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1
INTRODUCTION
In this lab test we are determining the behavior of timber samples when it
is subjected to external loads. There are 2 tests mainly,
Bending test
Compression Test
Bending Test
We can determine the elastic modulus by taking the deflection readings to
each increment of external load.at the failure of specimen we can also
conclude which failure was occurred at the scene.
P (KN)
300 mm
** Note :- the length of sample 300mm
Compression Test
In this lab test we can determine the modulus of rupture by giving an axial
load to the sample.At the failure of specimen we can also conclude
which failure was occurred at the scene.
P (KN)
P (KN)
OBJECTIVES
(a) The bending test to determine the modulus of elasticity and the stress
at the limit of proportionality
(b) The Compression test to determine the compressive strength and the
plane along which the material shears
APPARATUS
1. Timber specimens
300mm long specimen
62.9mm long specimen
2. Amsler wood testing machine
THEROY AND PROCEDURE
(a) Bending Test
1. The dimensions were measured of the specimen.
2. In this test the beam was simply supported at its ends and loaded
centrally. The central deflection is given by
3
WL
Y=
48 EI
Y= { }
L3
48 EI
W
Y= m X
3. The load is measured 1 mm change of deflection change until the
specimen fails.
17103 Kg
Density=
19.25 m19.1 m62.9 m109
1610 Kg
Compressive Strength= 6
19.25 m19.1 m10
Reading Oven
(mm) dry mass =
Deflection(mm) Load (Kg)
16.5
(D) Determination 0
of modulus of elasticity 0
17.0 0.5 4
18.0 1.5 68
19.0 2.5 94
20.0 3.5 122
21.0 4.5 142
22.0 5.5 156
23.0 6.5 166
24.0 7.5 172
25.0 8.5 176
26.0 13.5 176
3
L
m=
48 EI
E= { }{ }
L3
48 I
1
m
Therefore E =
1769.81 N
Modulus of rupture=
18.81 m16.5 m106
We can conclude that each specimen is failing in a unique way due to the way of
specimen is being loaded.
b) Splintering tension
c) Brash tension
d) Compression
e) Horizontal shear
a) Crushing
b) Wedge splitting
c) Shearing
Aggregate used in concrete are divided into two categories as coarse aggregate
and fine aggregate. Crushed roc is used as coarse aggregate in Srilanka while
river sand with particles smaller than 5mm are used as fine aggregate.
OBJECTIVES
1. Sieve Analysis
2. Sieves are being placed orderly and top sieve the largest.
3. Soil mass has been poured into the arranged sieves and the entire apparatus
has been shaken for 3mins
2. Sieves are being placed orderly and top sieve the largest.
3. Soil mass has been poured into the arranged sieves and the entire apparatus
has been shaken for 3mins
Aggregates normally contain pores (voids) and therefore the term relative density
or specific gravity must be carefully defined. Although some of the pores are
impermeable, water can penetrate into the aggregate through permeable pores
which are open onto the surface of the particles. When all the permeable pores
are filled with water, the aggregate is said to be saturated and surface dry. If
aggregate in this condition are allowed to dry in air, part of the water will
evaporate resulting air dry aggregates .prolonged drying in an oven will remove
moisture completely and the aggregate is said to be oven dry.
