Understanding Color

Understanding
Color
Giordano Beretta
Hewlett-Packard Company
Palo Alto
http://www.hpl.hp.com/imaging/uc/
2000
Photonics West
Showcasing the power of Light

2 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r
Table of contents
What is color? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Color theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Color vision physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Colorimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Objective color terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Uniformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Famous color spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Measuring color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
Color reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Color appearance modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
Short color dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
U n d e r s t a n d i n g C o l o r 3
What is color?
Color is an illusion
Colorimetry: the art to predict an illusion from a physical

measurement
Experience is much more important than knowing facts

or theories
The physiology of color vision is understood only to a

very small degree
Physiology:
physical stimulus physiological response
Psychophysics:
physical stimulus behavioral response
What is essential is invisible to the eye

Antoine de Saint-Exupry (The Little Prince)
Terminology
CIE definition 845-02-18: (perceived) color
Attribute of a visual perception consisting of any

combination of chromatic and achromatic content. This
attribute can be described by chromatic color names such as
yellow, orange, brown, red, pink, green, blue, purple, etc.,
or by achromatic color names such as white, gray, black,
etc., and qualified by bright, dim, light, dark etc., or by
combinations of such names
Perceived color depends on the spectral distribution of the

color stimulus, on the size, shape, structure and surround of
the stimulus area, on the state of adaptation of the
observers visual system, and on the observers experience
of the prevailing and similar situations of observation
Perceived color may appear in several modes of

appearance. The names for various modes of appearance
are intended to distinguish among qualitative and
geometric differences of color perceptions
Color term categories
Subjective color term: A word used to describe a color

attribute perceived by a human. Example: the colorfulness
of a flower
Objective color term: A word used to describe a physical

quantity related to color that can be measured. Example:
the energy radiated by a source
We use objective color terms as correlates to subjective color

terms
Subjective color terms
Hue
Hue: The attribute of a color perception denoted by blue,

green, yellow, red, purple, and so on
hue scale
Unique hue: A hue that cannot be further described by use

of the hue names other than its own. There are four unique
hues, each of which shows no perceptual similarity to any
of the others: red, green, yellow, and blue
Brightness and lightness
Brightness: The attribute of a visual sensation according to

which a given visual stimulus appears to be more or less
intense, or according to which the visual stimulus appears to
emit more or less light
Objective term: luminance (L)
brightness scale
Lightness: The attribute of a visual sensation according to

which the area in which the visual stimulus is presented
appears to emit more or less light in proportion to that
emitted by a similarly illuminated area perceived as a
white stimulus
Objective terms: luminance factor (), CIE lightness (L*)
Brightness is absolute, lightness is relative to an area

perceived as white
Colorfulness
Chromaticness or Colorfulness: The attribute of a visual

sensation according to which an area appears to exhibit
more or less of its hue. In short: the extent to which a hue is
apparent
Objective term: CIECAM97s M
Chroma: The attribute of a visual sensation which permits a

judgement to be made of the degree to which a chromatic
stimulus differs from an achromatic stimulus of the same
brightness. In other words, chroma is an attribute
orthogonal to brightness: absolute colorfulness; we
perceive a color correctly independently of the illumination
level
Objective term: CIE chroma (C*uv, C*ab)
Colorfulness (cont.)
Saturation: The attribute of a visual sensation which

permits a judgement to be made of the degree to which a
chromatic stimulus differs from an achromatic stimulus
regardless of their brightness. In other words, it is the
colorfulness of an area judged in proportion to its
brightness: relative colorfulness; we can judge the
uniformity of an objects color in the presence of shadows
and independently of the incident lights angle
Objective terms: purity (p), CIE saturation (Suv)
saturation scale
Colorfulness is absolute, chroma is relative to a white area

and absolute w.r.t. brightness, saturation is in proportion to
brightness
Our goal
We would like to be able to predict the color of a

sample by making a measurement
Humans can distinguish about 7 to 10 million different

colors just name them and build an instrument that
identifies them
Task: find good correlates to the subjective color terms
Some observations:
If you want to buy a skirt or a pair of slacks to match
a jacket, you cannot match the color by memory
you have to take the jacket with you
Just matching in the store light is insufficient, you
have to match also under the incandescent light in
the dressing room and outdoors
You always get the opinion of your companion or
the store clerk
Three fundamental components of measuring color:
light sources
samples illuminated by them
observers
Spectral curves
quantities we can measure
The spectral power curve gives at each wavelength the

power (in watts), i.e., the rate at which energy is
received from the light source
The spectral reflectance curve gives at each wavelength
the percentage of incident light that is reflected
0.40
reflectance
human complexion
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
400 450 500 550 600 650 700 nm
Spectral color reproduction
By spectral color reproduction we intend the physically

correct reproduction of color, i.e., the duplication of the
original object's spectrum
The general reproduction methods (micro-dispersion
and Lippmann) are too impractical for normal use
For some special applications like painting restauration
or illuminant reconstruction, the spectrum may be
sampled at a small number of intervals and combined
with principal component analysis
Fortunately, spectral color reproduction is required only
in rare cases, such as paint swatches in catalogs, and in
this cases it is often possible to use identical dyes
Our aim is to achieve a close effect for a normal viewer

under average viewing conditions
Mathematically: build a simple model of color vision
Color theories
800 B.C. Indian Upanishads
there are relations among colors
400 B.C. Hellenic philosophers
Plato: light or fire rays emanate from the eyes
Epicurus: replicas of objects enter the eyes
First Millennium Arab school, pure science
Abu Ali Mohammed Ibn al Hazen: image is formed
within the eye like in a camera obscura
15th century Renaissance, technology
Leonardo da Vinci:
color perception
color order system
black & white are colors
3 pairs of opponent colors
(blackwhite, redgreen, yellowblue)
simultaneous contrast
used color filters to
determine color
mixtures
Opponent colors
Off-axis front views

W
W
Y
Y
R
G
G R
B
B
K K
Top view
Y
G R
Note: rendered with chiaro-scuro technique
Color theories (cont.)
18th century Enlightenment, physics & chemistry

Isaac Newton:
spectral dispersion, white can be dispersed in a
spectrum by a prism
colors of objects relate to their spectral
reflectance
light is not colored and color perception is
elicited in the human visual system
19th century scientific discovery
Thomas Young: trichromatic theory
Hermann von Helmholtz: spectral sensitivity curves
Ewald Hering:
opponent color theory (can explain hues,
saturation, and why there is no reddish green or
yellowish blue)
black and dark gray are not produced by the
absence of light but by a lighter surround
20th century advanced scientific instruments
Johannes A. von Kries: chromatic adaptation
G.E. Mller & Erwin Schrdinger: zone theory
physiological evidence for inhibitory mechanisms
becomes available in the 1950s
Color vision is not based on a bitmap
Vision is based on contrast

Vision is not hierarchical. The simple model
distal event

proximal stimulus

brain event
is very questionable. It is believed that feedback loops
exist between all 26 known areas of visual processing
In fact, it has been proved that a necessary condition of
some activity in even the primary visual cortex is input
from higher areas
Like the other sensory systems, vision is narcissistic
Many sensory signals are non-correlational a given
signal does not always indicate the same property or
event in the world
The inner eyes function is not to understand what the

sensory states indicate
Cognitive model for color appearance
Stimulus Detectors Early mechanisms Pictorial register
color
edges
contour
motion Context parameters
depth

chroma
etc.
hue
Color lexicon
lightness
Internal
chroma color space
etc.
amber hue
lightness
Action Color name Apparent color

representation
Reliable color discrimination: 1 week

Color-opponent channels: 3 months
Color constancy: 4 months
Internal color space
Color names
Memory colors
Vision is not hierarchical

Delk & Fillenbaum experiment
We tend to see colors of familiar objects as we expect

them to be
Surround
10
Sky
Complexion
Adapting
field
Vegetation
Color vision physiology
The retina has a layer of photoreceptors, which grow
like hair (10m per day). They are of two kinds: rods and
cones
The cones are of three kinds, depending on the
pigments they contain. One pigment absorbs reddish
light, one absorbs greenish light, and one absorbs bluish
light
This leads to the method of trichromatic color
reproduction, in which we try to stimulate
independently the three kinds of cones
el ls m
bers nc
i o s l l s ells h eli
u
i l l l e t
r v ef a ng e ce e lls a l c ne c ones t epi
g c t co & c en
i c ne n a l c r in l a r
z o n
&
t i a o r i d s m
op ret am bip ho ro rod pig
Evolution
From the difference in the amino-acid sequences for the

various photoreceptor genes it is clear that the human
visual system did not evolve according to a single design
Rod and S L and M
Finding Mechanisms Mechanisms
Distribution perifoveal foveal

Anatomy one class two classes
Bipolar circuitry
(only on) (on and off)
Spatial resolution low high
Temporal resolution low high
Psychophysics Weber fraction high low
Wavelength sensi-
short medium
tivity
Response function saturates does not saturate
Latencies long short
ERG-off-effect negative positive
Electrophysiology Ganglion cell
afterpotential no afterpotential
response
Receptive field large small
Vulnerability high low
Genetics autosomal sex-linked
Source: Eberhart Zrenner, 1983
Catching photons
Retinal pigments: rhodopsin, cyanolabe, chlorolabe,

erythrolabe
lysine attaches chromophore to a protein backbone
electronic excitation (two-photon catch) initiates a
large shift in electron density in less than 1015
seconds
shift activates rotation around two double-bonded
carbon atoms in the backbone
entire photocycle lasts less than a picosecond (1012
sec.)
photoisomerization induces shift in positive charge
perpendicular to membrane sheets containing the
protein
this generates a photoelectric signal with a less than
5 psec. rise time
forward reaction is completed in ~50 sec. (106 sec.)
Quantum efficiency: measure of the probability that the
reaction will take place after the absorption of a photon
of light
4 pigments sensitized to photons at 4 energy levels
(wavelength): L, M, S, and rods
Catch probabilities
For each pigment, there is a probability distribution for

a reaction, depending on the photons wavelengths
w() d
What counts is not the energy of a single photon, but
the average
For a spectral power distribution P:
S = P w() d
absorbance
S-cone
1.0
M-cone
0.8
L-cone
0.6 Rod
0.4
0.2
nm
0.0
400 450 500 550 600 650
Dartnall, H. J. A., Bowmaker, J. K., & Mollon, J. D. (1983). Human visual

pigments: microspectrophotometric results from the eyes of seven
persons. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B 220, 115-130
Retinal mechanisms
Surround
Center
Surround
Retinal Amacrine Bipolar Horizontal Receptor

ganglion cell cell cell
cell
Receptors in retina are not like pixels in a CCD

Receptive field: area of visual field that activates a
ganglion (H.K. Hartline, 1938)
Center-surround fields allow for adaptive coding
(transmit contrast instead of absolute values)
Horizontal cells presumed to inhibit either its bipolar cell
or the receptors: opponent response in redgreen and
yellowblue potentials (G. Svaetichin, 1956)
Balance of redgreen channel might be determined by
yellow
Ganglion can be tonic or phasic: pathway may also be
organized by information density or bandwidth
Parvocellular and magnocellular pathways
P M
Originating retinal Tonic Phasic

ganglion cells
Fast (mostly transient

Slow (sustained responses, low
Temporal resolution responses, some sustained,
conduction velocity)
high conduction velocity)
Chromatic Luminance
Modulation
dominance Adaptation occurs at high fre- Adaptation occurs at all fre-
quencies quencies
Receives mostly combined
Receives mostly opponent type (broadband) input from M and
Color input from cones sensitive to L cones, both from the center
short and long wavelengths and from the surround of
receptive fields
Contrast sensitivity Low (threshold > 10%) High (threshold < 2%)
Linear up to about 64% con-

