1.

Distinguish between
a. Primary and Secondary Memory
b. RAM ROM
c. Batch Online Processing
d. Intranet Extranet
2. Explain following Terms
a. SDLC & system Analyst
b. Utility Software
c. Impact Printer
d. URL
e. Cache Memory
f. Mother Board
g. Protocol
h. Fibre Optics
3. Answer Briefly
a. Explain the steps in SDLC clearly specifying the activities in each
stage From Norton
b. Explain the evolution of Programming Languages from m/c language
to natural Language (5th Generation) From Norton
4. Short Notes
a. Internet Security
b. E-commerce
c. E-CRM
d. Date Warehousing and Data mining
5. Projects

"A printer is an external output device that takes data from a

computer and generates output in the form of graphics / text on a
paper".
There are two types of printers.
Impact printers
An impact printer makes contact with the paper. It usually forms the print
image by pressing an inked ribbon against the paper using a hammer or
pins. Following are some examples of impact printers.
Dot-Matrix Printers
The dot-matrix printer uses print heads containing from 9 to 24 pins. These
pins produce patterns of dots on the paper to form the individual characters.
The 24 pin dot-matrix printer produces more dots that a 9 pin dot-matrix
printer, which results in much better quality and clearer characters. The
general rule is: the more pins, the clearer the letters on the paper. The pins
strike the ribbon individually as the print mechanism moves across the entire
print line in both directions, i-e, from left to right, then right to left, and so on.
The user can produce a color output with a dot-matrix printer (the user will
change the black ribbon with a ribbon that has color stripes). Dot-matrix
printers are inexpensive and typically print at speeds of 100-600 characters
per second.
Daisy-wheel printers
In order to get the quality of type found on typewriters, a daisy-wheel impact
printer can be used. It is called daisy-wheel printer because the print
mechanism looks like a daisy; at the end of each Petal is a fully formed
character which produces solid-line print. A hammer strikes a petal
containing a character against the ribbon, and the character prints on the
paper. Its speed is slow typically 25-55 characters per second.
Line printers
In business where enormous amount of material are printed, the character-
at-a-time printers are too slow; therefore, these users need line-at-a-time
printers. Line printers, or line-at-a-time printers, use special mechanism that
can print a whole line at once; they can typically print the range of 1,200 to
6,000 lines per minute. Drum, chain, and band printers are line-at-a-time
printers.
Drum printer
A drum printer consists of a solid, cylindrical drum that has raised characters
in bands on its surface. The number of print positions across the drum equals
the number available on the page. This number typically ranges from 80-132
print positions. The drum rotates at a rapid speed. For each possible print
position there is a print hammer located behind the paper. These hammers
strike the paper, along the ink ribbon, against the proper character on the
drum as it passes. One revolution of the drum is required to print each line.
This means that all characters on the line are not printed at exactly the same
time, but the time required to print the entire line is fast enough to call them
line printers. Typical speeds of drum printers are in the range of 300 to 2000
lines per minute.
Chain printers
A chain printer uses a chain of print characters wrapped around two pulleys.
Like the drum printer, there is one hammer for each print position. Circuitry
inside the printer detects when the correct character appears at the desired
print location on the page. The hammer then strikes the page, pressing the
paper against a ribbon and the character located at the desired print
position. An impression of the character is left on the page. The chain keeps
rotating until all the required print positions on the line have filled. Then the
page moves up to print the next line. Speeds of chain printers range from
400 to 2500 characters per minute.
Band printers
A band printer operates similar to chain printer except it uses a band instead
of a chain and has fewer hammers. Band printer has a steel band divided
into five sections of 48 characters each. The hammers on a band printer are
mounted on a cartridge that moves across the paper to the appropriate
positions. Characters are rotated into place and struck by the hammers. Font
styles can easily be changed by replacing a band or chain.
Non-impact printers
Non-impact printers do not use a striking device to produce characters on
the paper; and because these printers do not hammer against the paper
they are much quieter. Following are some non-impacted printers.
Ink-jet printers

Ink-jet printers work in the same fashion as dot-matrix printers in the form
images or characters with little dots. However, the dots are formed by tiny
droplets of ink. Ink-jet printers form characters on paper by spraying ink from
tiny nozzles through an electrical field that arranges the charged ink particles
into characters at the rate of approximately 250 characters per second. The
ink is absorbed into the paper and dries instantly. Various colors of ink can
also be used.
One or more nozzles in the print head emit a steady stream of ink drops.
Droplets of ink are electrically charged after leaving the nozzle. The droplets
are then guided to the paper by electrically charged deflecting plates [one
plate has positive charge (upper plate) and the other has negative charge
(lover plate)]. A nozzle for black ink may be all thats needed to print text,
but full-color printing is also possible with the addition of needed to print
text, but full-color printing is also possible with the addition three extra
nozzles for the cyan, magenta, and yellow primary colors. If a droplet isnt
needed for the character or image being formed, it is recycled back to its
input nozzle.
Several manufacturers produce color ink-jet printer. Some of these printers
come with all their color inks in a cartridge; if you want to replace on color,
you must replace all the colors. Other color ink-jet printers allow you to
replace ink individually. These printers are a better choice if user uses one
color more than other colors. These printers produce less noise and print in
better quality with greater speed.
Laser printers

A laser printer works like a photocopy machine. Laser printers produce

images on paper by directing a laser beam at a mirror which bounces the
beam onto a drum. The drum has a special coating on it to which toner (an
ink powder) sticks. Using patterns of small dots, a laser beam conveys
information from the computer to a positively charged drum to become
neutralized. From all those areas of drum which become neutralized, the
toner detaches. As the paper rolls by the drum, the toner is transferred to
the paper printing the letters or other graphics on the paper. A hot roller
bonds the toner to the paper.
Laser printers use buffers that store an entire page at a time. When a whole
page is loaded, it will be printed. The speed of laser printers is high and they
print quietly without producing much noise. Many home-use laser printers
can print eight pages per minute, but faster and print approximately 21,000
lines per minute, or 437 pages per minute if each page contains 48 lines.
When high speed laser printers were introduced they were expensive.
Developments in the last few years have provided relatively low-cost laser
printers for use in small businesses.
Advantages of Laser Printer
The main advantage of Laser printer is its speed & efficiency at which
it prints high-quality quality graphics & text.
Laser printers produce high-quality output as compared to other
printers.
Laser printers are quite and does not produce disturbing sounds.
They are also capable to produce color prints.
Disadvantages of Laser Printer
The main disadvantage of Laser printer is its cost, they are relatively
costly as compared to other printers.
The maintenance, repair & servicing charges are also high of these
printers.
 Laser printers emit small amount of ozone and are hazardous to health
and the atmosphere.
A printer is an output device that prints characters, symbols, and perhaps
graphics on paper. The printed output is generally referred to as hardcopy
because it is in relatively permanent form. Softcopy refers to temporary
images such as those displayed on a monitor. Printers are categorized
according to whether or not the image produced is formed by physical
contact of the print mechanism with the paper. Impact printers have contact;
nonimpact printers do not.

Impact printers

An impact printer has mechanisms resembling those of a typewriter. It

forms characters or images by striking a mechanism such as a print
hammer or wheel against an inked ribbon, leaving an image on paper.
Impact printers are dying out; however, you may still come in contact with a
dot-matrix printer. A dot-matrix printer contains a print head of small pins
that strike an inked ribbon, forming characters or images. Print heads are
available with 9, 18, or 24 pins; the 24-pin head offers the best print
quality.

Dot-matrix printers permit a choice between output of draft quality; a

coarser-looking 72 dots per inch vertically, which may be acceptable for
drafts of papers and reports, and near-letter-quality, a crisper-looking 144
dots per inch vertically, which is more suitable for a finished product to be
shown to other people.

Dot-Matrix Printers

Dot-matrix printers print about 40-300 characters per second (cps) and
can print some graphics, although the reproduction quality is poor. Color
ribbons are available for limited use of color. Dot-matrix printers are noisy,
inexpensive, and they can print through multipart forms, creating several
copies of a page at the same time,

Daisy-Wheel Printer
A type of printer that produces letter-quality type.daisy-wheel is a serial
printer A daisy-wheel printer works on the same principle as a ball-head
typewriter. The daisy wheel is a disk made of plastic or metal on which
characters stand out in relief along the outer edge. To print a character, the
printer rotates the disk until the desired letter is facing the paper. Then a
hammer strikes the disk, forcing the character to hit an ink ribbon, leaving
an impression of the character on the paper. You can change the daisy wheel
to print different fonts.

