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WirelessSensorNetworkMACIntroduction
Sensornetworksarehighlydistributednetworksofsmall,lightweightwirelessnode,
deployedinlargenumberstomonitortheenvironmentorsystem.
Eachnodeofthesensornetworksconsistofthreesubsystem:
Sensorsubsystem:sensestheenvironment
Processingsubsystem:performslocalcomputationsonthesenseddata
Communicationsubsystem:responsibleformessageexchangewithneighboring
sensornodes
Thefeaturesofsensornodes
Limitedsensingregion,processingpower,energy
Theadvantageofsensornetworks
Robust:alargenumberofsensors
Reliable:
Accurate:sensornetworkscoveringawiderregion
Faulttolerant:manynodesaresensingthesameevent
Twoimportantoperationsinasensornetworks
Datadissemination:thepropagationofdata/queriesthroughoutthenetwork
Datagathering:thecollectionofobserveddatafromtheindividualsensornodesto
asink
Thedifferenttypesofsensors
Seismic,thermal,visual,infrared
ApplicationsofSensorNetworks
Usinginmilitary
Battlefieldsurveillanceandmonitoring,guidancesystemsofintelligentmissiles,
detectionofattackbyweaponsofmassdestructionsuchaschemical,biological,or
nuclear
Usinginnature
CompiledByVivekParganihaAssociateProfessor(CSE),BITD 1
Forestfire,flooddetection,habitatexplorationofanimals
Usinginhealth
Monitorthepatientsheartrateorbloodpressure,andsentregularlytoalertthe
concerneddoctor,providepatientsagreaterfreedomofmovement
Usinginhome(smarthome)
Sensornodecanbuiltintoappliancesathome,suchasovens,refrigerators,and
vacuumcleaners,whichenablethemtointeractwitheachotherandberemote
controlled
Usinginofficebuilding
Airflowandtemperatureofdifferentpartsofthebuildingcanbeautomatically
controlled
Usinginwarehouse
Improvetheirinventorycontrolsystembyinstallingsensorsontheproductstotrack
theirmovement
ComparisonwithAdHocWirelessNetworks
DifferentfromAdHocwirelessnetworks
Thenumberofnodesinsensornetworkcanbeseveralordersofmagnitudelarge
thanthenumberofnodesinanadhocnetwork.
Sensornodesaremoreeasytofailureandenergydrain,andtheirbatterysources
areusuallynotreplaceableorrechargeable.
Sensornodesmaynothaveuniqueglobalidentifiers(ID),souniqueaddressingis
notalwaysfeasibleinsensornetworks.
Sensornetworksaredatacentric,thequeriesinsensornetworksareaddressedto
nodeswhichhavedatasatisfyingsomeconditions.AdHocnetworksareaddress
centric,withqueriesaddressedtoparticularnodesspecifiedbytheirunique
address.
Datafusion/aggregation:thesensornodesaggregatethelocalinformationbefore
relaying.Thegoalsarereducebandwidthconsumption,mediaaccessdelay,and
powerconsumptionforcommunication.
CompiledByVivekParganihaAssociateProfessor(CSE),BITD 2
IssuesandChallengesinDesigningaSensorNetwork
IssuesandChallenges
Sensornodesarerandomlydeployedandhencedonotfitintoanyregulartopology.
Oncedeployed,theyusuallydonotrequireanyhumanintervention.Hence,the
setupandmaintenanceofthenetworkshouldbeentirelyautonomous.
Sensornetworksareinfrastructureless.Therefore,allroutingandmaintenance
algorithmsneedtobedistributed.
Energyproblem
Hardwareandsoftwareshouldbedesignedtoconservepower
Sensornodesshouldbeabletosynchronizewitheachotherinacompletely
distributedmanner,sothatTDMAschedulescanbeimposed.
Asensornetworkshouldalsobecapableofadaptingtochangingconnectivitydueto
thefailureofnodes,ornewnodespoweringup.Theroutingprotocolsshouldbe
abletodynamicallyincludeoravoidsensornodesintheirpaths.
Realtimecommunicationoversensornetworksmustbesupportedthrough
provisionofguaranteesonmaximumdelay,minimumbandwidth,orotherQoS
parameters.
Provisionmustbemadeforsecurecommunicationoversensornetworks,especially
formilitaryapplicationswhichcarrysensitivedata.
SensorNetworkArchitecture
Thetwobasickindsofsensornetworkarchitecture
LayeredArchitecture
ClusteredArchitecture
1.LayeredArchitecture
Alayeredarchitecturehasasinglepowerfulbasestation,andthelayersofsensornodes
arounditcorrespondtothenodesthathavethesamehopcounttotheBS.
Intheinbuildingscenario,theBSactsanaccesspointtoawirednetwork,andsmallnodes
formawirelessbackbonetoprovidewirelessconnectivity.
Theadvantageofalayeredarchitectureisthateachnodeisinvolvedonlyinshortdistance,
lowpowertransmissionstonodesoftheneighboringlayers.
CompiledByVivekParganihaAssociateProfessor(CSE),BITD 3
2.ClusteredArchitecture
Aclusteredarchitectureorganizesthesensornodesintoclusters,eachgovernedbya
clusterhead.Thenodesineachclusterareinvolvedinmessageexchangeswiththeir
clusterheads,andtheseheadssendmessagetoaBS.