LGN cell saturation At 10%
trast
Spatial resolution High (small cells) Low (large cells)
When fixation is strictly foveal,

extraction of high spatial fre-
Spatio-temporal quency information (test grat- Responds to flicker
resolution ings), reflecting small color
Short integration time
receptive fields
Long integration time
Could be a site for both a light- Might be a site for achromatic
ness channel as for opponent- channels because the spectral
Relation to color channels. The role sensitivity is similar to V, it is
channels depends on the spatio-tempo- more sensitive to flicker, and
ral content of the target used has only a weak opponent
in the experiment color component
Sustain the perception of color,
Possible main role Sustain the detection of move-
texture, shape, and fine stere-
in the visual system ment, depth, and flicker
opsis
Color constancy
Optic
tract Lateral Primary Blob
geniculate visual
Optic cortex
body
radiations
Axons of retinal ganglion cells in optical nerve terminate

at LGN and synapse with neurons radiating to striate
cortex
LGN might generate masking effects; combination with
saccadic motion of eye
Blobs in area 17 consist mainly of double opponent cells
May be site for color constancy
Requires input from V4 (Zeki)
Limited knowledge
Reaction time at rhodopsin level: femtoseconds

Reaction time at perceptual level: seconds
From photon catches to constant color names
We do not know exactly what happens in-between
Examples: simultaneous contrast, chromatic induction
1 color appears as 2
Appearance mode
Three flat objects or picture of a white cube illuminated

from the top and right?
Basis for colorimetry
Too many unknowns in physiology and cognitive

processes
Cannot yet build accurate color vision model
Unlike auditory system, visual system is not spectral but
integrative
Advantage of integrative system: metamerism
Basis of colorimetry:
1. Instead of a physiological model, build a psychophysical
model
Physiology:
physical stimulus physiological response
Psychophysics:
physical stimulus behavioral response
2. Assume additivity
3. Keep the viewing conditions constant
Colorimetry
Colorimetry is the branch of color science concerned with
specifying numerically the color of a physically defined
visual stimulus in such a manner that:
1. when viewed by an observer with normal color vision,
under the same observing conditions, stimuli with the
same specification look alike,
2. stimuli that look alike have the same specification, and
3. the numbers comprising the specification are functions
of the physical parameters defining the spectral radiant
power distribution of the stimulus
Trichromatic generalization: over a wide range of

conditions of observation, many color stimuli can be
matched in color completely by additive mixtures of three
fixed primary stimuli whose radiant powers have been
suitably adjusted (proportionality). In addition, the color
stimuli combine linearly, symmetrically, and transitively
Grassmanns laws of additive color mixture
Color matching
Colors are assessed by matching them with reference colors

on a small-field bipartite screen:
Color-matching functions
Given a monochromatic stimulus Q of wavelength , it can

be written as
Q = RR + GG + BB,
where R, G, and B are the spectral tristimulus values of Q
Assume an equal-energy stimulus E whose

mono-chromatic constituents are E
(equal-energy means E 1)
The equation for a color match involving a mono-chromatic

constituent E of E is
E = r()R + g()G + b()B,
where r(), g(), and b(), are the spectral tristimulus values
of E. The sets of such values are called
color-matching functions
3.0
Stiles-Burch (1955;1959)
2.5
2.0 b()
1.5 g()
1.0 r()
0.5
0.0
nm
0.5
400 500 600 700
Metameric stimuli
Consider two color stimuli

Q1 = R1R + G1G + B1B
Q2 = R2R + G2G + B2B
If Q1 and Q2 have different spectral radiant power
distributions, but R1 = R2 and G1 = G2 and B1 = B2, the two
stimuli are called metameric stimuli
0.6
reflectance
0.5
D
C
0.4 B
A
0.3
0.2
0.1
nm
0.0
400 500 600 700
Color reproduction works because of metamerism
Chromaticity diagrams
We can normalize the color-matching functions and thus

obtain new quantities
r () = r () / [r () + g() + b()]
g() = g() / [r () + g() + b()]
b() = b() / [r () + g() + b()]
with r() + g() + b() = 1
The locus of chromaticity points for monochromatic colors

so determined is called the spectrum locus in the (r, g)-
chromaticity diagram
2.0
g(m)
1.5
1.0 2 pilot group

Stiles-Burch (1955)
0.5
r(m)
0.0
-1.2 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Imaginary color stimuli
The fact that the color-matching functions and the

chromaticity coordinates can be negative presents a
problem when the tristimulus values are computed from
a spectral radiant power distribution
Because the color-matching space is linear, a linear
transformation can be applied to the primary stimuli to
obtain new imaginary stimuli that lie outside the
chromaticity region bounded by the spectrum locus.
This ensures that the chromaticity coordinates are never
negative
2.0
A: ~2856K
Planckian locus
1.5
D65: ~6504K

1.0
0.5 z2()
y2()
x2()
nm
0.0
400 500 600 700 800
CIE 1931 standard colorimetric observer
We want to obtain results valid for the group of normal

trichromats (95% of population). Because
R = P r () d, G = P g() d, B = P b() d,
an ideal observer can be defined by specifying values for the

color-matching functions. The Commission Internationale
de l'clairage has recommended such tables containing x(),
y(), z(), for
[360 nm, 830 nm] in 1 nm steps
In addition to the color-matching properties, the CIE 1931

Standard Observer is such that it has also the
heterochromatic brightness-matching properties. The latter
is achieved by choosing y () to coincide with the photopic
luminous efficiency function
X and Z are on the alychne, which in the chromaticity diagram is a
straight line on which are located the chromaticity points of all stimuli
having zero luminance
The data is based averaging the results a) on color matching

in a 2 field of 17 observers and b) the relative luminances
of the colors of the spectrum, averaged for about 100
observers
Tristimulus normalization
X, Y, and Z are defined up to a common normalization

factor. This factor is different for objects and for
emissive sources
The perfect reflecting diffuser is an ideal isotropic
diffuser with a reflectance equal to unity
The perfect reflecting diffuser is completely matt and is
entirely free from any gloss or sheen. The reflectance is
equal to unity at all wavelengths
When the tristimulus values are measured with an
instrument, YL represents a photometric measure, such
as luminance. For object surfaces it is customary to scale
X, Y, Z, so that Y = 100 for the perfect diffuser
In practice a working standard such as a BaSO4 plate is used in lieu of
the perfect diffuser
For emissive sources there is no illuminant and therefore

the perfect diffuser is not relevant. So it is customary to
use the photometric measures
Objective color terms
quantities we can measure
Dominant wavelength: Wavelength of the monochromatic

stimulus that, when additively mixed in suitable proportions
with a specified achromatic stimulus, matches the color
stimulus considered
(In disuse, replaced by chromaticity)
Luminance: The luminous intensity in a given direction per

unit projected area
L v = K m L e, V ( ) d

where Km is the maximum photopic luminous efficacy (683
lm W1), Le, the radiance, and V() the photopic efficiency
Luminance factor: The ratio of the luminance of a color to

that of a perfectly reflecting or transmitting diffuser
identically illuminated. Symbol:
Y
Y stimulus (luminosity in some literature): In the XYZ system

the luminance depends entirely on the Y stimulus. The Y
values of any two colors are proportional to their
luminances. Therefore, Y gives the percentage reflection or
transmission directly, where a perfectly reflecting diffuser
or transmitting color has a value of Y = 100
Y = V
where V is the luminance of the stimulus computed in

accordance with the luminous efficiency function V()
Chromaticity
Excitation purity: A measure of the proportions of the

amounts of the monochromatic stimulus and of the
specified achromatic stimulus that, when additively mixed,
match the color stimulus considered
(In disuse, replaced by chromaticity)
x xw y yw
p c = ------------------- or p c = -------------------
xb xw yb yw
where w denotes the achromatic stimulus and b the

boundary color stimulus
Chromaticity: Proportions of the amounts of three color-

matching stimuli needed to match a color (see p. 35).
Relationship between chromaticity coordinates r(), g(),
b() and x(), y(), z() of a given spectral stimulus of
wavelength are expressed by the projective
transformation
0.49000r ( ) + 0.31000g ( ) + 0.20000b ( )

x ( ) = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
0.66697r ( ) + 1.13240g ( ) + 1.20063b ( )
0.17697r ( ) + 0.81240g ( ) + 0.01063b ( )
y ( ) = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
0.66697r ( ) + 1.13240g ( ) + 1.20063b ( )
0.00000r ( ) + 0.01000g ( ) + 0.99000b ( )
z ( ) = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
0.66697r ( ) + 1.13240g ( ) + 1.20063b ( )
Uniformity
The X, Y, Z tristimulus coordinates allow us to decide if
two colors match in a given context. If there is no
match, it does not tell us how large the perceptual
mismatch is
Consequently, the CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram is not
a perceptually uniform chromaticity space from which
the perception of chromaticity can be derived
y
520
530
0.8
540
510
550
Stiles Line Element
Ellipses plotted 3 x
560
0.6
570
500
580
590
0.4 600
610
620
490 630
700
0.2
480
470
0
460 x
45
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
x = X (X + Y + Z) , y = Y (X + Y + Z) , x+y+z = 1
Uniform chromaticity diagram
The CIE 1976 UCS (Uniform Chromaticity Scale)

chromaticity diagram is perceptually uniform
u' = 4X ( X + 15Y + 3Z ) = 4x ( 2x + 12y + 3 )
v' = 9Y ( X + 15Y + 3Z ) = 9y ( 2x + 12y + 3 )