Daisy-wheel printers cannot print graphics, and in general they are noisy
and slow, printing from 10 to about 75 characters per second. As the
price of laser and ink-jet printers has declined, and the quality of dot-matrix
printers has improved, daisy-wheel printers have become obsolete.

Drum Printer

An impact printer in which a complete set of characters for each print

position on a line is on a continuously rotating drum behind an inked ribbon,
with paper in front of the ribbon; identical characters are printed
simultaneously at all required positions on a line, on the fly, by signal-
controlled hammers.

Chain Printer

It is the character printer. The print element in a chain printer is a

metallic band or chain containing the embossed characters that rotates
horizontally in front of paper. A complete chain consists of the five sections;
each section consists of 48 characters. As the print chain rotates, properly
timed print hammers strike the paper along with linked ribbon, against the
proper character on the chain as it passes. Chain printer are one of the
fastest impact printers that can produce up to 400 to 2500 characters
per second. Chain Printer also called band printers, contain characters
on a rotation band. Speeds of up to 3000 lines a minute may be possible
with these machines.

Line Printer
A high-speed printer capable of printing an entire line at one time. A
fast line printer can print as many as 3,000 lines per minute. The
disadvantages of line printers are that they cannot print graphics, the
print quality is low, and they are very noisy.

Other Impact Printer Are

wire matrix printer - an impact printer in which each character

is represented by a pattern of dots made by wires
wang image printer devices an output composed of a series of
dots

Nonimpact Printers

Nonimpact printers, used almost everywhere now, are faster and quieter
than impact printers because they have fewer moving parts. Nonimpact
printers form characters and images without direct physical contact between
the printing mechanism and the paper.

Two types of nonimpact printers often used with microcomputers are laser
printers and ink-jet printers.

Laser Printer:

Like a dot-matrix printer, a laser printer creates images with dots.

However, as in a photocopying machine, these images are created on a
drum, treated with a magnetically charged ink-like toner (powder), and
then transferred from drum to paper.
- There are good reasons why laser printers are so popular. They produce
sharp, crisp images of both text and graphics, providing resolutions from
300 dpi up to 1200 dpi, which is near-typeset quality (NTQ). They are
quiet and fast. They can print 4-32 text-only pages per minute for
individual microcomputers, and more than 120 pages per minute for
mainframes. (Pages with more graphics print more slowly.) They can print
in many fonts (type styles and sizes). The more expensive models can print
in different colors.
- Laser printers have built-in RAM chips to store documents output from
the computer. If you are working in desktop publishing and printing
complicated documents with color and many graphics, you will need a
printer with a lot of RAM. Laser printers also have their own ROM chips to
store fonts and their own small dedicated processor. To be able to manage
graphics and complex page design, a laser printer works with a page
description language, a type of software that has become a standard for
printing graphics on laser printers. A PDL (page description language) is
software that describes the shape and position of letters and graphics to the
printer. PostScript, from Adobe Systems, is one common type of page
description language; HPGL, Hewlett-Packard Graphic Language, is
another.

Ink-jet printer:

Like laser and dot-matrix printers, ink-jet printers also form images with
little dots. Ink-jet printers spray small, electrically charged droplets
of ink from four nozzles through holes in a matrix at high speed onto paper.

- Ink-jet printers can print in color and are quieter and much less expensive
than a color laser printer. However, they are slower and print in a somewhat
lower resolution (300-720 dpi) than laser printers. Some new, expensive
ink-jet printers print up 1200 or 1400 dpi. High resolution output requires
the use of special coated paper, which costs more regular paper. And, if you
are printing color graphics at a high resolution on an ink-jet printer, it may
take 10 minutes or more for a single page finish printing.

- A variation on ink-jet technology is the bubble-jet printer, which use

miniature heating elements to force specially formulated inks through print
heads with 128 tiny nozzles. The multiple nozzles print fine images at
high speeds. This technology is commonly used in portable printers.

Plotter

A plotter is a computer printing device for printing vector graphics. In the

past, plotters were widely used in applications such as computer-aided
design, though they have generally been replaced with wide-format
 conventional printers. It is now commonplace to refer to such wide-format
printers as "plotters,"

plotter is a device that draws pictures on paper based on commands from

a computer. Plotters differ from printers in that they draw lines using a
pen. As a result, they can produce continuous lines, whereas printers can
only simulate lines by printing a closely spaced series of dots. Multicolor
plotters use different-colored pens to draw different colors.

In general, plotters are considerably more expensive than printers. They are
used in engineering applications where precision is mandatory.

Impact printer / Dot-matrix Printer Non impact Printer / Laser Printer

1. It prints characters or images by 1. It prints characters and images without

striking print hammer or wheel against
an inked ribbon.
2. Its speed is slower.
3. Its printing quality is lower.
4. It normally uses continuous paper
sheet.
5. It generates noise during printing.
6. It uses inked ribbon for printing.
7. It is less expensive.
8. Dot matrix is an impact printer.
striking the papers.
2. Its speed is faster.
3. Its printing quality is higher.
4. Its normally uses individual paper
sheet.
5. It does not generate noise during
printing.
6. It uses toner or cartridge for painting.
7. It is more expensive.
8. Laser printer is a non-impact printer.

We summarized all the differences between impact printer and non-impact printer regarding to
their features.

1. Descriptions :
Impact printer - Produces text and images when tiny wire pins on print head strike the ink
ribbon by physically contacting the paper
 Non-impact printer - Produces text and graphics on paper without actually striking the paper

2. Types :
Impact printer - Dot-matrix printer
Non-impact printer - Inkjet printer, laser printer and thermal printer

3. Speed :
Impact printer - Low printing speed
Non-impact printer - Reasonably fast

4. Quality :
Impact printer - Print quality lower in some types
Non-impact printer - High quality of output, capable of printing fine and smooth details

5. Letter quality :
Impact printer - Produce near letter quality (NLQ) print only, which is just suitable for printing
mailing labels, envelopes, or invoices
Non-impact printer - Letter-quality printouts

6. Consumption :
Impact printer - Not commonly used today
Non-impact printer - Most commonly used printer today

7. Tools :
Impact printer - Uses ink ribbon
Non-impact printer - Uses ink spray or toner powder

8. Cost :
Impact printer - Less expensive
Non-impact printer - More expensive

9. Durability :
Impact printer - Reliable, durable (lasting for a long time)
 Non-impact printer - Print head is less durable, inclined towards to clogging and damage

10. Sound effects :

Impact printer - Generally noisy because of the striking activity
Non-impact printer - Generally much quieter than impact printers because there is no striking
mechanism

11. Image clarity :

Impact printer - Poor graphics or none at all
Non-impact printer - Can handle graphics and often a wider variety of fonts than impact
printers

12. Multipart forms :

Impact printer - Ideal for printing multipart forms because they can easily print through many
layers of paper
Non-impact printer - Cannot print multipart forms

13. Color output :

Impact printer - Limited color printing
Non-impact printer - Capable of printing in strong clear color, good for printing pictures

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY MEMORY

The memory hierarchy is very crucial operation functionality in the computer
and can be categorized into primary and secondary memory. Both these
memories vary in the speed, cost and capacity. Primary memory is
considered as a main memory that is accessed directly by the computer, so
as to store and retrieve information. Secondary memory is considered as an
external or additional memory, this memory is not directly accessed by the
CPU because, the secondary memory is an external storage device, It can be
used as a permanent memory, because even the computer is turned off we
can retrieve the information.

Primary memory vs Secondary memory

Processor access the primary memory in a random fashion. Unlike

primary memory, secondary memory is not directly accessed through
CPU. The accessing of the primary memory through CPU is done by
making use of address and data buses, whereas input/ output channels
are used to access the secondary memory.

The primary memory is embedded with two types of memory

technologies; they are the RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM
(Read Only Memory). The secondary memory is accessible in the form
of Mass storage devices such as hard disk, memory chips, Pen drive,
floppy disk storage media, CD and DVD.

Primary memory is volatile in nature, while secondary memory is non

volatile. The information that is stored in the primary memory cannot
be retained when the power is turned off. In case of secondary
memory, the information can be retrieved even if the power is turned
 off because the data will not be destructed until and unless the user
erases it.

