), Rastafarianism (Christian
elements were blended with African world views).
Even if one were to look at a single religion, there are many sects, e.g. in Christianity, there are
Presbyterians, Catholics, Anglicans, etc.
Nationality
This is the membership of a nation or state. It can be acquainted by birth within the jurisdiction of
the state, by inheritance from parents or by
In the Caribbean, because there are different groups, we all have ancestors from different
homelands, e.g. India, Africa, etc. and there are cultural ties to the homeland country, e.g. there is a
certain level of patriotism of Africans from Africa, Lebanese Women's Association.
With the younger people who were born into the Caribbean, the different physical environment
present cultural ties, e.g. Bajans appreciate coral reefs. This affects cultural diversity.
Accommodation of Different Groups

Different ethnic groups in the Caribbean have worked and socialised with each other. Under
colonisation, the different groups in the society were not all accommodated in terms of space,
political power, economic power and social visibility.
Space
All the ethnic groups did not have the luxury to own land or accommodate certain areas. The
planters controlled the land. It was illegal for Africans to own land. The East Indians were given land,
but the location was controlled.
After colonisation had ended with emancipation and independence, this strict control of land was
reduced and there were laws regarding the discrimination of groups.
In areas like Penal, there are different ethnic groups living there, even though it was firstly inhabited
by East Indians. This is due to the end of colonisation.
However, some argue that the control of land still exists. e.g. in St. Clair, the price of land is
extremely high and only whites can afford it. Also, some claim that housing programmes favour
certain ethnic groups, e.g. Africans.
Political
Under the colonial period, the legislative council made the laws. Only the planter class was in the
council. The working class was not allowed to be on the council.
In the period after independence, political power was taken from the planter class into the working
class. In today's politics, government is made up of mostly Africans and Indians.
Under the colonisation period, the laws favoured the planter class. Now, the laws are not
discriminatory. In the Caribbean, there is a conscious effort to help victimised groups, e.g. the
Ministry of Amerindian Affairs in Guyana.
Economic Power
Under the colonisation period, the planter class owned the means to economic progress. They were
the only ones with money. There were even laws which prevented certain groups from owning land.
Now, a capitalist system exists in the Caribbean, where everyone is free to earn money and own
land.
Social Visibility
This refers to how prominent the group is in society, e.g. advertising, politics.
Social Stratification
This is a system whereby society ranks categories of people as a hierarchy of classes (upper, middle,
lower) based on criteria such as religion, colour of skin, race wealth, age, occupation, education,
language, geographical area, membership in a social club, etc.
E.g. Wealth is valued in the Caribbean society and as such, rich people are placed in the upper class
as opposed to poor people who occupy the lower class.
It represents the structured inequality characterised by groups of people with different access to the
rewards of society because of their relative position in the social hierarchy.

It ranks some people as deserving of power, wealth and more prestige than others and as such, they
are treated differently depending on where their social position lies in the overall hierarchy.
This inequality may persist from generation to generation. The different levels of the hierarchy are
called social strata.
A status is a rank or position in the social hierarchy. The lowest strata, occupied by the poorest
groups, have low status. While these hierarchies are not universal to all societies, they are the norm
among state level cultures.
Stratified societies vary in the criteria they regard as important. In a closed system of social
stratification, it is based on Criteria, such as the Caribbean during the era of slavery (plantation
society), individuals could not move from one level in the social strata to another. During this time
period, the criteria determining a person's position in the social hierarchy were race and colour.
A stratified system or ranking of social groups is a form of institutionalised inequality.
This means that persons have less or more access to the rewards of society (wealth, status, prestige)
according to their social standing.
E.g. A Lawyer may be very poor, however, because of his status (job title), he is held in high esteem
and as such may be accepted in certain social clubs, have more access to economic wealth as
opposed to another person without the job title.
The Plantation Society
The plantation was an exploitative system of production that Europeans had devised in their colonial
empires. The plantation society became a sophisticated economic system that dominated the
culture and society of the Caribbean locking it to European economics.
This society, according to Caribbean scholars (R.T. Smith and George Beckford), evolved to be a total
institution and compared them to asylums.
These total institutions form isolated and enclosed communities in which the everyday lives of the
people are controlled by rules, routines and established procedure, in a sense, to brainwash and
resocialise the masses.
It was more than an exploitative system of labour and was seen as a rigid and inflexible system
based on institutionalised racism.
The total institution of plantation demanded that everyone observed the superiority of European
culture. The most dominant features of the plantation society are as follows:
A monocrop system where one cash crop is extensively grown for export, e.g. sugar cane.
The marginalisation of the peasantry and focus on large producers.
Demand for foreign products at the expense of local products.
Social stratification based on race/colour.
Whites were associated with wealth, prestige and power.
Individuals produced by unions between whites and others were highly favoured because of
fair skin, but not of the status and prestige enjoyed by the Europeans.
The whites were the owners, managers and supervisors and the other races were the manual