0.6 v'
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
u'
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
CIELAB
CIE 1976 lightness, L*

A non-linear function to provide a measure that
correlates with lightness more uniformly
Similar lightness distribution to the Munsell Value scale
L* = 116 3 Y Y n 16
Tangential near origin
Two color opponent channels a*, b*

3 3
a* = 500 X X n Y Y n

3 3
b* = 200 Y Y n Z Z n

Xn, Yn, Zn: reference white

D50: 96.422, 100, 82.521; D65: 95.047, 100, 108.883
von Kries type adaptation
Color difference formul
The CIE has defined two uniform color spaces, 1976 CIE
L*u*v* and 1976 CIE L*a*b* in which the difference of
two color stimuli can be measured
u* and v* (but not a* and b*) are coordinates on a
uniform chromaticity diagram. The third dimension is
the psychometric lightness
2 2
C* ab = a* + b*
h ab = atan ( b* a* )
2 H* ab 2
L* 2 C* ab
E* 94 = +
----------------
k S - ----------------- + ------------------
L L k C S C k H S H
SL = 1
S C = 1 + 0.045 C* ab
S H = 1 + 0.015 C* ab
kL = kC = kH = 1
Famous color spaces
XYZ + basis for all other CIE color spaces
non-uniform
RGB + can be produced by additive devices
+ linear transformation of XYZ
non-uniform
R 0.019710 0.005494 0.002974 X

e.g., G = 0.009537 0.019363 0.000274 Y
B 0.000638 0.001295 0.009816 Z
sRGB + contains non-linearity typical for PC CRTs
+ easy to implement
- non-uniform and non-linear
CIELAB + most uniform CIE space
+ widely used in the printing industry
cubic transformation
CIELUV + simple transformation of XYZ
+ uniform
+ related to YUV (PAL, SECAM)
less uniform than CIELAB
YIQ + used for NTSC encoding
+ black and white compatible
contains gamma correction
non-uniform
Other famous color spaces
YES, YCC + linear transformations of XYZ

+ black and white compatible
+ opponent color models
less uniform than CIELAB and CIELUV
YCC contains gamma correction
private standards
L*C*hab + has perceptual correlates
+ best for gamut mapping
+ perceptually uniform
cylindrical
not uniform for compression
TekHVC + has perceptual correlates
+ normalized chroma
+ derived from CIELUV
cylindrical
not uniform for compression
private standard
NCS, Munsell, Coloroid, etc.: not derived from XYZ
Pantone: not a color order system
CIECAM97s: see p. 61
Uniform discretization errors
Cartesian coordinates:
Cylindrical coordinates:
Illumination
The spectral power distribution of the light reflected to
the eye by an object is the product, at each wavelength,
of the object's spectral reflectance value by the spectral
power distribution of the light source
CWF Complexion
400 500 600 700 400 500 600 700 400 500 600 700
Incident SPD x Reflectance curve = Reflected SPD
Deluxe Complexion
CWF
400 500 600 700 400 500 600 700 400 500 600 700
The spectral power distribution of a tungsten filament

lamp depends primarily on the temperature at which
the filament is operated
Typical average daylight has a color temperature of
6500K, which can be achieved also by Artificial Daylight
fluorescent lamps, a.k.a. North-light or Color Matching
lamps
CIE standard illuminants
250
relative radiant power

200 D65
150
100
50
wavelength [nm]
0
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
CIE standard illuminant A represents light from a full (or

blackbody) radiator at 2854K
CIE standard illuminant D65 represents a phase of
natural daylight with a correlated color temperature of
6504K
CIE standard illuminants B and C were intended to represent direct
sunlight with a correlated color temperature of 4874K resp. 6774K.
They are being dropped because they are seriously deficient in the UV
region (important for fluorescent materials)
CIE standard sources
Illuminant refers to a specific spectral radiant power

distribution incident to the object viewed by the
observer
Source refers to a physical emitter of radiant power, such
as a lamp or the sun and sky
CIE illuminant A is realized by a gas-filled coiled-
tungsten filament lamp operating at a correlated color
temperature of 2856K
There are no artificial sources for illuminant D65, due to
the jagged spectral power distribution. However, some
sources qualify as daylight simulators for colorimetry
Measuring color
There are no filters that approximate well the color
matching functions
There are no artificial sources for the popular
illuminants D65 and D50
Todays hardware situation has changed dramatically
Embedded processors are inexpensive
Holographic gratings are inexpensive
Light sources are highly efficient
CCD sensors have much less dark noise
It is better to perform spectral measurements and let
the instrument do the colorimetry
Spectroradiometer: determine the reflected SPD
Spectrophotometer: determine the reflectance curve
see drawing on page 49 (Illumination)
Because they are a closed system, spectrophotometers
are very reliable
Trusting your instrument
Sooner or later all users enter a deep trust crisis in their

instruments. Some survival tips:
Illuminate your work area with a source simulating your
target illuminant
see what the instrument sees
Compact spectrophotometers have a very small
geometry; perpendicularity between optical axis and
sample, as well as distance to the sample are critical
maintain an uncluttered work space
The instruments light source generates heat, which
increases dark current noise in the CCD and causes
geometric deformations in the grating
wait between measurements
recalibrate
at each session start
after each pause
after a long series of measurements,
when the ambient temperature has changed by
more than 5C
Calibrations
White calibration: adjusts the computational parameters

so that the calculated tiles reflectance curve is the same as
the absolute reflectance curve
do it often
Absolute certification: verifies that the measured color of

the tile is within the tolerance (e.g. 0.6 E units) from the
absolute color of the tile
important for agreement between laboratories
Relative certification: verifies if the measured color of the

tile is within the tolerance (e.g. 0.3 E units) from the initial
color of the tile with the same instruments
important for reproducibility
Collaborative testing: verifies that the entire color

measurement procedure is in agreement with outside
laboratories
Collaborative Testing Services Inc, 340 Herndon
Parkway, Herndon, VA 20170, 703-742-9107
Effect of variability
A measurement is never perfect

The effect of variability of color measurement is reduced
by using multiple measurements
How many measurements should I make and average?
Rule of thumb: 10 for each variability parameter
instruments variability: measure each spot 10
sample uniformity: repeat at several locations
100
sample variability: repeat for several samples
1000

Follow ASTM standard practice E 1345 90 to determine
how many measurements are necessary in each case
ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohoken, PA
19428, 610-832-9585, http://www.astm.org
Improve all process aspects to minimize the required
number of measurements
ISO 9001
Geometries of illumination and viewing
On a glossy surface there are mirror-like (specular)

reflections
There are more reflections in the case of diffuse light
sources
Since the color of the illuminant is white, specular
reflections add white, with the effect of desaturating
the color
Non-metallic glossy surfaces look more saturated in
directional than in diffuse illumination
Matt surfaces scatter the light diffusely matt surfaces
usually look less saturated than glossy surfaces
Most surface are between glossy and matt
Diffuse illumination is provided by integrating spheres
usually they are provided with gloss traps
Instruments with 45/0 and 0/45 geometry are less critical
ASTM recommendation for partly glossy samples:
use the geometry that minimizes surface effects
(usually the one that gives lowest Y and highest
excitation purity)
45/0 geometry gives rise to polarization problems
Color reproduction
In most cases, color repro is simple and inexpensive because
of metamerism
Spectral color repro: equality of spectral reflectance or SPD

rarely needed
paint samples, metamerism assessment
Colorimetric repro: equality of chromaticities and relative

luminances
useful when viewing conditions are the same and
light source is the same
Exact repro: equality of chromaticities, absolute & relative

luminances
useful when viewing conditions are identical
Equivalent repro: same appearance of chromaticities,

absolute & relative luminances
useful when the luminance level is the same
Corresponding repro: same appearance of chromaticities

and rel. luminances when the luminance levels are the same
current focus of research in color repro; CIECAM
Preferred repro: achieve more pleasing repro of memory

colors by departing from equality of appearance
The additive method
Probable sensitivity curves of the human eye and the

three best lights for additive color reproduction
absorbance
S-cone
1.0
M-cone
0.8
L-cone
0.6 Rod
0.4
0.2
nm
0.0
400 450 500 550 600 650
Note the strong overlap in the orange-yellow interval

This means that correct color reproduction cannot be
achieved with simple trichromatic methods, because
there are always unwanted stimulations
Hence, the trivial idea of stimulating the cones
independently does not work with a simple approach
The subtractive method
The additive method has two major disadvantages when

the set-up is not light-emissive:
the required filters significantly reduce the
brightness of the image
the reproduction of a mosaic can be tricky
It is easier to generate colors from a beam of white light
and varying the proportions of reddish, green, and
bluish parts
On top to the unwanted stimulations, there is a problem
with unwanted absorptions, making the subtractive
method even harder to master than the additive method
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4 10%
50%
0.2
100%
0.0
400 450 500 550 600 650 700
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6 10%
0.4 50%
0.2 100%
0.0
400 450 500 550 600 650 700
1.0
0.8
0.6 10%
0.4 50%
100%
0.2
0.0
400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Color appearance
modeling
Recommended model: CIECAM97s
Do not use an appearance model when
stimulus specification is simple (CIELAB, sRGB, )
simple color tolerances (CIE94)
only one viewing condition
it is not clear it will help
What they allow you to do
map from measurements to color names
predict color matches across viewing conditions
render color across media
gain a deeper understanding of color
no metric for color differences
color
edges
contour
motion Context parameters
depth

chroma
etc.
hue
Color lexicon
lightness
Internal
chroma color space
etc.
amber hue
lightness
CIECAM97s
Conditions modeled
adaptation
discounting the illuminant
surround effects
Predictions missing from the model
rod contributions
color difference metric
constant hue lines
Helson-Judd effect
Helmholtz-Kohlrausch effect
Graphical representation
CIECAM97s is represented in cylindrical coordinates
lightness J
chroma C
hue h
trigonometric transformation necessary for plots
The color selection problem
Surround
10
Background
Color
considered
Adapting
field
Proximal field
This user interface problem cannot be solved without