When the data processing speed is compared between the primary

and secondary memory, the primary memory is much faster than
the secondary memory.

In the cost perspective, the primary memory is costlier than the

secondary memory devices. Because of this reasons most of the
computer users install smaller primary memory and larger secondary
memory.

As the secondary memory is permanent, all the files and programs are
stored in the secondary memory most and as the primary memory
interacts very fast with the micro processor, when the computer needs
to access the files that are stored in the secondary memory, then such
files are first loaded into the primary memory and then accessed by
the computer.

The following table list out some of the key differences between the
primary and secondary memory:

Primary memory Secondary memory

The memory devices used for primary The secondary memory devices are
memory are semiconductor memories magnetic and optical memories.

The primary memory is categorized as The secondary memory is always non

volatile and non volatile memories, volatile
RAM is the volatile memory and ROM is
the non volatile memory

The primary memory is composed of The secondary memory is enough

 programs and data that are presently capable to store huge amount of
being used by the micro processor information

The primary memories are more The secondary memories are

effective and fast to interact with the somewhat slow in interacting with the
micro processor micro processor, when compared with
the primary memory.

Primary memory is known as main Secondary memory is known as

memory additional memory or back memory

These memories are also called as These memories are also called as
internal memory external memory

Primary memory is temporary The secondary memory is permanent

Commonly used primary memory Generally secondary memories range

(main memory) available in the range between 80 GB to 4 TB Hard Disc
of 512 MB to 8 GB RAMs. Drives.

The primary memory devices are

connected to the computer through The secondary memory devices are
slots connected to the computer through
Cables

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions.
Computer memory is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed
and instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into
large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address
which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example if computer has 64k
words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory locations. The address
of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.

Memory is primarily of three types

Cache Memory

Primary Memory/Main Memory

Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory
which can speed up CPU. It acts as a buffer between the
CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data
and program which are most frequently used by CPU. The
parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to
cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can
access them.

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows:

Cache memory is faster than main memory.

It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:

Cache memory has limited capacity.

It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is
currently working. It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched
off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as
fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed reside in main
memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

These are semiconductor memories

It is known as main memory.

Usually volatile memory.

Data is lost in case power is switched off.

It is working memory of the computer.

Faster than secondary memories.

A computer cannot run without primary memory.

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower
than main memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU
directly does not access these memories instead they are accessed via input-output
routines. Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main memory,
and then CPU can access it. For example : disk, CD-ROM, DVD etc.

Characteristic of Secondary Memory

These are magnetic and optical memories

It is known as backup memory.

It is non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is
switched off.

It is used for storage of data in a computer.

Computer may run without secondary memory.

Slower than primary memories.

INTRANET & EXTRANET

Key difference: The main difference between an intranet and an extranet

is that the intranet is the network that is limited for use on the
organizations computers, whereas the extranet is an extension of the
companys intranet. The extranet make available some of the information
of the intranet to people not directly connected to the intranet.

Intranet is an internal network. It is

used by companies to connect their computers on a network. Webopedia
defines intranet as a network based on TCP/IP protocols (an internet)
belonging to an organization, usually a corporation, accessible only by the
organization's members, employees, or others with authorization. An
intranet's Web sites look and act just like any other Web sites, but the
firewall surrounding an intranet fends off unauthorized access.

The intranet is based on TCP/IP protocols, however, it is inaccessible from

the outside. Only the members of the corporation with authorized access
may log on and access the network and the data on the network. Like all
networks, the Intranet is mainly used to share data, information,
resources, company programs, software applications, as well as facilitate
communication between people or work groups within the company.
Intranet improves the data sharing capability and overall knowledge base
of the companys employees.

While, anyone can setup an intranet; it is mainly used by corporations as it

is a secure network and is much less expensive to build and manage than
private networks based on proprietary protocols. In fact, Intranets are
considered to be one of the fastest-growing segments of the Internet.

Extranet, on the other hand, is an

internal network that can be accessed externally. The extranet can be
thought as an extension of the companys intranet. People from outside
the company can have a limited access to the companys internal network
for business or education related purposes. The access may be granted to
the organizations partners, vendors, suppliers, current and potential
customers, etc.

Webopedia defines extranet as a buzzword that refers to an intranet that

is partially accessible to authorized outsiders. Whereas an intranet resides
behind a firewall and is accessible only to people who are members of the
same company or organization, an extranet provides various levels of
accessibility to outsiders. You can access an extranet only if you have a
valid username and password, and your identity determines which parts of
the extranet you can view.

Webopedia also states that the extranets are becoming a very popular
means for business partners to exchange information. However, the
extranets require security and privacy, so that the information on the
network is not wrongly accessed or misused by external parties. In order
to protect the network, the extranets can incorporate firewall server
management, the issuance and use of digital certificates or similar means
 of user authentication, encryption of messages, and the use of virtual
private networks (VPNs) that tunnel through the public network.

SearchEnterpriseWAN lists some of the uses of the extranet:

Exchange large volumes of data using Electronic Data Interchange

(EDI)

Share product catalogs exclusively with wholesalers or those "in the

trade"

Collaborate with other companies on joint development efforts

Jointly develop and use training programs with other companies

Provide or access services provided by one company to a group of

other companies, such as an online banking application managed by one
company on behalf of affiliated banks

Share news of common interest exclusively with partner companies

The main difference between an intranet and an extranet is that the

intranet is the network that is limited for use on the organizations
computers, whereas the extranet is an extension of the companys
intranet. The extranet make available some of the information of the
intranet to people not directly connected to the intranet.

The Internet is the most commonly and widely used computer network,
but it isn't the only type of computer network for sharing information
digitally. The Internet, an intranet and an extranet are three similar, but
distinct types of networks. While the Internet is open to anyone and
everyone, intranets and extranets are designed for smaller groups of
people. Think of the latter two as larger versions of a personal home
network.

Internet

The Internet is a network that is available to anyone with an Internet-

connected device. It is a massive collection of networks sharing
information publicly in the form of interlinked Web pages. Internet Protocol
defines a site's unique location which most users see as a domain name or
URL. The network is literally world-wide and is often referred to as the
world wide web.

Intranet

An intranet network is only available to a small group of people. Intranets

are mainly used within businesses and organizations to provide access to
files and applications among networked computers and servers. Intranets
may or may not have access to the Internet. If an intranet does connect to
the Internet, a firewall is used to prevent outside access to the intranet.
The purpose is to allow people within the same company to share
information over a local area network. It is sometimes referred to as a
private Internet.

Extranet

An extranet is similar to an intranet, but is accessible via a Web portal. An

extranet may be accessed from anywhere if the user has a valid user
name and password. The purpose of this type of network is to allow
collaboration and sharing of resources not only in-house but with a select
group of outside users. For instance, businesses will use an extranet to
allow customers to log in to provide input on projects. Another example is
using a virtual private network to allow employees to log in to the network
when they're are not in the office.

Main Differences

The main difference between the three is accessibility. The Internet is

public while the other two are highly restricted. Home users, if they use
one at all, would only use an intranet to share files between computers
and typically use the Internet when searching for and sharing information.
Businesses and organizations are the main users of both intranets and
extranets in order to restrict access to confidential data.

URL
URL is the abbreviation of Uniform Resource Locator. URL is the global
address of documents and other resources on the World Wide Web.

Parts of a URL

The first part of the URL is called a protocol identifier and it indicates what
protocol to use, and the second part is called a resource name and it
specifies the IP address or the domain name where the resource is located.
The protocol identifier and the resource name are separated by a colon and
two forward slashes.

For example, the two URLs below point to two different files at the domain
webopedia.com. The first specifies an executable file that should be fetched
using the FTP protocol; the second specifies a Web page that should be
fetched using the HTTP protocol:

A URL is a URI

A URL is one type of Uniform Resource Identifier (URI); the generic term for all
types of names and addresses that refer to objects on the World Wide Web.

The term "Web address" is a synonym for a URL that uses the HTTP or HTTPS
protocol.

The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) was developed by Tim Berners-Lee in

1994 and the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) URI working group. The
URL format is specified in RFC 1738 Uniform Resource Locators (URL).

URL

A URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is a form of URI and is a standardized

naming convention for addressing documents accessible over the Internet or
Intranet. An example of a URL is http://www.computerhope.com, which is the
URL for the Computer Hope website.

Overview of a URL
Below is additional information about each of the sections of the http URL for
this page.

