Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Contradiction
Definition: Contradiction.
Examples:
P Q ~ (P Q) (Q P)
T T F T F T
T F T F F F
F T T F F F
F F T F F F
Step: 2 1 4* 3
WUCT121 Logic 43
Exercises:
P Q ~(P Q) P
Step:
P Q (P Q) ~Q)
Step:
WUCT121 Logic 44
1.5.2.1 Quick Method for Showing a
Contradiction
WUCT121 Logic 45
Example:
~ (P Q) P
Step: 2 1 3*
1.Place T under main T
connective
2. For T to occur T T
under the main
connective, ~ must be
T and P must be T
3. For T to occur F
under ~, P Q must be
F.
4. For F to occur F F
under P Q , P must be
F and Q must be F
WUCT121 Logic 46
Exercise:
(P Q) ~Q
Step:
1.
WUCT121 Logic 47
1.5.3. Contingent
Definition: Contingent.
Examples:
P Q Q (Q P)
T T T T
T F T T
F T F F
F F T T
Step: 2* 1
WUCT121 Logic 48
Exercises:
Step:
p q r ~( (p ~ q) r) (r q)
Step:
WUCT121 Logic 49
1.6. Logical Equivalence
Two statements are logically equivalent if, and only if, they
have identical truth values for each possible substitution of
statements for their statements variables.
WUCT121 Logic 50
Examples:
p q p q ~p q
T T T F T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
Step: 1* 1 2*
Since the main connectives * are identical, the statements P
and Q are equivalent. Thus P Q i.e. p q ~ p q
p q ~( p q) ~p ~q
T T F T F F F
T F T F F F T
F T T F T F F
F F T F T T T
Step: 2* 1 1 2* 1
Since the main connectives * are not identical, the
statements P and Q are not equivalent.
WUCT121 Logic 51
Exercises:
p q ~( p q) ~p ~q
Step:
p q ~( p q) ~p ~q
Step:
WUCT121 Logic 52
1.6.2. Substitution
Examples:
We know P ~ P is a tautology.
Thus, by the rule of substitution, so too are:
Q ~ Q , by letting Q = P .
(( p q ) r ) ~ (( p q ) r ) , by letting
( p q) r = P .
WUCT121 Logic 53
Rule of Substitution of Equivalence: If in a tautology we
replace any part of a statement by a statement equivalent to
that part, the result is still a tautology.
Example:
Determine if P (~ Q P ) is a tautology.
Exercise:
~ T (~ S T ) a tautology? Yes.
We know ( P Q ) ~ P Q . So, ( S T ) ~ S T and
T (~ S T ) ~ T (~ S T ) (by RoS).
Hence, ~ T (~ S T ) T ( S T ) (by SoE).
P (Q P ) is a known tautology, thus (by (SoE)
T ( S T ) is a tautology, and since
~ T (~ S T ) T ( S T ) , ~ T (~ S T ) is a
tautology.
WUCT121 Logic 54
1.6.3. Laws
1. Commutative Laws:
( P Q ) (Q P )
( P Q ) (Q P )
( P Q ) (Q P )
2. Associative Laws:
(( P Q ) R ) (P (Q R ))
(( P Q ) R ) (P (Q R ))
(( P Q ) R ) (P (Q R ))
3. Distributive Laws:
(P (Q R) ) (( P Q) ( P R) )
(P (Q R) ) (( P Q) ( P R) )
5. De Morgans Laws:
~ ( P Q ) (~ P ~ Q )
~ ( P Q ) (~ P ~ Q )
WUCT121 Logic 55
6. Implication Laws:
( P Q ) (~ P Q ) ( Implication )
( P Q ) (( P Q ) (Q P ) ) ( Biconditional)
7. Identity Laws:
(P F ) P
(P T ) P
9. Dominance Laws:
(P T ) T
(P F ) F
WUCT121 Logic 56
Example:
P Q ~( P Q) ~P ~Q
T T F T F F F
T F F T F F T
F T F T T F F
F F T F T T T
Step: 2* 1 1 2* 1
Since the main connectives are identical, the statements are
equivalent, and first of De Morgans Laws is true.
Exercise:
P Q ~( P Q) ~P ~Q
Step:
Since the main connectives are identical, the statements are
equivalent, and second of De Morgans Laws is true.
WUCT121 Logic 57
Example:
~ (~ p q ) ( p q ) (~ (~ p ) ~ q ) ( p q ) (De Morgan )
( p ~ q ) ( p q ) (Double Negation)
p (~ q q ) (Distributivity)
p (q ~ q ) (Commutativity)
pF (Negation)
p (Identity)
Exercises:
~ ( p q ) ( p ~ q ) (q ~ p )
WUCT121 Logic 58
( p q ) (~ q ~ p )
WUCT121 Logic 59