color appearance model
Currently users converge towards their intended
rendering by trial and error
The gamut mapping problem
b*
Printer
a*
Monitor
CG Image
Measure original
Compute appearance
Gamut compression
Modify appearance (L*C*hab)
Compute colorant quantities
Summary
What you should take home from this course:
a more realistic expectation from color reproduction
color is more an art than a science
practice, practice, practice
develop your intuition
how to interpret the result of a color measurement
how to trust your instrument
beretta@hpl.hp.com
www.hpl.hp.com/personal/Giordano_Beretta
Bibliography
R.M. Boynton. Human Color Vision. Optical Society of
America, 1992 (original publication 1979)
J. Davidoff. Cognition through Color. The MIT Press,
Cambridge, 1991
M.D. Fairchild. Color Appearance Models. Addison-
Wesley, Reading, 1998
G.A. Gescheider. Psychophysics. Lawrence Erlbaum,
Hillsdale, 1985
E.J. Giorgianni and Th.E. Madden. Digital Color
Management. Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1998
R.W.G. Hunt. Measuring Colour. 3rd edition, Fountain
Press, Kingston-upon-Thames, 1998
R.W.G. Hunt. The Reproduction of Colour in
Photography, Printing & Television. 5th edition, Fountain
Press, Kingston-upon-Thames, 1995
R.S. Hunter and R.W. Harold. The Measurement of
Appearance. 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1987
H.R. Kang. Color Technology for Electronic Imaging
Devices. SPIE, Bellingham, 1997
H.R. Kang. Digital Color Halftoning. SPIE, Bellingham,
1999
K. Nassau, Editor. Color for Science Art and Technology.
North-Holland Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1998
A. Nemcsics. Colour DynamicsEnvironmental Colour
Design. Akadmiai Kiad, Budapest, 1993
H. Widdel and D.L. Post, Editors. Color in Electronic
Displays. Plenum Press, New York, 1992
S.J. Williamson and H.Z. Cummins. Light and Color in
Nature and Art. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1983
G. Wyszecki and W.S. Stiles. Color Science: Concepts and
Methods, Quantitative Data and Formul. 2nd edition,
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1982
Short color dictionary
English Italiano Deutsch Franais Espaol
absorptance fattore di assorbimento Absoptionsgrad facteur dabsorption absortancia
absorption assorbimento Absorption absorption absorcin
accommodation accomodamento Akkommodation accommodation acomodacin
achromatic (perceived) colour colore acromatico unbunte Farbe couleur (perue) achromati- color acromtico (percibido)
que
adaptation adattamento Adaptation adaptation adaptacin
afterglow postluminescneza Nachleuchten postluminescence postluminiscencia
alychne alicne Alychne alychne alychne
aperture colour colore di apertura freie Farbe couleur-ouverture color-apertura (percibido)
base; cap attacco Sockel culot casquillo
binary hue tinta binaria Zwischenton teinte binaire tono binario
bright brillante hell lumineux luminoso
brightness brillanza Helligkeit luminosit luminosidad
bulb bulbo Kolben ampoule ampolla
chroma croma Buntheit chroma croma
chromatic adaptation adattamento cromatico Farbumstimmung adaptation chromatique adaptacin cromtica
chromatic (perceived) colour colore cromatico bunte Farbe couleur (perue) chromatique color-cromtico (percibido)
chromaticity cromaticit Farbart chromaticit cromaticidad
chromaticity coordinates coordinate tricromatiche Farbwertanteile coordonnes trichromatiques coordenadas de cromaticidad
chromaticity diagram diagramma colorimetrico Farbtafel diagramme de chromaticit diagrama de cromaticidad
CIE 1931 standard colorimet- osservatore colorimetrico CIE farbmetechnischer Normal- observateur de rfrence observador colorimtrico
ric observer 1931 beobachter CIE 1931 colorimtrique CIE 1931 patrn CIE 1931
CIE 1931 standard colorimet- sistema colorimetrico CIE CIE-Normvalenzsystem 1931 systme de rfrence colori- sistema colorimtrico patrn
ric system 1931 mtrique CIE 1931 CIE 1931
67
CIE 1964 supplementary osservatore colorimetrico farbmetechnischer Gro- observateur de rfrence observador colorimtrico
standard colorimetric supplementare CIE 1964 feld-Normalbeobachter CIE colorimtrique supplmen- patrn CIE 1964
observer 1964 taire CIE 1964
CIE standard illuminants illuminanti CIE CIE-Normlichtarten illuminants normaliss CIE iluminantes patrones CIE
CIE standard sources sorgenti CIE CIE-Normlichtquellen sources normalises CIE fuentes patrones CIE
CIELAB colour space spazio colorimetrico CIELAB CIELAB-Farbenraum espace chromatique CIELAB espacio de color CIELAB
colorimeter colorimetro Farbmegert colorimtre colormetro
colorimetric purity purezza colorimetrica spektraler Leuchdichteanteil puret colorimtrique pureza colorimtrica
colorimetry colorimetria Farbmessung colorimtrie colorimetra
colour colore Farbe couleur color
colour equation equazione colorimetrica Farbabgleichung quation chromatique ecuacin de color
colour matching uguagliamento di colori Farbabgleich galisation de couleur igualacin de color
colour rendering resa dei colori Farbwiedergabe rendu des couleurs rendimiento en color
colour solid solido dei colori Farbkrper solide des couleurs slido de color
colour space spazio colorimetrico Farbenraum espace chromatique espacio de color
colour stimulus stimolo di colore Farbreiz stimulus de couleur estimulo de color
colour-matching functions funzioni colorimetriche Spektralwertfunktionen fonctions colorimtriques funciones de igualacin del
color
colourfulness predominanza di colore niveau de coloration colorido
cones coni Zapfen cnes conos
contrast contrasto Kontrast contraste contraste
contrast sensitivity sensibilit al contrasto Unterscheidungsempfind- sensibilit au contraste sensibilidad de contrastre

lichkeit
correlated colour temperature temperatura di colore prossi- hnlichste Farbtemperatur temprature de couleur temperatura de color correla-
male proximale cionada
dark scuro dunkel sombre oscuro
68
dark current corrente di buio Dunkelstrohm lumire du jour luz de da
daylight luce diurna Tageslicht lumire du jour luz de dia
diffuser diffusore Diffusor diffuseur difusor
diffusion factor indice di diffusione Streuvermgen facteur de diffusion factor de difusin
diffusion; scattering diffusione Streuung diffusion difusin
dim fioco dunkel obscur tnue
dispersion dispersione Dispersion dispersion dispersin
equal energy spectrum spettro di uguale energia energiegleiches Spektrum spectre quieenergtique espectro equienergtico
excitation eccitazione Anregung excitation excitacin
excitation purity purezza di eccitazione spektraler Farbanteil puret dexcitation pureza de excitacin
exposure meter esposimetro Belichtungsmesser posemtre exposmetro

filament filamento Leuchtdraht filament filamento
flash tube lampada lampo a scarico Blitzrhre lampe clats lmpara de destello electr-
nica
flicker sfarfallamento Flimmern papillotement parpadeo
fluorescence fluorescenza Fluoreszenz fluorescence fluorescencia
fluorescent lamp lampada fluorescente Leuchtstofflampe lampe fluorescence lmpara fluorescente
fovea fovea Netzhautgrube fovea fvea
fusion frequency frequenza critica di sfarfalla- Verschmelzungsfrequenz frquence de fusion frecuencia de fusin
mento
glare abbagliamento Blendung blouissement deslumbramiento
gloss lucentezza Glanz brillant; luisance brillo
glossmeter lucentimetro Glanzmesser luisancemtre brillmetro
hue tinta Buntton teinte; tonalit (chromatique) tono
illuminance illuminamento Beleuchtungsstrke clairement (lumineux) iluminancia
69
illuminant illuminante Lichtart illuminant iluminante
incandescence incandescenza Glhen incandescence incandescencia
integrating sphere sfera integratrice Ulbrichtsche Kugel sphre intgrante esfera integrante
Lambertian surface superficie di Lambert vollkommen matte Flche surface lambertienne superficie lambertiana
lamp lampada Lampe lampe lmpara
light chiaro hell clair claro
(perceived) light luce (wahrgenommenes) Licht lumire (perue) luz (percibida)
light stimulus stimolo luminoso Lichtreiz stimulus lumineux estmulo luminoso
lighting; illumination illuminazione Beleuchtung clairage iluminacin
lightness chiarore Helligkeit clart claridad
luminaire apparecchio di illuminazione Leuchte luminaire luminaria

luminance luminanza Leuchtdichte luminance luminancia
luminous colour colore luminoso Lichtfarbe couleur-lumire (perue) color-autoluminoso (perci-
bido)
luminous efficiency fattore di visibilit visueller Nutzeffekt efficacit lumineuse relative eficiencia luminosa
luminous intensity intensit luminosa Lichtstrke intensit lumineuse intensidad luminosa
metamers metameri metamere Farbreize mtamres estmulos metmeros

mixture of colour stimuli miscela di stimoli di colore Farbmischung mlande de stimulus de cou- mezcla de estmolos de color
leur
neutral step wedge filtro grigio a gradini Graustufenfilter filtre neutre transmission cua neutra escalonada
chelonne
neutral wedge filtro grigio a cuneo Graukeil coin photomtrique cua neutra
object-colour colore oggetto gebundene Farbe couleur-object color-objeto (percibido)
perfect reflecting diffuser diffusore perfetto per rifles- vollkommen mattweies diffuseur parfait par rflexion difusor perfecto por reflexin
sione Medium bei Transmission
photometric standard campione fotometrico photometrisches Normal talon photomtrique patrn fotomtrico
70
Planckian locus luogo del corpo nero Planckscher Kurvenzug lieu des corps noirs lugar de los estmulos (de
color) planckianos
purple boundary retta degli stimoli porpora Purpurlinie limite des pourpres lmite prpura
purple stimulus stimolo porpora Purpurfarben stimulus pourpre estmulo (de color) prpura
radiance radianza Strahldichte luminance nergtique; radiancia