The whites were the owners, managers and supervisors and the other races were the manual
labourers, shopkeepers and tradesmen.
The labouring classes were encouraged to distinct each other.
The labouring classes were also to look for their progress to Europeans rather than to each
other.
Social Class and Stratification
Marxist Perspective
According to Marxist thoughts, the society is stratified based on the ownership of capital (money,
land ownership, machinery, etc.). The classes were as follows:
The Bourgeoisie
These are the people at the top of the social hierarchy that own the means of production in a
capitalist society. Marxist view the Bourgeoisie as emerging from the wealthy urban classes in pre
and early capitalist societies. The Bourgeoisie in the plantation society were the whites or
Europeans.
The Proletariat
These are the people in the lower class according to the Marxist perspective. They had no wealth
other than their sons. This is the class of people that do not have ownership of the means of
production and whose only means of subsistence is to sell their labour power for a wage of salary.
Marx saw them as low skilled, uneducated workers. In the plantation society, they would be the
non-white labourers and slaves.
Marx assessed that the Bourgeoisie would make considerable profits as they owned industries (land,
capital, machinery, etc.), and they will pay the Proletariat a minimum wage. This will not allow the
Proletariat to escape poverty or to ever own the means of production, as this was a way of keeping
the groups separate. It would also lead to endless conflict between the 2 groups.
Functionalist Perspective
According to Max Weber, social class in a society was based on prestige (those having something
that was held in high esteem, e.g. colour of skin, foreign accent, educational status, etc.) and power,
e.g. those having the power to impose their will on others - money, job status, etc. and not
necessarily on capital alone, e.g. a poor lawyer is held in high esteem because of his prestigious
position. He can move up in the social circles and earn economic wealth.
Weber also argued that the growth of a capitalist economy enables a third class (middle class) and
other sub groups (e.g. upper middle class). This would not necessarily lead to conflict because there
was a chance for upward social mobility. This is more reflective of today's Caribbean society.
Social Stratification in the Modern Caribbean
Colour of skin (Pigmentocracy)
Differently abled
Economic differences
Educational differences

Gender discrimination
Political affliliation
Geographical location
Social Mobility
Plantocracy
A plantocracy is a ruling class or political order or government, composed of or dominated by