Procedure
1. The weight of vessel filled with water was measured using a digital weighting
scale
2. Then aggregates were poured to the vessel which is already filled with water
and measured the weight
3. The aggregates were taken out and kept outside with contact air to dry up.
5. Finally the aggregates were put in to an oven to dry the water which is
naturally trapped inside and the weight of dry aggregates were measured
Procedure
1. The weight of vessel filled with water was measured using a digital weighting
scale
2. Then aggregates were poured to the vessel which is already filled with water
and measured the weight
3. The aggregates were taken out and kept outside with contact air to dry up.
4. The weights of moist aggregates were measured.
5. Finally the aggregates were put in to an oven to dry the water which is
naturally trapped inside and the weight of dry aggregates were measured
MEASUREMENTS & CALCULATIONS
0.733
Relative Density on saturatedsurface dried basis=
[ 0.733( 3.1942.729 ) ]
0.730
Apparent relative density=
[ 0.730( 3.1942.729 ) ]
0.730
Relative Density on an ovendried basis=
[ 0.733 (3.1942.729 ) ]
DISCUSSION
1.)Grading refers to the determination of the particle-size distribution for
aggregate. Grading limits and maximum aggregate size are specified because
these properties affect the amount of aggregate used as well as cement and
water requirements, workability, pump ability, and durability of concrete. In
general, if the water-cement ratio is chosen correctly, a wide range in grading
can be used without a major effect on strength. When gap-graded aggregate are
specified, certain particle sizes of aggregate are omitted from the size
continuum. Gap-graded aggregate are used to obtain uniform textures in
exposed aggregate concrete. Close control of mix proportions is necessary to
avoid segregation
2.)The gap-graded concrete compacts more rapidly under vibration and a given
strength can usually be obtained more economically with a low slump, gap-
graded mix. Several factors often militate against such mixes. The first, as with
ideal continuous grading, is that suitable aggregates may not be economically
available. The second is that gap-graded mixes have a strong tendency to
segregate at anything more than low (say 50 mm) slump. Although such concrete
is easier to consolidate than a continuously graded mix of similar slump, it is
sometimes difficult to convince workmen of this and water is frequently added
with disastrous effects. In short, gap-graded mixes can be unbeatable when used
by those familiar with such mixes, and in suitable conditions, but are not to be
recommended for general use. Another property of gap-graded mixes is that,
with a very stable coarse aggregate, very low drying shrinkage is attainable. This
is taken to the ultimate in pre-packed concrete. This technique involves filling
the formwork to be concreted with a large single-sized aggregate and then
pumping in an appropriate mortar from the bottom up.
3.) The absorbed water remains within aggregate pores and does not affect the
slump of concrete and is not included when calculating the w/cm. The surface
moisture makes up a portion of the mixing water, affects slump and is included
when calculating the w/cm of the mixture. If the moisture content of wet
aggregate is not compensated for, the slump may be too high and w/cm will not
conform to the mixture requirement. The batched water should be less than the
mixing water required by the amount of free moisture on the aggregate. The
aggregate in storage prior to batching in concrete can also be in an air- dry state.
In this case, the aggregate when batched in concrete will absorb water from the
batch water resulting in a lower slump. This water that will be absorbed by dry
aggregates needs to be accounted for by adding additional water to the mixture.
Therefore the aggregate moisture has to be measured and the amount of batch
water adjusted accordingly.
4.) The void ratio of the aggregates affects the amount of water we should add to
the mix design. When the grading is increasing for example say the aggregate
size is 28mm ,then the amount of water of the that can store within the
aggregates is large ,for sand or fine aggregates the voids are small, due to this
we must calculate the adequate water amount for the mix design . Also the
grading or size distribution of aggregate is an important characteristic because it
determines the paste requirement for workable concrete. This paste requirement
is the factor controlling the cost, since cement is the most expensive component.
It is therefore desirable to minimize the amount of paste consistent with the
production of concrete that can be handled, compacted, and finished while
providing the necessary strength and durability. The required amount of cement
paste is dependent upon the amount of void space that must be filled and the
total surface area that must be covered. When the particles are of uniform size
the spacing is the greatest, but when a range of sizes is used the void spaces are
filled and the paste requirement is lowered. The more these voids are filled, the
less workable the concrete becomes, therefore, a compromise between
workability and economy is necessary.
5.)
TESTS ON ORDINARY PORTLAND
CEMENT
INTRODUCTION
In the construction field ordinary Portland cement or so called OPC is generally
used. This is a basic ingredient for concrete, mortar and grout. The common
chemical compositions are,Calcium Silica Alumina, Iron.
The following test are done for determine the quality of OPC,
Determination of consistence
Determination of initial setting time
Determination of compressive strength
AIM
Testing for compressive strength
Determination of consistence of cement paste
Determination of initial setting time for a given cement sample
THEORY
The quality of cement is very important for the production of good quality
concrete. The following tests must be carried out to check whether a cement
sample is of the desired conforms to relevant standards (SLS 107)
Fineness
Chemical composition
Strength
Setting time
Soundness
Procedures for the tests are given in SLS 107: Part 2:2002
I. FINENESS The cement shall be tested for fineness by determination of specific
surface area square meters per kilogram. Air permeability method is used to
determine the specific surface area. The cement shall have a specific area of not
less than 225 m2/kg when tested for fineness according to the method given in
SLS 107: Part 2.
2. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH: The cement shall be tested for compressive in
accordance with the method given in SL 107: Part 2: 2002 For mortar cubes: 3
day strength not less than 20 N./n=2 and 28 day strength not 14 than 40 N/mm2
3. SETTING TIME: The setting time of cement shall be tested in accordance with
the method given in SIS 107. Part 2: 2002 Initial setting time not less than 30
minutes. Final setting time not greater than 10 hours.
4, SOUNDNESS: The cement is tested for soundness by the "Le Chatelier-
method of measuring its expansion. The method is described in SIS 107: Part 2:
2002. The cement shall not have an expansion of more than 10mm when tested
for soundness according to the above method
DETERMINATION OF CONSISTENCE OF STANDARD CEMENT PASTE
1. The quantity of water required to produce a paste of standard consistence
shall be that required to give a paste which will permit of the settlement Vicat
plunger to a depth of 5 mm to7 mm from the bottom of the Vicat mold.
2. The time for gauging, that is the time elapsing from the moment of add to the
dry cement until to fill the mold, shall be (4+1/4) mins& the gauging shall be
completed before any signs of setting
. 3. The Vicatmould resting on a non-porous plate shall be filled with cement
paste, the mold was completely filled in one layer & the surface of the paste shall
be smoothed off level with the top of the mold as quickly as possible.
4. The test block confined in the mold and resting on the plate was placed under
the rod bearing of the plunger, the latter was lowered gently into contact with the
surface of the test block and quickly released and allowed to sink in. This
operation was carried out immediately after filling the mold..
5. Trial paste has been made up of varying percentage of water until the amount
necessary for determining the stated consistence. The amount of water used
shall be recorded and expressed as percentage by weight of the dry cement.
I. Neat cement paste has formed by mixing cement with the quantity of water
required to give paste of standard consistence. The paste was gauged in the
manner arid under the condition described in (a).
2. The test block has been made by filling the paste, into the Vicatmnould. The
mold was completely filled and the surface of the paste shall then be smoothed
off level with the top of the mold.
3. The test block has been placed under the rod bearing the needle for initial
setting time test; the latter has been then be lowered gently into contact with the
test block and quickly released and allowed to sink in.
4. The process was repeated until the needle, when brought into contact with the
test block and released as described above does not penetrate beyond the point
approximately 5 mm from the bottom of the mold.
5. The period elapsing between the time when the water is added to the cement
and the time at which the needle ceases to pierce the test block shall be the
initial setting time.
1. The test specimen cubes was having a length of side of 70.7 mm., the area of
each face equaling 5000 mm2.
2. The sand for cubes passed through an 850 m BS test sieve and not more than
10% by weight passed 600 m BS test sieve.
3. The mix proportion is 1:3 cement - sand (by weight). The cement and sand
shall be mixed dry with a trowel as a non-porous place for 1 minutes and then
with water 4 minutes.
4. The material for each cube shall be mixed separately and the quantities of
cement sand and water be as follows: a Cement 185g. b. Sand 555g. c. Water
74g. 5. The assembled mold shall be placed on the table of the vibration
machine, A hopper shall be securely attached to the top of the mold to facilitate
filling. 6. Immediately after mixing the whole of the mortar shall be placed in the
hopper of the cube mold and then be compacted by vibration for 2 minutes,
7. After 24 hours the cubes were be marked for identification, removed from the
mold, immediately submerged in water and kept these until taken out just prior
to testing.
8.Three cubes were tested for compressive strength at 3 days and 28 days, the
ages being reckoned from the completion of vibration, and the compressive
strength shall be the average compressive strength of the 3 cubes for each
period respectively. The load shall be steadily & uniformly applied, starting from
zero, at the rate of 35 MN/m2/min
9. The compressive strength was calculated from the crushing load and the area
over which the load is applied shall be expressed to the nearest 0.5 MN/m 2
CALCULATIONS
DETERMINATION OF CONSISTENCE OF STANDARD CEMENT PASTE
NOTE 0mm Deflection means the rod has been pierced through the entire
specimen.