radiance
radiant efficiency rendimento energetico Strahlungsausbeute rendement nergtique eficiencia radiante
radiant energy energia raggiante Strahlungsenergie nergie rayonnante (cantitad de) energia radiante
radiation radiazione Strahlung rayonnement; radiation radiacin
reference colour stimuli stimoli primari di colore Primrvalenzen stimulus de couleur de rf- estmulos de referencia
rence
reference illuminant illuminante di riferimento Bezugslichtart illuminant de rfrence iluminante de referencia
reflectance fattore di riflessione Reflexionsgrad facteur de rflexion reflectancia
reflection riflessione Reflexion rflexion reflexin
reflectivity Eigenreflexionsgrad rflectivit reflectividad
refractive index indice di rifrazione Brechzahl indice de rfraction indice de refraccin
related (perceived) colour colore relativo bezogene Farbe couleur (perue) non isole color dependiente (percibido)
responsivity; sensitivity sensibilit Empfindlichkeit sensibilit responsividad
retina retina Netzhaut rtine retina

rods bastoncini Stbchen btonnets bastones
saturation saturazione Sttigung saturation saturacin
single-coil filament filamento a spiralizzazione Wendel filament simple boudinage filamento en espiral
semplice
skylight luce dal cielo Himmelslicht lumire du ciel luz del cielo
spectral distribution distribuzione spettrale spektrale Verteilung; densit spectrale; concentracin espectral
Strahlungsfunktion reepartition spectrale
71
spectral luminous efficiency fattore spettrale di visibilit spektraler Hellempfindlich- efficacit lumineuse relative eficiencia luminosa espectral
keitsgrad spectrale relativa
spectral stimulus stimolo monocromatico spektraler Farbreiz stimulus monoschomatique estmulo (de color) espectral
spectrophotometer spettrofotometro Spektralphotometer spectrophotomtre espectrofotmetro
spectroradiometer spettroradiometro Spektralradiometer spectroradiomtre espectroradimetro
spectrum spettro Spektrum spectre espectro
spectrum locus luogo spettrale Spektralfarbenzug lieu spectral lugar de los estmulos (de
color) espectrales
sunburn eritema solare Sonnenbrand coup de soleil quemadura solar
suntan abbronzatura Sonnenbrunung bronzage bronceado
surface colour colore superficiale Aufsichtfarbe couleur de surface color-superficie (percibido)

threshold soglia Schwelle seuil umbral
transmittance fattore di trasmissione Tranmissionsgrad facteur de transmission transmitancia
transmission trasmissione Transmission transmission transmisin
trichromatic system sistema tricromatico; trichromatisches System systme trichromatique sistema tricromtico
sistema colorimetrico
tristimulus values componenti tricromatiche Farbwerte composantes trichromatiques valores triestmulos
tungsten halogen lamp lampada ad alogeni Halogen-Glhlampe lampe ( incandescence) lmpara (incandescente) con
halognes halgenos
UCS diagram diagramma colorimetrico UCS-Farbtafel diagramme de chromaticit diagrama de cromaticidad
uniforme uniforme uniforme
uniform colour space spazio colorimetrico uni- gleichfrmiger Farbenraum espace chromatique uniforme espacio de color uniforme
forme
unique hue tinta unitaria Urfarbe teinte eelmentaire tono unitario
unrelated (perceived) colour colore non relativo unbezogene Farbe couleur (perue) isole color-independiente (perci-
bido)
veiling reflections riflessioni di velo Schleierreflexionen rflexions-voile reflejos velantes
72
visual acuity acuit visiva Sehschrfe acuit visuelle agudenza visual
von Kries persistence law legge della persistenza di von Persistenzsatz nach von Kries loi de persistance de von ley de von Kries de persisten-
Kries Kries cia
wavelength lunghezza donda Wellenlnge longueur donde longitud de onda
working photometric stan- campione fotometrico di photometrisches Arbeitsnor- talon photomtrique de tra- patrn fotomtrico de trabajo
dard lavoro mal vail
yellow spot macchia lutea gelber Fleck tache joune mancha amarilla
73
Glossary
AATCC American Association of textile Chemists and Colorists.
Abneys law An empirical law stating that if two color stimuli, A and B, are perceived to be
of equal brightness and two other color stimuli, C and D, are perceived to be of
equal brightness, then the additive mixtures of A with C and B with D will
also be perceived to be of equal brightness. The validity of Abneys law
depends strongly on the observing conditions. [16]
Abney phenomenon Change of hue produced by decreasing the purity of a color stimulus while
keeping its dominant wavelength and luminance constant. [16]
achromatopsia Loss of all color vision after cortical lesions. Also called monochromatism.
actinism Property of optical radiations which enables them to cause chemical changes
on certain living or non-living materials. [16]
action time Duration of stimulation required to permit any visual sensation, chromatic or
achromatic, to build up to maximum strength. [18]
Adams theory of A theory devised by E.Q. Adams combining the tristimulus Young-Helmholtz
color vision theory and the Hering opponent-colors theory, on the basis of a non-linear
assumed photometric response from each of the three retinal photoreceptors.
[34]
adaptation The process by which the state of the visual system is modified by previous
and present exposure to stimuli that may have various luminances, spectral
distributions and angular subtenses. [16]
additive color Superposition or other nondestructive combination of light of different chro-

mixture maticities. [18]
affective That has to do with feelings rather than intelligence.
affective aspects of Capacity of colors to evoke responses, such as liking, disliking, pleasure, dis-
color pleasure, excitement, depression, or other feelings, emotions, or moods. [18]
after-image Sensation that occurs after the stimulus causing it has ceased. [18]
angular subtense Angle subtended (by an object) at the first nodal point of the eye. [4]
aperture Opening through which light passes. [18]
aperture color Perceived color for which there is no definite spatial localization in depth, such
as that perceived as filling a hole in a screen. [16]
appearance The aspect of visual experience by which things are recognized. [4] Color
appearance.
74
appearance mode Perceived color may appear in several modes of color appearance. The names
for various modes of appearance are intended to distinguish among qualita-
tive and geometric differences of color perceptions.
Modes of color appearance include object-color, surface color, aperture color,
film color, volume color, illuminant color, body color, and Ganzfeld color. Each
of these modes of color appearance may be further qualified by adjectives to
describe combinations of color or their spatial and temporal relationships.
Other terms that relate to qualitative differences among colors perceived in
various modes of color appearance are luminous (perceived) color, non-lumi-
nous (perceived) color, related (perceived) color, and unrelated (perceived) color.
[broadly after CIE 845-02-18]
aspect Element of the collection of attributes and parameters of an apparent color.
Face as it is seen. That part of a multi-faceted entity that is being considered.
association Mental connection established by process of learning. [18]
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials.
attention The allocation of conscious processing resources to the performance of some

cognitive task. Attention is a constraint that stems from a systems having
limited conscious processing resources; typically, therefore, only a few tasks
can be attended to simultaneously. Attention is also a crucial factor in percep-
tual processing, determining whether early perceptual information is
retained. [21]
attitude Mental state assumed in order to serve a purpose. [18]
attribute Distinguishing characteristic of a sensation, perception, or mode of appear-

ance. [18]
Quality naturally belonging to an entity and particular to this entity.
autosome A chromosome other than a sex-chromosome.
basic color terms Group of eleven color names found in anthropological surveys to be in wide
use in fully developed languages: white, black, red, green, yellow, blue, brown,
gray, orange, purple, pink. [4]
Bezold-Brcke Change of hue produced by changing the luminance (within the range of
phenomenon photopic vision) of a color stimulus while keeping its chromaticity constant.
Within certain monochromatic stimuli, hue remains constant over a wide
range of luminances (for a given condition of adaptation). The wavelengths of
these stimuli are sometimes referred to as invariant wavelengths. [16]
binary hue Perceived hue that can be described as a combination of two unique hues.
For example: orange is a yellowish-red or reddish-yellow; violet is reddish-
blue, etc. [16]
binocular luster Luster, or glossy appearance, resulting from binocular combination of two very
different color combinations. [18]
75
blackbody Planckian radiator. [16]
bleeding The unintentional transfer of coloring matter from one medium to or through
another. [4]
blobsSmall enclosed areas that are identified in an early stage of visual

image processing. They form part of a primal sketch. [21]
body color Color produced by absorption and scattering of light by colorants within a col-
ored material. [4]
brightness Attribute of a visual sensation according to which an area appears to emit

more or less light. [16]
Levels of brightness range from bright to dim.
brilliance Colloquial term denoting sparkling brightness.
candela (cd) SI unit of luminous intensity: The candela is the luminous intensity, in a
given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency
5401012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt
per steradian. [16]
categorization Classification of information into groups or concepts. Categorization may be

viewed as an instance of reasoning by inductive argument. Traditionally, con-
ceptual categories were regarded as being sharply defined through a set of
necessary and sufficient conditions for category membership. More recently, it
has been recognized that category boundaries are not always sharp and that
some members of a given category tend to be regarded as more typical than
other members. [21]
cesia Set of visual sensations due to differences in the spatial distribution of light.
[Caivano]
choroid Resilient network of connective tissue within the sclera.
chroma Chromaticness, colorfulness, of an area judged as a proportion of the bright-

ness of a similarly illuminated area that appears white or highly transmit-
ting. For given viewing conditions and at luminance levels within the range of
photopic vision, a color stimulus perceived as a related color, of a given chro-
maticity and from a surface having a given luminance factor, exhibits approxi-
mately constant chroma for all levels of illuminance except when the
brightness is very high. In the same circumstances, at a given level of illumi-
nance, if the luminance factor is increased, the chroma usually increases. [16]
Levels of chroma range from strong to weak.
chromatic Adaptation by stimuli in which the dominant effect is that of different rela-
adaptation tive spectral distributions. [16]
chromaticity Property of a color stimulus defined by its chromaticity coordinates, or by its

dominant or complementary wavelength and purity taken together. [16]
76
chromaticity Ratio of each of a set of three tristimulus values to their sum. [16]
coordinates
chromaticness Colorfulness. Formerly it denoted the combined perceptions of hue and sat-
uration, i.e., the perceptual correlate of chromaticity. [16]
chromatopsia Capacity of color vision.
CIE International Commission on Illumination. Organization devoted to interna-

tional cooperation and exchange of information among its member countries
on all matters relating to the art and science of lighting.
clarity Characteristic of a transparent body whereby distinct high-contrast images or

high-contrast objects (separated by some distance from the body) are observ-
able through the body. [4]
CMC Color Measurement Committee of the Society of Dyers and Colourists.
cognition Any instance of a mental operation that displays intentionality. [21]
colorant Dye, pigment, or other agent used to impart a color to a material. [4]
color appearance Representation of a color sensation mediated by an internal color space, and
the conditions that parametrize this representation.
That aspect of visual perception by which an observer is able to assign percep-