URL or Internet address

The http:// stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol and enables the browser to
know what protocol it is going to use to access the information specified in
the domain.

Tip: A URL is not explicit to HTTP addresses; HTTPS, FTP, TFTP, Telnet, and
other addresses are also considered URLs and may not follow the same
syntax as our example.

Next, www. that stands for World Wide Web, is used to distinguish the
content. This portion of the URL is not required, and many times can be left
out. For example, typing "http://computerhope.com" would still get you to the
Computer Hope web page. This portion of the address can also be substituted
for an important sub page known as a subdomain. For example,
http://support.microsoft.com is the support section of Microsoft's page.

Next, computerhope.com is the domain name for the website. The last portion
of the domain is known as the "domain suffix" or TLD and is used to identify
the type or location of website. For example, .com is short for commercial,
.org is short for organization, and .co.uk is United Kingdom. There are dozens
of other domain suffixes available.

Next, the jargon and u portions of the above URL are the directories of where
on the server the web page. In this example, the web page is two directories
deep, so if you were trying to find the file on the server it would be in the
/public_html/jargon/u directory.

Finally, url.htm is the actual web page on the domain you're viewing. The
trailing .htm is the file extension of the web page that indicates the file is an
HTML file. Other common file extensions on the Internet include .php, .asp,
.cgi, .xml, .jpg, and .gif. Each of these file extensions performs a different
function, just like all the different types of files on your computer. See our
index.htm definition for additional information about this important file.

What characters are not allowed in a URL?

Most people realize that a space is not allowed in a URL. However, it is also
important to realize as documented in RFC 1738 the URL string can only
contain alphanumeric characters and !$-_+*'(),. Any other characters that are
required in the URL must be encoded.

Understanding more complex URLs

When a URL points to a script that performs additional functions, such as a

search engine pointing to a search results page, additional information
(paramerters) is added to the end of the URL. Below, is additional information
about a URL that points to the Computer Hope Search page with the search
query of "example search".

http://www.computerhope.com/cgi-bin/search.cgi?q=example%20search

In this URL the script file being pointed to is the search.cgi in the cgi-bin
directory. Because this file ends with .cgi you can assume it is a Perl script.

After the script name is a ? (question mark), the question mark in a URL
separates the URL from all the parameters or variables that are being sent to
the script. In the above example, the parameter being sent is q=example
%20search. The "q" is a variable name, and the "example%20search" is the
value being sent to that variable. Because no spaces are allowed in a URL,
the space has been encoded to %20. In many scripts, a + (plus) is also used
to represent a space.

When the script is executed it looks for any variables and since this URL has
available variables the URL variables are assigned to variables in the script
that can be processed. Scripts are also not limited to only one variable, if the
script needs multiple variables each variable can be separated with an &
(ampersand) as shown in the example below.

http://www.computerhope.com/cgi-bin/search.cgi?q=example
%20search&example=test

In the above example, there are two different variables, "q" that equals
"example search" and "example" that equals "test". If the script was looking
for an example variable it could be processed and perform an additional
feature.

a. Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) are used to identify different kinds of

resources on

Internet.

b. If the web browser wants some document from web server, just giving
domain name is not sufficient because domain name can only be used for
locating the server.

c. It does not have information about which document client needs.

Therefore, URL should be provided.

d. URL formats:

i. The general format of URL is: scheme: object-address

ii. Example: http: www.vtu.ac.in/results.php

iii. The scheme indicates protocols being used. (Http, ftp, telnet...)

iv. In case of http, the full form of the object address of a URL is as follows:

v. URLs can never have embedded spaces.

vi. It cannot use special characters like semicolons, ampersands and colons.

e. URL paths:
i. The path to the document for http protocol is a sequence of directory
names

//fully-qualified-domain-name/path-to-document

ii. The path in a URL can differ from a path to a file because a URL need not
include

iii. A path that includes all directories along the way is called a complete

iv. Example: http://www. jyothyit.com/index.html.

v. In most cases, the path to the document is relative to some base path that
is

and a filename, all separated by whatever special character the OS uses.

(Forward or backward slashes).

all directories on the path.

path. specified in the configuration files of the server. Such paths are called
partial paths.

vi. Example: http://www.jyothyit.com/

CACHE MEMORY

Pronounced cash, a special high-speed storage mechanism. Cache can be

either a reserved section of main memory or an independent high-speed
storage device. Two types of caching are commonly used in personal
computers: memory caching and disk caching.

Memory Caching

A memory cache, sometimes called a cache store or RAM cache, is a portion

of memory made of high-speed static RAM (SRAM) instead of the slower and
cheaper dynamic RAM (DRAM) used for main memory. Memory caching is
effective because most programs access the same data or instructions over
and over. By keeping as much of this information as possible in SRAM, the
computer avoids accessing the slower DRAM.

L1 and L2 Caches

Some memory caches are built into the architecture of microprocessors. The
Intel 80486 microprocessor, for example, contains an 8K memory cache, and
the Pentium has a 16K cache. Such internal caches are often called Level 1
(L1) caches. Most modern PCs also come with external cache memory, called
Level 2 (L2) caches. These caches sit between the CPU and the DRAM. Like L1
caches, L2 caches are composed of SRAM but they are much larger.

Disk Caching

Disk caching works under the same principle as memory caching, but instead
of using high-speed SRAM, a disk cache uses conventional main memory. The
most recently accessed data from the disk (as well as adjacent sectors) is
stored in a memory buffer. When a program needs to access data from the
disk, it first checks the disk cache to see if the data is there. Disk caching can
dramatically improve the performance of applications, because accessing a
byte of data in RAM can be thousands of times faster than accessing a byte
on a hard disk.

Smart Caching

When data is found in the cache, it is called a cache hit, and the effectiveness
of a cache is judged by its hit rate. Many cache systems use a technique
known as smart caching, in which the system can recognize certain types of
frequently used data. The strategies for determining which information should
be kept in the cache constitute some of the more interesting problems in
computer science

Cache Memory

Cache memory is a type of memory used to hold frequently used data. Cache
memory is relatively small, but very fast. Most web browsers use a cache to
load regularly viewed webpages fast. The most important type of cache
memory is the CPU cache.

Cache Memory & Related Definitions

Computer engineers are always looking for ways to make a computer run
faster. A multi-core chip, more memory, and a faster video card can all be
used to improve the performance of a computer. One very effective method
to improve speed is the use of cache memory. Cache is a type of memory that
is relatively small, but can be accessed very quickly. It essentially stores
information that is likely to be used again.

For example, web browsers typically use a cache to make webpages load
faster by storing a copy of the webpage files locally, such as on your local
computer. This is referred to as a web cache. Clever protocols are used to
make sure that the copy is still current - if not, the web browser will get the
new files from the original source. The general purpose of the web cache is to
make the web pages load faster. Cache memory is used in other parts of a
computer system. The most important type is the CPU cache, which will be
the focus of the rest of the lesson.

CPU Cache

The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer. All of the
instructions have to run through the CPU for the various parts of a computer
to work together. CPU chips have been getting smaller and faster as chip
technology has advanced. One of the slower aspects of computer processing
is the interaction between the CPU chip and the main memory in the form of
random-access memory (RAM). Installing more memory is not always a
solution - the bottleneck is often the time it takes to access the memory.

So, what have chip designers come up with? A small form of memory located
directly on the chip itself. This is the CPU cache. It is much smaller, but can be
accessed much faster than the main memory. The CPU cache stores the most
frequently used pieces of information so they can be retrieved more quickly.
This information is a duplicate of information stored elsewhere, but it is more
readily available.
How the CPU Cache Works

To carry out a particular instruction, the CPU needs a specific piece of

information. The CPU will first check to see if this information is available in
the CPU cache. If the information is found, this is called a cache hit. If the
information is not found, this is called a cache miss, and the CPU goes on
looking for the information elsewhere. In the case of a cache miss, the piece
of information will be found in the main memory, but it will simply take longer.

A lot of research has gone into how to optimize the design of cache memory.
The result has been somewhat counter-intuitive: smaller is faster. What this
means is that a relatively small CPU cache improves speed, but as the cache
gets really large, it no longer helps as much, and the CPU might as well look
for the information in the main memory.

Think of it this way: let's say the main memory is like a 500-page textbook
packed with information. It contains everything about the subject, but finding
information means you have to look through the table of contents or search
the index. You know the information is there, but it takes a bit of time to find
the right page. Now, think of the CPU cache as a small notebook with only the
most important information.