The correct consistence giving when the deflection in a range of 5mm - 7mm,
hence the amount of water content is 130ml.
Cube dimensions,
Width = 71mm
Length = 71mm
Height = 70mm
Compressive force = 82.8kN,hence we can calculate the compressive strength
Compressive force
Compressive strength=
WidthLength
82.8 kN
71 mm71mm
16.425 MPa
DISCUSSION
1. Nowadays cements come in a wide variety of formulations including
Ordinary Portland cement, White cement, Rapid hardening cement,
Sulphate resisting cement and Masonry cement. They can also come as
blends to include Portland blastfurnace cement incorporating ground
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) and Portland fly ash cement
incorporating fly ash.
Density, Fineness
Fineness
Fineness or particle size of Portland cement affects hydration rate and thus
the rate of strength gain. The smaller the particle size, the greater the
surface area-to-volume ratio, and thus, the more area available for water-
cement interaction per unit volume. The effects of greater fineness on
strength are generally seen during the first seven days .When referring to
Portland cement, "soundness" refers to the ability of a hardened cement
paste to retain its volume after setting without delayed destructive
expansion. This destructive expansion is caused by excessive amounts of
free lime (CaO) or magnesia (MgO). Most portland cement specifications
limit magnesia content and expansion. The typical expansion test places a
small sample of cement paste into an autoclave (a high pressure steam
vessel). The autoclave is slowly brought to 2.03 MPa.then kept at that
pressure for 3 hours. The autoclave is then slowly brought back to room
temperature and atmospheric pressure. The change in specimen length
due to its time in the autoclave is measured and reported as a
percentage. ASTM C 150, Standard Specification for Portland cement
specifies a maximum autoclave expansion of 0.80 percent for all Portland
cement types.
Setting Time
Strength
Compressive Strength
Tensile Strength
Although still specified by ASTM, the direct tension test does not provide
any useful insight into the concrete-making properties of cements. It
persists as a specified test because in the early years of cement
manufacture, it used to be the most common test since it was difficult to
find machines that could compress a cement sample to failure.
Flexural Strength
Loss on Ignition
Loss on ignition is calculated by heating up a cement sample) until a
constant weight is obtained. The weight loss of the sample due to heating
is then determined. A high loss on ignition can indicate pre-hydration and
carbonation, which may be caused by improper and prolonged storage or
adulteration during transport or transfer . The standard loss on ignition
test is contained in.
PROCEDURE
In order to allow for the variability of concrete strength, a target mean strength is
defined as follows
Where
Since the strength of a concrete mainly depends on the free water cement ratio
consideration of strength leads to the determination of' the free/water cement
ratio. (Using compressive strength vs. free water/cement ratio graph)
STEP 2: Estimation of free water content
Since the workability of concrete depends on the size and type of aggregate and
water content , the free water content is found it1ing the three factors (i.e. -
specified slump max. size of tc-1g and type of agg.) which are known. I he free
water content is obtained from Table 3)
The cement content was determined from the free water content and the free
water/cement ratio. This cement content should he check against the minimum
and maximum values specified in BS 8110
The free water content and the relative density of the aggregate on saturated
surface dry basis are used to determine the density of the fully compacted
concrete, and hence the total aggregate content. If no information is available
regarding relative density, an approximation can be made by using a value of 2.6
for uncrushed and 2.7 for crushed aggregate.
The calculations described in Step 5 are based on the assumption that the
aggregates are in the saturated surface dry condition but the actual moisture
content of the aggregates can vary significantly from this condition, and will
influence the amount of water that should be added to the mixture.
If the aggregates are wet (the moisture content is greater than the absorption
capacity), the aggregates contain free moisture that will be added to the batch of
concrete. If the aggregates are air dry (the moisture content is less than the
absorption capacity), the aggregates will pull water from the mixture. In both
cases, the slump of the fresh concrete and the strength of the hardened concrete
will differ from the expected values. Therefore, the actual amount of water
supplied with the aggregates must be calculated so that the correct amount of
water is added to the mixture. In addition, the desired weight of the aggregates
must be adjusted for the change in water content.