tual attributes, such as hue, saturation, and brightness, to a given visual stim-
ulus displayed in the observers field of view. [Wyszecki, quoted by Sve]
color atlas Collection of color samples arranged and identified according to specified
rules. [16]
Selected set of color samples, arranged according to their notations in a partic-

ular color order system, and designed to be used under specified illuminating
and viewing conditions. [Robertson AIC 93]
color constancy The general tendency of the colors of an object to remain constant when the
color of the illuminant is changed. [4]
Effect of visual adaptation whereby the appearance of colors remains approxi-

mately constant when the level and color of the illuminant are changed. [30]
color dynamics A science concerned with the relations between the surface appearance of
environment and environmental elements, and man living in this environ-
ment. It studies the interrelations of color, man and environment. [50]
colorfulness Attribute of a visual sensation according to which the perceived color of an

area appears to be more or less chromatic. For a color stimulus of a given
chromaticity and, in the case of related colors, of a given luminance factor, this
attribute usually increases as the luminance is raised except when the bright-
ness is very high. [16]
77
Levels of colorfulness range from vivid to grayish.
color harmony Intrinsic pleasantness of color combinations. [18]
colorimetry Measurement of colors based on a set of conventions. [16]
color matching Action of making a color stimulus appear the same in color as a given color
stimulus. [16]
color-matching The tristimulus values of monochromatic stimuli of equal radiant power. [16]
functions
color mixture Short term for additive color mixture. [18]
color name Audible or written symbol of a restricted group of color perceptions. [18]
color notation The symbols used in a systematic way to designate colors. [4]
color order system A rational method or plan of ordering and specifying all object colors, or all
within a limited domain, by means of a set of material standards selected and
displayed so as to represent adequately the whole set of object colors under
consideration. [4]
color perception Awareness of a color sensation and its categorization mediated by an internal
color space with the possibly ensuing facilitation of a color name.
The consciousness content arising when the observer is able to distinguish in

the visual field two adjacent parts of equal size, shape and texture, by means
of the difference between the spectral distributions of the observed radiations.
[50]
color, (perceived) Attribute of visual perception consisting of any combination of chromatic and
achromatic content. This attribute can be described by chromatic color names
such as yellow, orange, brown, red, pink, green, blue, purple, etc., or by achro-
matic color names such as white, gray, black, etc., and qualified by bright, dim,
light, dark, etc., or by combinations of such names.
Perceived color depends on the spectral distribution of the color stimulus, on

the size, shape, structure and surround of the stimulus area, on the state of
adaptation of the observers visual system, and on the observers experience of
the prevailing and similar situations of observation. [16]
color preference Preference, within a specific application, for one color over other related col-
ors. Examples include preferred blue for sky or green for grass in photographic
color reproduction, and preferred white for bond paper. [4]
color, A specification of a color stimulus in terms of operationally defined values,

psychophysical such as three tristimulus values. [16]
color rendering Effect of an illuminant on the color appearance of objects by conscious or

subconscious comparison with their color appearance under a reference illu-
minant. [16]
78
color scale Series of ordered numbers which represents observable gradations of a given
attribute or gradations of a combination of attributes of color perception. [77]
color solid That part of a color space which contains surface colors. [16]
color space Geometric representation of colors in space, usually of three dimensions. [16]
color specification Notation or set of three color-scale values used to designate a color in a speci-
fied color system. Practical color specifications may include color tolerances as
well as target color designation. [4]
color stimulus Visible radiation entering the eye and producing a sensation of color, either
chromatic or achromatic. [16]
color tolerance The permissible color difference between sample and specified color. [4]
color-vision theory Attempt to explain color vision in terms of structure and physiological pro-
cesses in eye and nervous system. [18]
complexion Natural color of the skin.
cones Photoreceptors in the retina containing light-sensitive pigments capable of

initiating the process of photopic vision. [16]
There are three types of cones, and these are maximally responsive to short
(S), middle (M), or long (L) wavelengths.
consciousness Being aware. The stage in the cognitive process before an inference is drawn.
Some theorists (the representationalists) consider that consciousness is con-
structed from stored knowledge by the act of paying attention.
An ability to experience or perceive the environment, or to represent an actual

or possible state of affairs (for example, through imagination). In general, con-
sciousness is expressible, either through verbal or nonverbal behavior. Since it
may admit of various degrees, a person (animal, machine) might be aware of
some phenomena but not aware of other phenomena. In traditional modern
philosophy, consciousness has been considered the fundamental hallmark of
any mind. For biological creatures, the range of possible consciousness
appears to be determined by neurophysiological capacities under the influence
of environmental histories. Consciousness should be distinguished from self-
consciousness, which is an awareness of awareness. [21]
conspicuity The characteristics of an object that determine the likelihood that it will come
to the attention of an observer. [4]
contrast 1. In the perceptual sense: Assessment of the difference in appearance of two

or more parts of a field seen simultaneously or successively (hence: bright-
ness contrast, lightness contrast, color contrast, simultaneous contrast, suc-
cessive contrast, etc.
79
2. In the physical sense: Quantity intended to correlate with the perceived
brightness contrast, usually defined by one of a number of formul which
involve the luminances of the stimuli considered, for example: L/L near
the luminance threshold, or L1/L2 for much higher luminances. [16]
correlated color The temperature of the Planckian radiator whose perceived color most
temperature (Tcp) closely resembles that of a given stimulus at the same brightness and under
specified viewing conditions. Unit: K. [16]
corresponding color Pairs of color stimuli that look alike when one is seen in one set of adaptation
stimuli conditions, and the other is seen in a different set. [30]
cortex Outer layer of brain.
critical flicker Fusion frequency. [16]

frequency
dark current (I0) Output current of a photoelectric detector or of its cathode in the absence of
incident radiation. [16]
densitometry The science of measuring the optical densities of photographic deposits on

transparent films or solid reflection prints. [34]
detector Device to convert radiant energy into a neural signal (such as the eye) or an
electrical signal (such as a phototube, photomultiplier tube, photocell, photo-
diode, or the like). [4]
diaphanous An objectss characteristic of being transparent. This percept requires that the
transparent object and the object seen through it are perceived as indepen-
dent objects.
discharge lamp Lamp in which the light is produced, directly or indirectly, by an electric
discharge through a gas, a metal vapor or a mixture of several gases and
vapors. [16]
discrimination Ability to distinguish.
document Structured organization of information to influence or inform an audience.
emotional responses Enthusiastic likes or dislikes for the visual appearance of surroundings. [18]
to color
epistemology The study of the sources, nature, and limits of knowledge, and related con-
cepts such as justification and belief. [21]
erythema, (actinic) Reddening of the skin, with or without inflammation, caused by the actinic
effect of solar radiation or artificial optical radiation. Non-actinic erythema
can be caused by various chemical or physical agents. [16]
80
eye Organ of sight, comprising a part sensitive to light stimuli called retina, optic
media diffracting these stimuli, and ancillary components such as muscles,
lacrimal gland, and protective tissue.
ocular conjunctiva ora serrata
zonule fibers vitreous body
aqueous humor fovea
lens optic disk (papilla)
iris
optic nerve
cornea
retina
ciliary muscle
sclera
field That portion of the surface of a specimen that is illuminated by the illumina-
tor or viewed by the receiver. [4]
film mode Mode of appearance of colors, in which no texture or other attributes except
size and shape are recognized. [18]
flicker Impression of unsteadiness of visual sensation induced by a light stimulus

whose luminance or spectral distribution fluctuates with time. [16]
fluorescent lamp A discharge lamp of the low pressure mercury type in which most of the light
is emitted by one or several layers of phosphors excited by the ultraviolet radi-
ation from the discharge. [16]
fovea; fovea Central part of the retina, thin and depressed, which contains almost exclu-
centralis sively cones and forming the site of most distinct vision. The fovea subtends
an angle of about 1.5 in the visual field. [16]
foveola Central region of the fovea which contains only cones. The fovea sub-
tends an angle of about 1 in the visual field. [16]
functional color Colors or color combinations that promote the functional efficiency of the
visual mechanism. [18]
fusion frequency Frequency of alternation of stimuli above which flicker is not perceptible.
[16]
gamma correction A correction factor applied to linearize the relationship between screen lumi-
nance and electron gun voltage. It is more accurate to use a model of the cath-
ode ray tube.
81
gamut, device Set of colors that can be produced on a particular device and media combina-
tion under given conditions. This set is usually finite.
gamut of colors Total variety of colors that can be produced by any prescribed method. [18]
gloss The mode of appearance by which reflected highlights of objects are perceived
as superimposed on the surface due to the directionally selective properties of
that surface. [16]
glossiness An attribute of surface mode of visual appearance which is attributable to

gloss and which ranges from matt to glossy. [34]
Grassmanns laws The three empirical laws that describe color-matching properties of additive
mixtures of color stimuli:
1. To specify a color-match, three independent variables are necessary and
sufficient.
2. For an additive mixture of color stimuli, only their tristimulus values are
relevant, not their spectral compositions.
3. In an additive mixture of color stimuli, if one or more components of the
mixture are gradually changed, the resulting tristimulus values also
change gradually.
Grassmanns laws do not hold for all observing conditions. [16]
Helmholtz- Change in brightness of perceived color produced by increasing the purity of a