Looking through this notebook is very quick, and if you find what you need -
bingo! If not, you turn to the 500-page textbook; however, if you end up with
a notebook of 100 pages, it no longer has the same benefit in terms of speed
as the really small notebook with only a few pages. And, by the way, every
page in the notebook costs a lot more than a page in the textbook. So, we
want to keep the CPU cache small and efficient.
Online Processing: An online system handles transactions when the occur and
provides output directly to users. Because it is interactive, online processing
avoids delays and allows a constant dialog between the user and the system.
The system processes transactions completely when and where they occur.
Users interact directly with the information system. Users can accesss data
randomly. The information system must be available whenever necessary to
support business functions.

Batch Processing: Data is processed in groups or batches. Batch processing is

typically used for large amounts of data that must be processed on a routine
schedule, such as paychecks or credit card transactions. A batch processing
system has several main characteristics: collect, group, and process
transactions periodically. Batch programs require no user involvement and
requires significantly fewer network resources than online systems.

Difference between batch and online processing systems

Online processing is very effective these days. If we compare with batch

processing system than online systems are expensive. Batch processing work
in batches and then jobs is divided into sub jobs and then processed so it
dont need lot of hardware resources. As online processing involve mobiles
data also so it is expensive. In decent development now our mobiles and
small devices also do some type of batch processing. Now with the passage
of time latest computer devices do work of both batch processing and online
processing at a time.

Online processing system vs batch processing system

Online processing is just like live processing in that case if user input some
data by filling input form on any site then it get processed and data fetch
from the database online at the same time. The online processing involves
database servers, files on hosting and browser to communicate effectively
and do fast work to be responsive. As the name suggests it is online so that
mean it is live to action. The processing just on time.
In batch systems the data enter at any time may get processed days later.
For example data collected about salaries and other transactions about
customers get processed later at the date when reports are generated.
Similarly inventories and salary distributed is processed later. So this batch
processing is schedule based in which processing get time schedule of when
to process data.

In online processing like on amazon.com website which is a shopping cart

site, the transaction and processing gets online and in time live.

In online processing error shown and fixed on exact time while in batch
processing if error occurs then it will be report and printed late. Batch
processing is better to use for massive and sequential records processing
which online processing is used in concurrent updates. Data management is
best handled in online processing. The strategy involved in processing is
critical also privacy is high and online processing is stable at the time when
records get fetch and updated.

Examples of online processing involves Google, wordpress hosted cms and

other hosting companies do online processing. The statistics of users e.g.
stats of traffic on website involves online processing.

Some cms like Joomla, Drupal, Magento get processed and data is correlated
live depending upon server performance. Different components in these cms
are based upon speed of server. More over shopping cart like woocommerce
in wordpress is also processed online.

Batch vs. Real-Time Processing

There are two ways to process transactions: using batches and in real time. In
a batch processing system, transactions are accumulated over a period of
time and processed as a single unit, or batch. For example, a store may
update its sales records every day after the store closes. Or a payroll system
may process all the time cards every two weeks to determine employee
earnings and produce paychecks. Whatever the time period in a batch
system, there is some time delay between the actual event and the
processing of the transaction to update the records of the organization.
In a real-time processing system, transactions are processed immediately as
they occur without any delay to accumulate transactions. Real-time
processing is also referred to as online transaction processing, or OLTP. In this
case, the records in the system always reflect the current status.

A good example of a real-time processing system would be airline ticket

reservations. When you book a ticket and select a seat, that booking is made
right away, and nobody else can get that same seat even a second later. Any
changes you make to your reservation are also updated in real time. Another
example is the stock market. When you submit an order to buy a stock, that
order is processed immediately and not at the end of the day.

While real-time processing is often more efficient and in some cases

necessary, batch processing may be more effective. In the case of a payroll
system, there is really no need to keep track of how much an employee has
earned every minute of the day and doing this every two weeks is likely
sufficient.

Mainframe processing evolved from the 1960's. At that time, processing

was mainly read from cards. Outputs were either printed or punched out in
cards. Although the input and output devices have changed, this processing is
still being used today mainly for processing large amount of data at one time.
If an organization needs to print bills, there is most likely a batch program
that reads input files and scans through the database and produces the
thousands of bills for that billing cycle. This form of processing is called Batch
Processing.

As technology improved, online processing became available. Online

Transaction Processingallows a user to enter a transaction to a program that
can return the result in real time. If you go to an ATM and query your balance,
your request is sent to an online program that accepts your query and returns
the result in real time.

Batch Processing
MVS Batch Processing

In the old days of computing, batch jobs had statements on punched cards
and were physically submitted to the system through a machine called a card
reader. One card is one record. Each record is 80 characters in length. These
statements are called Job Control cards and written in Job Control Language
(JCL). Today, there are no machines to read the punched cards. Statements
are now coded interactively with an editor and stored on disks. A program
called an internal reader (INTRDR) reads these cards from disks.

The JCL specifies the name of the job (job name), priority and class of the job.
It also specifies the STEP within a job. A step is identified by a name (step
name) that specifies the program to be executed. The step also specifies the
different files used by the program. These file statements specify the
attributes of the files being used. The file attributes include the name of the
file (Data set nameor DSN), the address of the unit where the file resides, the
type of unit, the physical record length (Block Size or BLKSIZE) and logical
length (logical record length or LRECL) of each record.

These JCL statements are read by a program called the Job Entry Subsystem
(JES). The Job Entry Subsystem for z/OS is called JES2. JES2 is a task within
z/OS that puts these jobs in a queue. JES2 controls Initiators. Each Initiator is
defined to process one or more job classes. When an Initiator is available, it
will process a job based on its class and priority.

Once the job is initiated, batch processing for that job begins. The initiator will
allocate the files for the job to use. It will also load the program to be
executed for that step. Once the program executes, there is no more
intervention needed. The program reads the input files and writes out the
output files. When a step is done, the Initiator looks at the next step and
based on the condition specified for that step, the Initiator will either bypass
that step or will prepare the environment for the next step.

The job ends when all the steps had been executed for that job.

Sometimes, when a program encounters an error condition, the job will

terminate with an Abnormal End or (ABEND). There are two kinds of ABENDs.
A system ABEND is generated by the operating system. It is prefixed with S
and followed by 3 a hexadecimal ABEND code that identifies the cause of the
ABEND. A user ABEND is generated by the program and is prefixed with U and
followed by 4 decimal numbers.

In z/OS, programs end with a return code. The return code can also indicate
the result of the processing for that step. A normal or successful execution
normally has a return code of 0.

You may want to read two of my articles on JCL and JES:

Job Control Language

What does a Job Entry Subsystem (JES) do

Online Transaction Processing

MVS Online Processing

Mainframes also allow for interactive or online transactionprocessing. Online

transactionprocessing use online programs to allow a user to enter inputs and
receive the response in real time.

These online systems also have JCL statements to control their execution.
However, most of them are not classified as batch jobs. These are classified
as z/OS system tasks because these are normally started from the system
console by an operator. They normally execute under operating system
privilege and also are meant to execute while the system is running.

Most online systems have a control region that controls the traffic into and
out of the system. Most of them also separate the data layer from the
presentation layer. (For those using XML and SOA, does this sound familiar?).

Although there are technologies that now allow for more user-friendly
interfaces, most of these interactive systems still display their output in what
used to be 3270 terminals. The 3270 terminals were physical visual display
units that could only display text in 80 columns and 24 rows. Other models
could display 80 columns and 43 rows. These are what some call 'green
screen terminals' or 'dumb terminals'. There are probably no 3270 terminals
in use today. Most 3270 terminals are emulated on a desktop using emulation
software. This page lists various 3270 emulation software.

The way data is to be displayed on the terminal has to be mapped. The

mapping process depends on the interactive system used.

The online transaction processing control regions basically accept the data
sent from these 3270 terminals and strips off the overhead characters based
on the terminal map. The online transaction processing control region will
execute the corresponding online program based on the transaction entered.
The control region will pass the input to the online program.

The online transaction program will process the input. Processing may involve
accessing one or more databases. Once processing is done, the online
transaction program will return the result to the online transaction processing
control region. The online transaction processing control region will format the
output based on the defined terminal map and send the output to the 3270
terminal.

If you wish to know more about online transaction processing, you may want
to check my article on: What is an IMS Transaction Manager.