OBSERVATIONS
CALCULATIONS
Specified slump = 75 mm
For maximum size of aggregate 20mm, slump of 75mm and fine aggregate with
% fines passing through 600m sieve.
Cube 1
Length = 149 mm
Width = 149 mm
Height = 148 mm
Load = 639.3 kN
Load
Strength of concrete=
WidthLength
639.31000 N N
Strength of concrete= =28.8
149 mm149 mm mm2
Cube 2
Length = 150 mm
Width = 148 mm
Height = 147 mm
Load = 561.4 kN
Load
Strength of concrete=
WidthLength
561.41000 N N
Strength of concrete= =25.28
150 mm148 mm mm2
Cube 3
Length = 150 mm
Width = 149 mm
Height = 149 mm
Load = 604.8 kN
Load
Strength of concrete=
WidthLength
604.81000 N N
Strength of concrete= =27.06
149 mm150 mm mm
2
DISCUSSION
Due to temperature the amount of water included to the mix design is can
slightly change due to evaporation. Even though the slump is in
acceptable range the water content may have not been the exact value as
before therefore the strength of the concrete may change.
There are impurities mixed with In fine aggregates .due to this reason the
expected value for the cube may change.
When the curing was not done in a proper manner the amount of water
that should be in the concrete get less .therefore we can observe some
crack on the surface as well as a reduction in strength.
INTRODUCTION
The infiltration rate is expressed as the volume of water passing into soil per unit
area per unit time and has the dimensions of velocity. The infiltration rate
determines the time that a given amount of water will take to soak into the soil.
In dry soil, water infiltrates rapidly. This is called the initial infiltration rate. As
more water replaces the air in the pores, the water from the soil surface
infiltrates more slowly and eventually reaches a steady rate. The infiltration rate
depends on soil texture (the size of the soil particles) and soil structure (the
arrangement of the soil particles) and is a useful way of categorizing soils from
an irrigation point of view
APPARATUS
Shovel/hoe
Hammer
Watch or clock
5 liter bucket
Timber (75 x 75 x 400)
Hessian or jute cloth
At least 100 liters of water
1. A representative field
location has been selected
2. The infilltro-meter has been driven
uniformly into the ground
3. The buffer cylinder around has been set around the infilltro-
meter
4. The buffer cylinder has been filled with water up to 5cm
5. A plastic sheet has been placed on the soil inside the inner ring
6. The infilltro-meter has been filled up to 10cm of water and the data has
been recorded
7. The distance to the water level from datum(taken in field) has been
measured using the hook gauge
8. The plastic sheet has been removed and the time at which the test is
done. This reading is called the initial time reading.
9. Using hook gauge readings at periodic time intervals the record the times.
CALCULATIONS
Instantaneous
Depth Cumulative infiltration(m
Time (min)
(mm) infiltration(m 0.5 t 0.5 t 0.5
t m)
h m)
dI /dt
140
120
100
80
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (min)
25
15
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0.5 t-.0.5
Hence,
Factor S (Philips sorpitivity factor) = 39.486 (cm/min 2)
Factor K (hydraulic conductivity of soil) = 2.3415 (cm min -1)
25
20
15
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (min)
DISCUSSION
(C). Effect of infiltration rate on crop water requirement,
OBJECTIVE
To determine the settlement due to primary, consolidation of soil by
conducting one dimensional test to determine
4. Stopwatch
5. Filter papers
6. Sample containers
THEROY
A saturated fine grained soil when loaded undergoes settlement the low
hydraulic conductivity prevent the escape of water from specimen cause it
to generate to excess pore water pressure when the specimen is subject
to an external stress the load is carried by the soil, Skelton and pore water
with time we find that stress carried by water to transfer to the soil Skelton
in gradual settlement
The consolidation test which allows drainage in the vertical direction which
is same as the direction of stresses and settlement this analogy is to a
field where a large is preloaded.
The test is performed with an apparatus known as the consolido-meter
consisting essentially of loading frame and a consolidation cell in which is
the specimen is kept. Pores stone put on the top and bottom end of the
specimen to ease the drainage process from both ends.