Kohlrausch color stimulus while keeping its luminance constant within the range of pho-
phenomenon topic vision. For related perceived colors, a change in lightness can also occur
when the purity is increased while keeping the luminance factor of the color
stimulus constant. [16]
Helson-Judd effect Tendency, in colored illumination, for light colors to be tinged with the hue of
the illuminant, and for dark colors to be tinged with the complementary hue.
[30]
Hering theory of An opponent-color theory according to which color is due to three pairs of
color vision antagonistic processes in the optic system yielding respectively, white and
black, yellow and blue, and red and green. [34]
homunculus Literally little man, the idea of a homunculus is presupposed by theories of

mind that tacitly invoke cognitive processes in order to explain cognitive pro-
cesses. For example, visual perception is sometimes thought of as involving
the production of pictorial images in the mind. But if this were an accurate
account, then the internal pictures would presumably have to be looked at by
some internal agent (homunculus)yet no such agent is to be found. More-
over, the homunculus approach threatens to generate a vicious infinite
regress, since the perceptions of a homunculus would also need to be
accounted for (in terms of its internal homunculus?). On a more subtle level,
theories of cognition that posit symbols that are manipulated according to
rules must explain how symbolic processing can be done without appealing to
a conscious agent that interprets symbols and consults rules. [21]
82
hue Attribute of a visual sensation according to which an area appears to be simi-
lar to one of the perceived colors, red, yellow, green, and blue, or to a combina-
tion of two of them. [16]
Hunt-Berns effect Inability of the cognitive factor to decide on a set. Example: When in an envi-
ronment with colored illumination the brightest object is not known a priori to
be white, the cognitive part of chromatic adaptation fails because it is not pos-
sible to establish whether that object is white or has a hue similar to that of
the illuminant. This is especially so, if the observer is knowledgeable about
the Helson-Judd effect.
Hunt effect Increase in perceived colorfulness with increasing luminance. [25]
illuminance (E; E) Quotient of the luminous flux d incident on an element of the surface con-
taining the point, by the area d A of that element. Unit: lx. [16]
illuminant Radiation with a relative spectral power distribution defined over the wave-
length range that influences object color perception. [16]
illuminant mode Object mode of appearance by which sources of light are perceived. [18]
illumination mode Located mode of appearance, by which the distribution of light in space is per-
ceived. [18]
incandescent lamp Lamp in which light is produced by means of an element heated to incan-
descence by the passage of an electric current. [16]
induction Adaptation caused by local or momentary exposure. [18]
insistence Impressiveness or attention-catching power of a perceived color. [18]
intensity General term used to designate the magnitude of a variable. [30]
internal color space Memory palette from which color categorization proceeds. [20]
interval scale Ordinal scale in which

1. Differences between different magnitudes can indeed be determined.
2. Numbers can be assigned to these magnitude differences so that the dif-
ferences between numbers characterize the sizes of the corresponding
observed magnitude differences of the attribute.
In an interval scale the numbers are determined to within a linear transfor-

mation with an offset (that is, there is not necessarily a natural origin). [77]
isomers Two or more colors with identical spectral power distributions. This term was
introduced by Ostwald; it is more common to speak of a spectral match.
lamp Source made in order to produce an optical radiation, usually visible. [16]
lateral geniculate Relay station in the midbrain where the axons of the retinal ganglion cells in
nucleus the optic nerve terminate and synapse with the neurons radiating to the stri-
83
ate cortex. It is divided into two anatomically distinct sections: the parvocellu-
lar (PC, dorsal) layers and the magnocellular (MC, ventral) layers.
lateral geniculate nucleus
lightness (of a The brightness of an area judged relative to the brightness of a similarly illu-
related color) minated area that appears to be white or highly transmitting. Only related
colors exhibit lightness. [16]
Levels of lightness range from light to dark.
light, (perceived) Universal and essential attribute of all perceptions and sensations that are
peculiar to the visual system. Light is normally, but not always, perceived as a
result of the action of a light stimulus on the visual system. [16]
light stimulus Visible radiation entering the eye and producing a sensation of light. [16]
Light is radiant energy evaluated with respect to its ability to stimulate the
sense of sight of a human observer.
local adaptation Adaptation produced by a stimulus that has been confined to a specific, more
or less sharply defined region of the retina. [18]
located modes of Stimulus object appears to be within definite limits of distance and direction
appearance from observer. [18]
d
luminance (L; L) Quantity defined by the formula L = ----------------------------------
- , where d is the
d A cos d
luminous flux transmitted by an elementary beam passing through the given
point and propagating in the solid angle d containing the given direction;
d A is the area of a section of that beam containing the given point; is the
angle between the normal to that section and the direction of the beam. Unit:
cdm2. [16]
luminance factor (; (at a surface element of a non-self-radiating medium, in a given direction,

) under specified conditions of illumination)
Ratio of the luminance of the surface element in the given direction to that of
a perfect reflecting or transmitting diffuser identically illuminated. [16]
84
luminance threshold Lowest luminance of a stimulus which enables it to be perceived. The value
depends on field size, surround, state of adaptation, and other viewing condi-
tions. [16]
luminous efficiency Ratio of radiant flux weighted according to V() to the corresponding radiant
(V) flux. [16]
luminous intensity Quotient of the luminous flux d , leaving the source and propagated in the
(I, I)
element of solid angle d containing the given direction, by the element of
solid angle.
d
I = ----------
d
Unit: cd. [16]
luminous Color perceived to belong to an area that appears to be emitting light as a pri-
(perceived) color mary light source, or that appears to be specularly reflecting such light. Pri-
mary light sources seen in their natural surroundings normally exhibit the
appearance of luminous colors in this sense. [16]
luster Contrast gloss. Gloss associated with contrasts of bright and less bright adja-
cent areas of the surface of an object. Luster increases with increased ratio
between light reflected in the specular direction and that reflected in the dif-
fuse directions which are adjacent to the specular direction. [34]
The appearance characteristic of a surface that reflects more in some direc-

tions than it does in other directions, but not of such gloss as to form clear mir-
ror images. [4]
Attribute of mode of appearance. [18]
macula lutea Layer of photostable pigment covering parts of the retina in the foveal
region. [16]
match Appearance of visual identity. [18]
matching Procedure for establishing visual equivalence. [18]
memory color Color of the light that, according to the judgment of the observer, would be
reflected by any particular object if it were under the illumination in which
that object is customarily seen. [18]
mesopic vision Vision intermediate between photopic and scotopic vision. In mesopic
vision, both the cones and the rods are active. [16]
metamers Spectrally different color stimuli that have the same tristimulus values. [16]
Mller theory of A theory proposed by G.E. Mller which suggested a three stage visual
color vision response; a photopigment stage, a retinal stage, and an optic nerve stage. [34]
85
negative suggestion Influence on perception of skepticism concerning the reality of a subjective
phenomenon. [18]
neuroanatomy Science that treats of the structure of the nervous system.
neuron Nerve cell, consisting of a cell body containing the nucleus, mitochondria, and
other organelles; an axon, which conveys impulses from the cell; and the den-
drites, which receive impulses from other cells. Towards its end, the axon usu-
ally splits into many branches that come very close to the dendrites of other
neurons; these regions are called synapses. [29]
dendrites
cell membrane
axon
synapse nucleus
neurophysiology Science that treats of the function of the nervous system.
neutral Hueless, or achromatic, color. [18]
non-luminous Color perceived to belong to an area that appears to be transmitting or dif-

(perceived) color fusely reflecting light as a secondary light source. Secondary light sources
seen in their natural surroundings normally exhibit the appearance of non-
luminous colors in this sense. [16]
nonobject mode Mode of appearance disassociated from any stimulus object. [18]
nuance A two-dimensional attribute that distinguishes among colors having the same
hue. [4]
object attitude Attitude in which the individual is trying to perceive the object itself. [18]
object-color Color perceived as belonging to an object. [16]
opacity Attribute of a mode of appearance, expressive of the degree to which a surface

or volume obscures objects or space beyond. [18]
opaque medium Medium which transmits no radiation in the spectral range of interest. [16]
operational Definition in terms of method of measurement. [18]

definition
optimal colors Object colors having the maximum possible luminance factor for each chroma-
ticity. [4]
86
ordinal scale One-dimensional color scale in which the numbers are assigned to the
magnitudes of the attribute, so that the order of the numbers corresponds to
the order of these magnitudes. An ordinal scale is represented by a monotonic
function. [77]
paramers Specimens having different spectrophotometric curves that produce approxi-

mately the same color sensation under the same illuminating and viewing
conditions. [4]
Spectrally different color stimuli that have nearly the same tristimulus val-
ues. [30]
pearlescent Adjective to denote the reflecting colors that contain metallic or other particles
which impart reflective properties similar to those of pearls. [30]
pellucid Very clear.
percept An imagelike entity traditionally thought to be produced in a perceiver by acts

of perception. Percepts are generally assumed to be available to introspection.
[21]
The result of the process of perception. [4]
A basis element or dimension in a representation of perceptions.
An attribute of a visual sensation.
perception The acquiring of information about the external world by means of the senses.
Although some researchers have argued that a significant amount of informa-
tion about the environment is contained immediately in perceptual stimuli,
the primary research paradigm of contemporary cognitive science maintains
that information must be recovered or extracted from sensory stimuli by
means of internal processing mechanisms (for the most part unconscious). [21]
Color perception.
An element of the content of consciousness elicited by an effect on a sensory

organ, which cannot be further analyzed. [50]
The combination of different sensations and the utilization of past experience

in recognizing the objects from which the stimulation comes. [34]
photopic vision Vision by the normal eye when it is adapted to levels of luminance of at least
several candelas per square meter. The cones are the principal active photo-
receptors in scotopic vision. [16]
photometry Measurement of quantities referring to radiation as evaluated according to a

given spectral luminous efficiency function, e.g., V() or V(). [16]
Planckian radiator Ideal thermal radiator that absorbs completely all incident radiation, what-
ever the wavelength, the direction of incidence or the polarization. This radia-
tor has, for any wavelength and any direction, the maximum spectral
87
concentration of radiance for a thermal radiator in thermal equilibrium at a
given temperature. [16]
primary light source Surface or object emitting light produced by a transformation of energy. [16]
priming The activation of an area of memory by the presentation of a stimulus, thereby

making that area more quickly accessible when subsequent, related stimuli
are presented. [21]
product standard Material having a color designated as standard for a specified product. [4]
pronouncedness Quality or degree of goodness of a color perception, such as the whiteness of

a white or the greenness of a green. [18]
psychophysical Specification of stimuli in accordance with equality or difference of sensations

measurement experienced by human observers. [18]
psychophysics Scientific study of the relationships between the physical measurements of

stimuli and the sensations and perceptions that those stimuli evoke. [Fair-
child 92]
Purkinje Reduction in the brightness of a predominantly long-wavelength color stimu-

phenomenon lus relative to that of a predominantly short-wavelength color stimulus when
the luminances are reduced in the same proportion from photopic to mesopic
or scotopic levels without changing the respective spectral distributions of the
stimuli involved. In passing from photopic to mesopic to scotopic vision, the
spectral luminous efficiencies change, the wavelength of maximum efficiency
being displaced towards the shorter wavelength. [16]
radiant flux Power emitted, transmitted or received in the form of radiation. [16]
ratio scale Interval scale with a natural origin; that is, there exists a point on the scale
to which the number zero is assigned when the magnitude of the attribute is
considered.
reception The act of receiving a stimulus.
receptive field The receptive field of a ganglion cell on the retina corresponds to the area of
the visual field that activates the cell. [20]
reference illuminant An illuminant with which other illuminants are compared. [16]
reflection Process by which radiation is returned by a surface or a medium, without