Mainframe Modernization

With mainframe modernization, there are some software products that extend
the capability of these online transaction programs. These software products
provide interface to web applications and communicate with these online
transaction programs. This technique leverages the existing assets and make
them more relevant in current business environments. Companies like
Progress and IBM have products that do this and have written papers
describing their products.
PROTOCOLS

An agreed-upon format for transmitting data between two devices. The

protocol determines the following:

the type of error checking to be used

data compression method, if any
how the sending device will indicate that it has finished sending a
message
how the receiving device will indicate that it has received a message

There are a variety of standard protocols from which programmerscan

choose. Each has particular advantages and disadvantages; for example,
some are simpler than others, some are more reliable, and some are faster.
From a user's point of view, the only interesting aspect about protocols is that
your computer or device must support the right ones if you want to
communicate with other computers. The protocol can be implemented either
in hardware or in software.

In information technology, a protocol is the special set of rules that end points
in a telecommunication connection use when they communicate. Protocols
specify interactions between the communicating entities.

Protocols exist at several levels in a telecommunication connection. For

example, there are protocols for the data interchange at the hardware device
level and protocols for data interchange at the application program level. In
the standard model known as Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), there are
one or more protocols at each layer in the telecommunication exchange that
both ends of the exchange must recognize and observe. Protocols are often
described in an industry or international standard.

The TCP/IP Internet protocols, a common example, consist of:

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which uses a set of rules to exchange

messages with other Internet points at the information packet level

Internet Protocol (IP), which uses a set of rules to send and receive
messages at the Internet address level

Additional protocols that include the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and
File Transfer Protocol (FTP), each with defined sets of rules to use with
corresponding programs elsewhere on the Internet

There are many other Internet protocols, such as the Border Gateway Protocol
(BGP) and the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).

The word protocol comes from the Greek protocollon, meaning a leaf of paper
glued to a manuscript volume that describes the contents.

Definition: A network protocol defines rules and conventions for

communication between network devices. Protocols for computer networking
all generally use packet switching techniques to send and receive messages
in the form of packets.

Network protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make

connections with each other, as well as formatting rules that specify how data
is packaged into messages sent and received.

Some protocols also support message acknowledgement and data

compression designed for reliable and/or high-performance network
communication. Hundreds of different computer network protocols have been
developed each designed for specific purposes and environments.

Internet Protocols

The Internet Protocol family contains a set of related (and among the most
widely used network protocols.

Beside Internet Protocol (IP) itself, higher-level protocols like TCP, UDP, HTTP,
and FTP all integrate with IP to provide additional capabilities. Similarly, lower-
level Internet Protocols like ARP and ICMP also co-exist with IP. In general,
higher level protocols in the IP family interact more closely with applications
like Web browsers while lower-level protocols interact with network adapters
and other computer hardware.

Routing Protocols

Routing protocols are special-purpose protocols designed specifically for use

by network routers on the Internet. Common routing protocols include EIGRP,
OSPF and BGP.

How Network Protocols Are Implemented

Modern operating systems like Microsoft Windows contain built-in services or

daemons that implement support for some network protocols. Applications
like Web browsers contain software libraries that support the high level
protocols necessary for that application to function. For some lower level
TCP/IP and routing protocols, support is implemented in directly hardware
(silicon chipsets) for improved performance.

A group of network protocols that work together at higher and lower levels
are often called a protocol family.

Students of networking traditionally learn about the OSI model that

conceptually organizes network protocol families into specific layers for
teaching purposes

List of Protocols

Protocol stack: List of network protocol stacks

Bluetooth protocol
Fibre Channel network protocols
Internet Protocol Suite or TCP/IP model or TCP/IP stack
OSI protocols family of information exchange standards developed
jointly by the ISO and the ITU-T
Routing protocols
List of IP protocol numbers,
protocol numbers used in the Protocol field of the IPv4 header and the
Next Header field of IPv6 header
Yahoo! Messenger, underlying protocol used by the Yahoo messenger
RTPS protocol, an interoperability protocol
SSH Secure Shell
SMB Server Message Block, one version of which was also known as
CIFS (Common Internet File System)
FTP File Transfer Protocol
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
TCP Transmission Control Protocol
Telnet Telephone Network
HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
HTTPs Secure Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
HTCPCP Hyper Text Coffee Pot Control Protocol
MTP Media Transfer Protocol
SFTP Secure File Transfer Protocol
 SSL Secure Socket Layer
TLS Transport Layer Security
POP post office protocol
E6 Ethernet globalization protocols
NTP Network time protocol
PPP Point to Point Protocol
NNTP Network News Transfer Protocol
IMAP Internet Message Access Protocol
Bitcoin Protocol Protocol to transfer value on the web

Network protocol design principles

Systems engineering principles have been applied to create a set of common

network protocol design principles.

Protocol layering

In modern protocol design, protocols are "layered". Layering is a design

principle which divides the protocol design into a number of smaller parts,
each of which accomplishes a particular sub-task, and interacts with the
other parts of the protocol only in a small number of well-defined ways.

For example, one layer might describe how to encode text (with ASCII, say),
while another describes how to inquire for messages (with the Internet's
simple mail transfer protocol, for example), while another may detect and
retry errors (with the Internet's transmission control protocol), another
handles addressing (say with IP, the Internet Protocol), another handles the
encapsulation of that data into a stream of bits (for example, with the point-
to-point protocol), and another handles the electrical encoding of the bits,
(with a V.42 modem, for example).

Layering allows the parts of a protocol to be designed and tested without a

combinatorial explosion of cases, keeping each design relatively simple.
Layering also permits familiar protocols to be adapted to unusual
circumstances. For example, the mail protocol above can be adapted to send
messages to aircraft. Just change the V.42 modem protocol to the INMARS
LAPD data protocol used by the international marine radio satellites.

The reference model usually used for layering is the OSI seven layer model,
which can be applied to any protocol, not just the OSI protocols. In particular,
the Internet Protocol can be analysed using the OSI model.

Error detection and correction

It is a truism that communication media are always faulty. The conventional

measure of quality is the number of failed bits per bit transmitted. This has
the wonderful feature of being a dimensionless figure of merit that can be
compared across any speed or type of communication media.

In telephony, failure rates of 104 bit per bit are faulty (they interfere with
telephone conversations), while 105 bit per bit or more should be dealt
with by routine maintenance (they can be heard).

Communication systems correct errors by selectively resending bad parts of

a message. For example, in TCP (the internet's Transmission Control
Protocol), messages are divided into packets, each of which has a checksum.
When a checksum is bad (meaning the checksum on the receiver does not
match the checksum on the sender), the packet is discarded. When a packet
is lost, the receiver acknowledges all of the packets up to, but not including
the failed packet. Eventually, the sender sees that too much time has
elapsed without an acknowledgement, so it resends all of the packets that
have not been acknowledged. At the same time, the sender backs off its rate
of sending, in case the packet loss was caused by saturation of the path
between sender and receiver. (Note: this is an oversimplification: see TCP
and congestion collapse for more detail)

In general, the performance of TCP is severely degraded in conditions of high

packet loss (more than 0.1%), due to the need to resend packets repeatedly.
For this reason, TCP/IP connections are typically either run on highly reliable
fiber networks, or over a lower-level protocol with added error-detection and
correction features (such as modem links with ARQ). These connections
typically have uncorrected bit error rates of 109 to 1012, ensuring high
TCP/IP performance

Resiliency

Another form of network failure is topological failure, in which a

communications link is cut, or degrades below usable quality. Most modern
communication protocols periodically send messages to test a link. In
phones, a framing bit is sent every 24 bits on T1 lines. In phone systems,
when "sync is lost", fail-safe mechanisms reroute the signals around the
failing equipment.

In packet switched networks, the equivalent functions are performed using

router update messages to detect loss of connectivity.

The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking

framework to implement protocols in seven layers. Use this handy guide to
compare the different layers of the OSI model and understand how they
interact with each other.

FTP is a client-server protocol that relies on two communications channels

between client and server: a command channel for controlling the
conversation and a data channel for transmitting file content. Clients initiate
conversations with servers by requesting to download a file. Using FTP, a
client can upload, download, delete, rename, move and copy files on a
server. A user typically needs to log on to the FTP server, although some
servers make some or all of their content available without login, also known
as anonymous FTP.