plantation owners.
In the Caribbean, the whites were the plantation owners, as they dominated the political order and
also ran the plantations using slave labour and others. One's position in the social hierarchy was
determined by colour of skin.
Intelligentsia
The intelligentsia is a social class of people engaged in complex, mental and creative labour directed
to the development and dissemination of culture, encompassing intellectuals and social groups close
to them.
These people are usually the most intelligent class in a society as they are highly educated and
include theorists, writers in politics and economy, etc.
After emancipation was granted, some of the Africans and East Indians who were very intelligent
attended foreign universities, gaining tertiary education. They graduated in medicine, law, etc. E.g.
Dr. Eric Williams and Rudranath Capildeo.
These scholars were instrumental in removing colonial powers, as they formed political parties, led
labour struggles, led trade unions, etc. which pressured colonisers to grant these countries
independence.
It is this intelligentsia group that led to the upward social mobility of coloured groups after
emancipation was granted.
Middle Class
In the plantation society, the middle class would have been the freed and lightly coloured. This
group will fall between the whites (upper class) and the blacks (lower class).
Working Class
These are the manual workers in the plantation system (slaves, Amerindians, Indentured, etc.). In
the Marxist perspective, these people would have been the Proletariat.
Bourgeoisie

According to Marxist perspective, it was the planter class (whites) in the plantation society - the
upper class people who are wealthy.
From the functionalist perspective, these would be the people who have status (e.g. lawyers).
Underclass
This is the lowest class in the social hierarchy. In the plantation society, this would include everyone
except the planter class, especially dark coloured African field slaves.
In the modern Caribbean society, this would include extremely poor people.
Caste
The caste system was an extremely rigid social hierarchy system and originated in India. Under this
system, social stratification is closed/ascribed (born into a class).
This was a system under the plantation society, e.g. Africans were not allowed to elevate
themselves.

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Locating and Defining the Caribbean

Wednesday, 27 May 2015 09:30 PM

Location of the Caribbean

The Caribbean can be sub divided into groups:

Defining the Caribbean

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The Caribbean region can be defined as an archipelago of islands.

This excludes Guyana, as it is on a continent. It also excludes Belize.

Caribbean countries share similar geological hazards/landforms, such as volcanic eruptions,

Module 1 - Caribbean Society and Culture Page 2

a) A long and continuous occupation over time.

Occupation of the area by indigenous peoples.

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CARICOM Member States

1) Antigua and Barbuda

CARICOM Associate Members

Module 1 - Caribbean Society and Culture Page 4

Political Dependencies in the Caribbean

Queens and the Bronx in New York

The Dominican Republic

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Reasons for Emigration

1) More job opportunities (high unemployment in Caribbean)

1) Higher salaries and wages (e.g. doctors, nurses)

1) Further education (certain qualifications not found in the Caribbean)

1) Political victimisation (e.g. Cuba, opponents of communist government are victimised)

Negative Effects of Emigration

1) Reduction in direct/indirect taxes for a government.

Positive Effects of Emigration

Module 1 - Caribbean Society and Culture Page 7

1) Reduces impact on environment - pollution is reduced, especially in overcrowded areas (less

Benefits to Foreign Countries from Caribbean Immigration

Negatives to Foreign Countries from Caribbean Immigration

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Amerindians (5000 B.C.E. - 1492)

Amerindian Influence on Caribbean Society

FAMILY - village settlements along river valleys, coastal areas

RELIGION AND SPIRITUALISM - the Cacique was the High Priest

CUSTOMS - flattened forehead of babies, singing, dancing, tobacco smoking

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ARCHITECTURE - rectangular houses were popular using indigenous material

They were very proficient maritime explorers.

They achieved a level of sedentary living; they were no longer nomadic.

Conuco farming - reliable and highly productive supply of cassava.

In 1492, the Greater Antilles had a large concentration of Tainos.

FAMILY - village settlement

ARCHITECTURE - rectangular houses made from indigenous material

TECHNOLOGY - dug-out canoes, effective fishing methods, pottery with rims

They entered at about 1000 AD.

Spanish Influence on Caribbean Society

1) New religion (Christianity)

2) The wiping out of the Amerindians

3) Horses were introduced into the Caribbean

4) New diseases (chicken pox and smallpox)

5) Names of places (San Fernando, etc.)

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7) New crops (sugar cane, banana, citrus)

8) Different styles of dress (shirts, pants)

Genocide of the Amerindians.

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African Influence on Caribbean Culture