change of frequency of its monochromatic components. [16]
related (perceived) Color perceived to belong to an area seen in relation to other colors. [16]
color
representation A symbol or process that stands for something else. A particular symbol may
be arbitrary and need not resemble the thing it stands for (both of these points
are illustrated by the English word eye and the Japanese word me, which are
alternative representations of the same thing). An important topic in cognitive
88
science concerns the way in which mental symbols or processes come to repre-
sent reality. [21]
The homomorphism or image of a homomorphism from a given group to a

group or other structure having some further meaning or significance.
retina Membrane situated inside the back of the eye that is sensitive to light stim-
uli; it contains photoreceptors, the cones and the rods, and nerve cells (
neurons) that transmit to the optic nerve the signals resulting from stimula-
tion of the photoreceptors. [16]
rods Photoreceptors in the retina containing a light-sensitive pigment capable of

initiating the process of scotopic vision. [16]
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers.
saturation Chromaticness, colorfulness, of an area judged in proportion to its bright-

ness. For given viewing conditions and at luminance levels within the range of
photopic vision, a color stimulus of a given chromaticity exhibits approxi-
mately constant saturation for all luminance levels, except when the bright-
ness is very high. [16]
sclera White tough outer tunic of the eye, contiguous with the transparent corners
in the front and contiguous with the sheath of the optic nerve at the back of
the eye.
scotopic vision Vision by the normal eye when it is adapted to levels of luminance less than
some hundreds of candela per square meter. The rods are the principal
active photoreceptors in scotopic vision. [16]
secondary light Surface or object which is not self-emitting but receives light and re-directs it,
source at least in part by reflection or transmission. [16]
sensation Mode of mental functioning that is directly associated with stimulation of the
organism. [18]
That element of the consciousness concept elicited by effects via our sensory
organs, which cannot be analyzed further. [50]
Primitive awareness or uninterpreted conscious response to stimulation of a

sense receptor. [34]
set Attitude or intent of an observer that may have appreciable effect on his per-
ceptions of contrast and adaptation effects. [18]
shade 1. A color produced by a dye or pigment mixture including black dye or pig-
ment.
2. An expression of color difference from a reference dyeing such that
another dye must be added to produce a match.
3. A color slightly different from a reference color.
89
Shade is the most overworked of the terms used to describe colors and color
differences in terms of colorant technology, sometimes even being used as a
general synonym for color. [4]
shape Attribute possessed by all object modes of appearance. [18]
sheen The specular gloss at a large angle of incidence for an otherwise matte speci-
men. [4]
simultaneous Juxtaposition of different colors. [18]

contrast
spectral distribution (of a radiant, luminous or photon quantity X())

(X)
Quotient of the radiant or luminous or photon quantity dX() contained in an
elementary range d of wavelength , by that range. The term distribution
refers to the consideration of function X() over a wide range of wavelengths.
dX ( )
X = ---------------
d
Unit: [X]m1, e.g., Wm1, etc. [broadly after CIE 845-01-17]
spectral luminous (of a monochromatic radiation of wavelength )

efficiency
(V() for photopic Ratio of the radiant flux at wavelength m to that at wavelength such that
vision; both radiations produce equally intense luminous sensations under specified
V() for scotopic photometric conditions and m is chosen so that the maximum value of this
vision) ratio is equal to 1. [16]
spectral stimulus A stimulus consisting of a monochromatic radiation. [16]
standard observer An ideal observer having visual response described by the CIE color-matching
functions. [4]
steradian SI unit of solid angle: Solid angle that, having its vertex at the center of a
sphere, cuts off an area of the surface of the sphere equal to that of a square
with sides of length equal to the radius of the sphere. [16]
Stevens effect Increase in contrast with increasing luminance. [25]
Stiles-Crawford Decrease of the brightness of a light stimulus with increasing eccentricity of

effect the position of entry of the light pencil through the pupil. If the variation is in
hue and saturation instead of in brightness the effect is called the Stiles-
Crawford effect of the second kind. [16]
stimulus External condition capable of eliciting response of a living organism. [18]

Light stimulus.
stimulus object Object which is intuitively assumed to exist and to be responsible for a unified
experience, consisting of visual and other sensations and perceptions. [18]
90
stop Any window or diaphragm that restricts the passage of light rays in an optical
device. [4]
subtractive color Mixture of absorbing media or superposition of filters so that spectral compo-
mixture sition of light passing through the combination is determined by simultaneous
or successive absorption. [34]
surface color Color perceived as belonging to a surface from which the light appears to be
diffusely reflected or radiated. [16]
surface mode of An object mode that has the distinctive attribute of glossiness, as well as the
appearance attribute of less than perfect transparency. [18]
surround Portion of the visual field immediately surrounding the central field or pattern
of interest. [18]
TAPPI Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry.
texture Structural quality of a surface determined by the topography of its elements.

[34]
The visible surface structure depending on the size and organization of small
constituent parts of a material; typically, the surface structure of a woven fab-
ric. [4]
tint A color produced by the mixture of white pigment or paint with a chromatic
pigment or paint. A tint of a chromatic color is, therefore, lighter and less sat-
urated than the chromatic color. [4]
transformation Shift of mode of appearance of a color caused by either objective or subjective

factors. [18]
translucent medium Medium which transmits visible radiation largely by diffuse transmission, so
that objects are not seen distinctly through it. [16]
transparent medium Medium in which the transmission is mainly regular and which usually has a
high regular transmittance in the spectral range of interest. Objects may be
seen distinctly through a medium which is transparent in the visible region, if
the geometric form of the medium is suitable. [16]
tristimulus values Amounts of the three reference color stimuli, in a given trichromatic system,
required to match the color of the stimulus considered. [16]
turbidity Loss of transparency due to diffusion caused by presence of particulate matter.

[34]
uniform color scale Interval scale of equal spacing. [77]
uniform color space Color space in which equal distances are intended to represent threshold or
suprathreshold perceived color differences of equal size. [16]
91
unique hue Perceived hue that cannot be further described by the use of hue names other
than its own. There are four unique hues: red, green, yellow and blue. [16]
Unique yellow occurs at about 580 nm, unique green at about 500 nm, and
unique blue at about 475 nm. [Boynton p. 210]
unrelated Color perceived to belong to an area seen in isolation from other colors. [16]
(perceived) color
UV quencing
vignetting Loss of light rays at stops of an optical instrument, other than the aperture
stop. [4]
viewing conditions The conditions under which a visual observation is made, including the angu-
lar subtense of the specimen at the eye, the geometric relationship of source,
specimen, and eye, the photometric and spectral character of the field of view
surrounding the specimen, and the state of adaptation of the eye. [4]
volume color Perception of color in the volume mode of appearance. [18]
volume mode An object mode of appearance which has the attribute of transparency. [18]
von Kries Algebraic transformation whereby changes in adaptation are represented

transformation as adjustments of the sensitivities of the three cone systems such as to com-
pensate fully for changes in the color of illuminants. [30]
Webers fraction The constant in Webers law.
Webers law The change in stimulus intensity that can just be discriminated () is a con-
stant fraction (c) of the starting intensity of the stimulus ():
= c or / = c.
white Lightest color of a surface. [20]
window Daylight opening on a vertical or nearly vertical area of a room envelope. [16]
yellow spot Macula lutea.
Young-Helmholtz There must be three different kinds of retinal receptors, each differently sensi-
theory tive to different parts of the spectrum, and all colors must be perceived as the
result of blends of differing degrees and proportions of the responses of these
receptors. [18]
92
93

Understanding Color

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Understanding Color

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Understanding

Showcasing the power of Light

Color theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Color vision physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Objective color terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Famous color spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

Measuring color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

Color reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

Color appearance modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

Short color dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67

Colorimetry: the art to predict an illusion from a physical

Experience is much more important than knowing facts

The physiology of color vision is understood only to a

What is essential is invisible to the eye

Attribute of a visual perception consisting of any

Perceived color depends on the spectral distribution of the

Perceived color may appear in several modes of

Subjective color term: A word used to describe a color

Objective color term: A word used to describe a physical

We use objective color terms as correlates to subjective color

Hue: The attribute of a color perception denoted by blue,

Unique hue: A hue that cannot be further described by use

Brightness: The attribute of a visual sensation according to

Lightness: The attribute of a visual sensation according to

Brightness is absolute, lightness is relative to an area

Chromaticness or Colorfulness: The attribute of a visual

Chroma: The attribute of a visual sensation which permits a

Saturation: The attribute of a visual sensation which

Colorfulness is absolute, chroma is relative to a white area

We would like to be able to predict the color of a

Humans can distinguish about 7 to 10 million different

Task: find good correlates to the subjective color terms

quantities we can measure

The spectral power curve gives at each wavelength the

By spectral color reproduction we intend the physically

Our aim is to achieve a close effect for a normal viewer

Mathematically: build a simple model of color vision

Off-axis front views

Note: rendered with chiaro-scuro technique

18th century Enlightenment, physics & chemistry

Vision is based on contrast

The inner eyes function is not to understand what the

Stimulus Detectors Early mechanisms Pictorial register

Action Color name Apparent color

Reliable color discrimination: 1 week

Vision is not hierarchical

We tend to see colors of familiar objects as we expect

From the difference in the amino-acid sequences for the

Distribution perifoveal foveal

Genetics autosomal sex-linked

Source: Eberhart Zrenner, 1983

Retinal pigments: rhodopsin, cyanolabe, chlorolabe,

For each pigment, there is a probability distribution for

Dartnall, H. J. A., Bowmaker, J. K., & Mollon, J. D. (1983). Human visual

Retinal Amacrine Bipolar Horizontal Receptor

Receptors in retina are not like pixels in a CCD

Originating retinal Tonic Phasic

Fast (mostly transient

Linear up to about 64% con-

Spatial resolution High (small cells) Low (large cells)

When fixation is strictly foveal,

Axons of retinal ganglion cells in optical nerve terminate

Reaction time at rhodopsin level: femtoseconds

We do not know exactly what happens in-between

Two color opponent channels a, b

Modify appearance (LChab)