FTP sessions work in passive or active modes. In active mode, after a client
initiates a session via a command channel request, the server initiates a data
connection back to the client and begins transferring data. In passive mode,
the server instead uses the command channel to send the client the
information it needs to open a data channel. Because passive mode has the
client initiating all connections, it works well across firewalls and Network
Address Translation (NAT) gateways.
The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking
framework to implement protocols in seven layers. Control is passed from
one layer to the next, starting at the application layer in one station, and
proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and
back up the hierarchy.

There is really nothing to the OSI model. In fact, it's not even tangible. The
OSI model doesn't perform any functions in the networking process. It is a
conceptual framework so we can better understand complex interactions
that are happening.

The OSI model takes the task of internetworking and divides that up into
what is referred to as a vertical stack that consists of the following layers.

Physical (Layer 1)

This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal
through the network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the
hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier, including
defining cables, cards and physical aspects. Fast Ethernet, RS232, and ATM
are protocols with physical layer components.

Layer 1 Physical examples include Ethernet, FDDI, B8ZS, V.35, V.24, RJ45.

Data Link (Layer 2)

At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes
transmission protocol knowledge and management and handles errors in the
physical layer, flow control and frame synchronization. The data link layer is
divided into two sub layers: The Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the
Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC sub layer controls how a computer
on the network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it. The
LLC layer controls frame synchronization, flow control and error checking.

Layer 2 Data Link examples include PPP, FDDI, ATM, IEEE 802.5/ 802.2, IEEE
802.3/802.2, HDLC, Frame Relay.

Network (Layer 3)

This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical

paths, known as virtual circuits, for transmitting data from node to node.
Routing and forwarding are functions of this layer, as well as addressing,
internetworking, error handling, congestion control and packet sequencing.

Layer 3 Network examples include AppleTalk DDP, IP, IPX.

Transport (Layer 4)

This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or

hosts, and is responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It
ensures complete data transfer.

Layer 4 Transport examples include SPX, TCP, UDP.

Session (Layer 5)

This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between

applications. The session layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates
conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the applications at each
end. It deals with session and connection coordination.

Layer 5 Session examples include NFS, NetBios names, RPC, SQL.

Presentation (Layer 6)

This layer provides independence from differences in data representation

(e.g., encryption) by translating from application to network format, and vice
versa. The presentation layer works to transform data into the form that the
application layer can accept. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent
across a network, providing freedom from compatibility problems. It is
sometimes called the syntax layer.

Layer 6 Presentation examples include encryption, ASCII, EBCDIC, TIFF, GIF,

PICT, JPEG, MPEG, MIDI.

Application (Layer 7)

This layer supports application and end-user processes. Communication

partners are identified, quality of service is identified, user authentication
and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data syntax are
identified. Everything at this layer is application-specific. This layer provides
application services for file transfers, e-mail, and other network software
services. Telnet and FTP are applications that exist entirely in the application
level. Tiered application architectures are part of this layer.

Layer 7 Application examples include WWW browsers, NFS, SNMP, Telnet,

HTTP, FTP

The OSI Model's Seven Layers Defined and Functions Explained

Summary

The Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model has seven layers. This article
describes and explains them, beginning with the 'lowest' in the hierarchy
(the physical) and proceeding to the 'highest' (the application). The layers
are stacked this way:

Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
PHYSICAL LAYER

The physical layer, the lowest layer of the OSI model, is concerned with the
transmission and reception of the unstructured raw bit stream over a
physical medium. It describes the electrical/optical, mechanical, and
functional interfaces to the physical medium, and carries the signals for all of
the higher layers. It provides: Data encoding: modifies the simple digital
signal pattern (1s and 0s) used by the PC to better accommodate the
characteristics of the physical medium, and to aid in bit and frame
synchronization. It determines:

What signal state represents a binary 1

How the receiving station knows when a "bit-time" starts

How the receiving station delimits a frame

Physical medium attachment, accommodating various possibilities in the

medium:

Will an external transceiver (MAU) be used to connect to the medium?

How many pins do the connectors have and what is each pin used for?

Transmission technique: determines whether the encoded bits will be

transmitted by baseband (digital) or broadband (analog) signaling.

Physical medium transmission: transmits bits as electrical or optical signals

appropriate for the physical medium, and determines:

What physical medium options can be used

How many volts/db should be used to represent a given signal state, using
a given physical medium

DATA LINK LAYER

The data link layer provides error-free transfer of data frames from one node
to another over the physical layer, allowing layers above it to assume
virtually error-free transmission over the link. To do this, the data link layer
provides:

Link establishment and termination: establishes and terminates the

logical link between two nodes.
Frame traffic control: tells the transmitting node to "back-off" when no
frame buffers are available.
Frame sequencing: transmits/receives frames sequentially.
Frame acknowledgment: provides/expects frame acknowledgments.
Detects and recovers from errors that occur in the physical layer by
retransmitting non-acknowledged frames and handling duplicate frame
receipt.
Frame delimiting: creates and recognizes frame boundaries.
Frame error checking: checks received frames for integrity.
Media access management: determines when the node "has the
right" to use the physical medium.

NETWORK LAYER

The network layer controls the operation of the subnet, deciding which
physical path the data should take based on network conditions, priority of
service, and other factors. It provides:

Routing: routes frames among networks.

Subnet traffic control: routers (network layer intermediate systems) can

instruct a sending station to "throttle back" its frame transmission when the
router's buffer fills up.

Frame fragmentation: if it determines that a downstream router's maximum

transmission unit (MTU) size is less than the frame size, a router can
fragment a frame for transmission and re-assembly at the destination
station.
Logical-physical address mapping: translates logical addresses, or names,
into physical addresses.

Subnet usage accounting: has accounting functions to keep track of frames

forwarded by subnet intermediate systems, to produce billing information.

Communications Subnet

The network layer software must build headers so that the network layer
software residing in the subnet intermediate systems can recognize them
and use them to route data to the destination address.

This layer relieves the upper layers of the need to know anything about the
data transmission and intermediate switching technologies used to connect
systems. It establishes, maintains and terminates connections across the
intervening communications facility (one or several intermediate systems in
the communication subnet).

In the network layer and the layers below, peer protocols exist between a
node and its immediate neighbor, but the neighbor may be a node through
which data is routed, not the destination station. The source and destination
stations may be separated by many intermediate systems.

TRANSPORT LAYER

The transport layer ensures that messages are delivered error-free, in

sequence, and with no losses or duplications. It relieves the higher layer
protocols from any concern with the transfer of data between them and their
peers.

The size and complexity of a transport protocol depends on the type of

service it can get from the network layer. For a reliable network layer with
virtual circuit capability, a minimal transport layer is required. If the network
layer is unreliable and/or only supports datagrams, the transport protocol
should include extensive error detection and recovery.
 The transport layer provides: Message segmentation: accepts a message
from the (session) layer above it, splits the message into smaller units (if not
already small enough), and passes the smaller units down to the network
layer. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the
message.

Message acknowledgment: provides reliable end-to-end message delivery

with acknowledgments.

Message traffic control: tells the transmitting station to "back-off" when no

message buffers are available.

Session multiplexing: multiplexes several message streams, or sessions

onto one logical link and keeps track of which messages belong to which
sessions (see session layer).

Typically, the transport layer can accept relatively large messages, but there
are strict message size limits imposed by the network (or lower) layer.
Consequently, the transport layer must break up the messages into smaller
units, or frames, prepending a header to each frame.

The transport layer header information must then include control

information, such as message start and message end flags, to enable the
transport layer on the other end to recognize message boundaries. In
addition, if the lower layers do not maintain sequence, the transport header
must contain sequence information to enable the transport layer on the
receiving end to get the pieces back together in the right order before
handing the received message up to the layer above.

End-to-end layers

Unlike the lower "subnet" layers whose protocol is between immediately

adjacent nodes, the transport layer and the layers above are true "source to
destination" or end-to-end layers, and are not concerned with the details of
the underlying communications facility. Transport layer software (and
software above it) on the source station carries on a conversation with
similar software on the destination station by using message headers and
control messages.

SESSION LAYER

The session layer allows session establishment between processes running

on different stations. It provides:

Session establishment, maintenance and termination: allows two

application processes on different machines to establish, use and terminate a
connection, called a session.

Session support: performs the functions that allow these processes to

communicate over the network, performing security, name recognition,
logging, and so on.

PRESENTATION LAYER

The presentation layer formats the data to be presented to the application

layer. It can be viewed as the translator for the network. This layer may
translate data from a format used by the application layer into a common
format at the sending station, then translate the common format to a format
known to the application layer at the receiving station.