Oediometer
Apperatus
PROCEDURE
1. First an undisturbed sample of soil was placed in a metal cylinder to
ensure one dimensional deformation.
2. Then two porous stone disks were placed at the top and bottom to
permit water escapes
3. To achieve saturated condition, the soil sample was kept in the water
for 24 hours
4. Then the soil sample was placed on an oedometer and on top of it,
dial gauge was sated (specimen is kept saturated at the time by
keeping it submerged in water)
2
5. Our starting load was 100 kN /m . The weight at the weight stack
2
pontoon was 75 kN /m , therefore,the load on the weight stack
2
pontoon was increased to 100 kN /m without applying stress to the
soil sample.
6. With commencement of stopwatch, and by releasing the resting
screw, stress applied to the soil sample and the dial-gauge reading
in major scale and minor scale were recorded.
7. Similarly the dial-gauge readings were recorded for different time
intervals up to 1440minutes.
CALCULATION
Time Root Time Dial Reading Dial Settlement
Elapsed (min)0.5 Major Minor Reading (mm)
(min) (mm)
0 - 1.8 0 1.800 0.000
0.25 0.50 1.8 0.100 1.900 0.100
0.50 0.71 1.8 0.11 1.910 0.110
1 1.00 1.8 0.118 1.918 0.118
2 1.41 1.8 0.132 1.932 0.132
4 2.00 1.8 0.150 1.900 0.150
8 2.83 1.8 0.170 1.970 0.170
15 3.87 1.8 0.180 1.980 0.180
30 5.48 1.8 0.186 1.986 0.186
60 7.74 1.8 0.192 1.990 0.190
120 10.95 1.8
1440 37.94 1.8
TABULATION
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
Settlement (mm) 0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.2
1 10 100
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
Settlement (mm) 0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.2
0.848 H 2dr
C v=
t 90
H2dr = 10mm
t90 =
0.848 H 2dr
C v=
t 90
Cv
C v t 50
T 50= 2
H dr
0.197 H 2dr
C v=
t 50
t50 =
Cv
DISCUSSION
Cv varies from one load increment to increment and also is different for
loading and unloading.
In additionCv usually varies coincidently among sample to sample of the
same soil.
Therefore the value estimated for Cv cannot be used for using a particular
engineering problem.so it is difficult to predict the rate of the settlement
accurately .the reason for this deviation can be identified as follows. When
we estimate the Cv value using undisturbed sample, we make the use of
liner theory of consolidation which includeseveral short comings. Also
there can be applied to one dimensional, here errors may be due to the 2D
and 3D effects
= tan()
CALCULATION
For 50 kN/m2 of axial stress,
Shear stress Normal stress
(kN/m2) (kN/m2)
18.71 50
20.64 100
20.5
20
19.5
Shear stress
19
18.5
18
17.5
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Nomral Stress
0.3
0.25
0.2
Shear Stress ( kN/m2)
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
4
Void Ratio
3
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Shear
Void Ratio Shear
displacement
displacem
(mm)
ent (mm)
0.485 0
0.484 0.02
0.483 0.04
0.483 0.04
0.482 0.08
0.481 0.1
0.480 0.2
0.480 0.3
0.480 0.4
0.480 0.5
0.480 0.6
0.480 0.7
0.480 0.8
0.480 0.9
0.480 1.0
0.479 1.25
0.479 1.50
Shear stress
(kN /m2 )
0.00 0
8.580 0.02
9.410 0.04
10.05 0.04
10.57 0.08
10.90 0.1
11.67 0.2
12.64 0.3
13.17 0.4
12.67 0.5
12.56 0.6
12.57 0.7
12.38 0.8
12.00 0.9
12.02 1.0
22.81 1.25
27.16 1.50
29.90 2.00
31.48 2.25
32.28 2.50
DISCUSSION
1. In the shear box test, the specimen is not failing along its
weakest plane but along a predetermined or induced failure plane
i.e. horizontal plane separating the two halves of the shear box.
This is the main drawback of this test. Moreover, during loading,
the state of stress cannot be evaluated. It can be evaluated only
at failure condition that is Mohr-s circle can be drawn at the
failure condition only. Also failure is progressive.
PERFORMACNCE OF A CENTRIFUGAL
PUMP