The presentation layer provides:

Character code translation: for example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

Data conversion: bit order, CR-CR/LF, integer-floating point, and so on.
Data compression: reduces the number of bits that need to be
transmitted on the network.
Data encryption: encrypt data for security purposes. For example,
password encryption.

APPLICATION LAYER

The application layer serves as the window for users and application
processes to access network services. This layer contains a variety of
commonly needed functions:
 Resource sharing and device redirection
Remote file access
Remote printer access
Inter-process communication
Network management
Directory services
Electronic messaging (such as mail)
Network virtual terminals

Comparison of OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference Model

Following are some major differences between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference Model,
with diagrammatic comparison below.

TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol /

OSI(Open System Interconnection)
Internet Protocol)

1. OSI provides layer functioning and also defines 1. TCP/IP model is more based on protocols and
functions of all the layers. protocols are not flexible with other layers.

2. In OSI model the transport layer guarantees the 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not
delivery of packets guarantees delivery of packets.

3. Follows horizontal approach 3. Follows vertical approach.

4. TCP/IP does not have a separate presentation

4. OSI model has a separate presentation layer
layer

5. TCP/IP model cannot be used in any other

5. OSI is a general model.
application.

6. Network layer of OSI model provide both connection 6. The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides
oriented and connectionless service. connectionless service.

7. OSI model has a problem of fitting the protocols in

7. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
the model
8. Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are easily
8. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
replaced as the technology changes.

9. OSI model defines services, interfaces and

9. In TCP/IP it is not clearly separated its
protocols very clearly and makes clear distinction
services, interfaces and protocols.
between them.

10. It has 7 layers 10. It has 4 layers

Diagrammatic Comparison between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP
Reference Model

The following figure shows the relationship between the OSI model and the TCP/IP model.
The TCP/IP network model has four basic layers:

Network interface (layer 1): Deals with all physical components of network connectivity between the

network and the IP protocol

Internet (layer 2): Contains all functionality that manages the movement of data between two network

devices over a routed network

Host-to-host (layer 3): Manages the flow of traffic between two hosts or devices, ensuring that data arrives

at the application on the host for which it is targeted

Application (layer 4): Acts as final endpoints at either end of a communication session between two

network hosts
UTILITY SOFTWARES

A program that performs a specific task related to the management of

computer functions, resources, or files, as password protection, memory
management, virus protection, and file compression.

Utility programs, commonly referred to as just "utilities," are software

programs that add functionality to your computer or help your computer
perform better. These include antivirus, backup, disk repair, file
management, security, and networking programs. Utilities can also be
applications such as screensavers, font and icon tools, and desktop
enhancements. Some utility programs help keep your computer free from
unwanted software such as viruses or spyware, while others add functionality
that allows you to customize your desktop and user interface. In general,
programs that help make your computer better are considered utilities.

Utility software is used to keep computers working fast and reliable. Just as
you visit your doctor from time to time for check ups, these four types of
utility software perform check ups on the health of your computer.

Introducing Utility Software

Utility software keeps your computer working efficiently and helps you
recover from disasters. Different types of utility software have different
benefits; automate tedious tasks, produce backups, monitor the performance
of the machine and keep your computer operating at maximum speed. In
this article, four types of utilities will be considered: system monitoring,
backup tools, system upkeep and troubleshooting tools. While IT specialists
and enthusiasts will likely use all of these utilities, the average user should
make backup tools and system upkeep a priority.

System Monitoring Software

System monitoring software describes in detail how well your computer is

working. This type of utility software typically describes your computer's
current temperature (excess heat damages computers), RAM usage, Internet
connection status and other factors. This type of program is a great way of
measuring how well your computer is working. Some of these tools include
logs that track your computer's performance over time and record unusual
system issues. Popular system monitoring applications and programs
include:

Core Temp: A small application that reports the current temperature for all
your computer's CPUs.

Down 2 Home: This utility monitors how much data you are uploading and
downloading through an Internet connection; it will be especially helpful for
users with limited Internet services.

Process Explorer: A free replacement for the Windows Task Manger, this
program tells you everything your computer is currently running

Backup Tools to Protect Your Data

Losing your data - digital photos, documents, notes and other information -
due to a hard drive failure, power failure or other computer problems is a
frustrating and painful experience. Backup software can ease the pain by
making it easy for you to restore your data and get back to work quickly.
Most backup programs offer a way to schedule backups on a regular basis
(e.g. daily, weekly, or monthly) for ease of use. Other programs offer a way
to store all of your backup data on DVDs or even at a remote location.

Examples

Mozy: This Internet based service lets users backup 2 GB of data for free
(storage over 2 GB is available for a fee). The advantage to an Internet based
backup service is that you can access your data anywhere and you don't
have to worry about locating DVDs and external hard drives.

SyncBack: Available in free and paid versions, this application creates

backups on your computer and at remote locations. The program also
provides email reports and notices to keep you informed about the status of
your backups.

Windows System Restore: Included in Windows, System Restore has limited

functionality but it can prove useful in recovering from some problems. While
it is worth exploring, the limited functionality of the application will be a
disadvantage for most users.

System Upkeep Programs

Computers tend to operate smoothly most of the time, especially when
newly purchased. Over time, many people observe that their computers slow
down. System upkeep programs identify and fix problems that cause these
slowdowns by cleaning out unused programs, unneeded temporary files and
other dead weight data. Here are some examples of system upkeep
applications and their main uses:

Autoruns 9: Detects and lists all programs that are set to run automatically,
useful for hunting down malware)

CCleaner: Cleans the Windows registry and related Windows systems

Disk Defragmenter: This free Microsoft program reorganizes your hard drive
so that it can run faster

Final Thoughts on Utility Software

Whether you want to fix problems or prevent them from happening in the
first place, these types of utility software are just what you need to keep your
computer in good condition. One type of utility software was not included
here though: antivirus software. Security is an important issue and should
not be ignored in any situation. Keep in mind that antivirus software is not
perfect; it is important to run backups and other software to guard against
disaster.

Examples

Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses.

Archivers output a stream or a single file when provided with a directory or

a set of files. Archive utilities, unlike archive suites, usually do not include
compression or encryption capabilities. Some archive utilities may even have
a separate un-archive utility for the reverse operation.

Backup software can make copies of all information stored on a disk and
restore either the entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files
(e.g. in an event of accidental deletion).

Clipboard managers expand the clipboard functionality of an operating

system .

Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files.

Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when
provided with a stream or file.

Data synchronization utilities establish consistency among data from a

source to a target data storage and vice versa. There are several branches of
this type of utility: File synchronization utilities maintain consistency between
two sources. They may be used to create redundancy or backup copies but
are also used to help users carry their digital music, photos and video in their
mobile devices.

Revision control utilities are intended to deal with situations where more
than one user attempts to simultaneously modify the same file.

Debuggers are used to test and "debug" other programs, mainly to solve
programming errors. Also utilized for reverse engineering of software or
systems.

Disk checkers can scan operating hard drive.

Disk cleaners can find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or
take up considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide
what to delete when their hard disk is full.

Disk compression utilities can transparently compress/uncompress the

contents of a disk, increasing the capacity of the disk.

Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are

scattered across several locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments
to one location to increase efficiency.

Disk partitions can divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives,
each with its own file system which can be mounted by the operating system
and treated as an individual drive.

Disk space analyzers for the visualization of disk space usage by getting
the size for each folder (including sub folders) & files in folder or drive.
showing the distribution of the used space.

Disk storage utilities

File managers provide a convenient method of performing routine data
management, email recovery and management tasks, such as deleting,
renaming, cataloging, uncataloging, moving, copying, merging, generating
and modifying data sets.

Hex editors directly modify the text or data of a file. These files could be
data or an actual program.

Memory testers check for memory failures.

Network utilities analyze the computer's network connectivity, configure

network settings, check data transfer or log events.

Package managers are used to configure, install or keep up to date other

software on a computer.

Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows Registry by removing

old registry keys that are no longer in use.

Screensavers were desired to prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT and plasma

computer monitors by blanking the screen or filling it with moving images or
patterns when the computer is not in use. Contemporary screensavers are
used primarily for entertainment or security.

System monitors for monitoring resources and performance in a computer

system.

System profilers provide detailed information about the software installed

and hardware attached to the computer.