Clusteredarchitectureisusefulforsensornetworksbecauseofitsinherentsuitabilityfor
datafusion.Thedatagatheredbyallmemberoftheclustercanbefusedattheclusterhead,
andonlytheresultinginformationneedstobecommunicatedtotheBS.
Theclusterformationandelectionofclusterheadsmustbeanautonomous,distributed
process.
CompiledByVivekParganihaAssociateProfessor(CSE),BITD 4
DataDissemination
Datadisseminationistheprocessbywhichqueriesordataareroutedinthesensornetwork.
Thedatacollectedbysensornodeshastobecommunicatedtothenodewhichinterestedin
thedata.
Thenodethatgeneratesdataiscallsourceandtheinformationtobereportediscalledan
event.Anodewhichinterestedinaneventiscalledsink.
Datadisseminationconsistofatwostepprocess:interestpropagationanddata
propagation.
Interestpropagation:foreveryeventthatasinkisinterestedin,itbroadcastsits
interesttoisneighbor,andacrossthenetwork.
Datadissemination:Whenaneventisdetected,itreportedtotheinterestednodes
(sink).
CompiledByVivekParganihaAssociateProfessor(CSE),BITD 5
1.Flooding
Eachnodewhichreceivesapacket(queries/data)broadcastsitifthemaximumhopcountof
thepacketisnotreachedandthenodeitselfisnotthedestinationofthepacket.
Disadvantages:
Implosion:thisisthesituationwhenduplicatemessagesaresendtothesamenode.
Thisoccurswhenanodereceivescopiesofthesamemessagesfrommanyofits
neighbors.
Overlap:thesameeventmaybesensedbymorethanonenodeduetooverlapping
regionsofcoverage.Thisresultsintheirneighborsreceivingduplicatereportsofthe
sameevent.
Resourceblindness:thefloodingprotocoldoesnotconsidertheavailableenergyat
thenodesandresultsinmanyredundanttransmissions.Hence,itreducesthe
networklifetime.
2.Gossiping
Modifiedversionofblooding
Thenodesdonotbroadcastapacket,butsendittoarandomlyselectedneighbor.
Avoidtheproblemofimplosion
Ittakesalongtimeformessagetopropagatethroughoutthenetwork.
Itdoesnotguaranteethatallnodesofnetworkwillreceivethemessage.
3.RumorRouting
Agentbasedpathcreationalgorithm
Agentisalonglivedpacketcreatedatrandombynodes,anditwilldieaftervisitkhops.
Itcirculatedinthenetworktoestablishshortestpathstoeventsthattheyencounter.
Whenanagentfindsanodewhosepathtoaneventislongerthanitsown,itupdatesthe
nodesroutingtable.
CompiledByVivekParganihaAssociateProfessor(CSE),BITD 6
4.SequentialAssignmentRouting(SAR)
Thesequentialassignmentrouting(SAR)algorithmcreatesmultipletrees,wheretherootof
eachtreeisaonehopneighborofthesink.
Toavoidnodeswithlowthroughputorhighdelay.
Eachsensornoderecordstwoparametersabouteachpaththoughit:availableenergy
resourcesonthepathandanadditiveQoSmetricsuchasdelay.
Higherprioritypacketstakelowerdelaypaths,andlowerprioritypacketshaveto
usethepathsofgreaterdelay,sothatthepriorityxdelayQoSmetricismaintained.
SARminimizestheaverageweightedQoSmetricoverthelifetimeofthenetwork.
5.DirectedDiffusion
Thedirecteddiffusionprotocolisusefulinscenarioswherethesensornodesthemselves
generaterequests/queriesfordatasensedbyothernodes.
Eachsensornodenamesitsdatawithoneormoreattributes.
CompiledByVivekParganihaAssociateProfessor(CSE),BITD 7
Eachsensornodeexpresstheirinterestdependingontheseattributes.
Eachpathisassociatedwithainterestgradient,whilepositivegradientmakethedataflow
alongthepath,negativegradientinhibitthedistributiondataalongaparticularpath.
Example:twopathformedwithgradient0.4and0.8,thesourcemaytwiceasmuch
dataalongthehigherone
Supposethesinkwantsmorefrequentupdatefromthesensorwhichhavedetected
anevent=>sendahigherdataraterequirementforincreasingthegradientofthat
path.
6.SensorProtocolsforInformationviaNegotiation
SPINusenegotiationandresourceadaptationtoaddressthedisadvantageofflooding.
Reduceoverlapandimplosion,andprolongnetworklifetime.
Usemetadatainsteadofrawdata.
SPINhasthreetypesofmessages:ADV,REQ,andDATA.
SPIN2usinganenergythresholdtoreduceparticipation.AnodemayjoinintheADVREQ
DATAhandshakeonlyifithassufficientresourceaboveathreshold.
7.CostFieldApproach
Thecostfieldapproachconsiderstheproblemofsettinguppathstoasink.Thefirstphase
beingtosetupthecostfield,basedonmetricssuchasdelay.Thesecondphasebeingdata
disseminationusingthecosts.
AsinkbroadcastsanADVpacketwithitsowncostas0.
CompiledByVivekParganihaAssociateProfessor(CSE),BITD 8
WhenanodeNhearsanADVmessagefromnodeM,itsetsitsownpathcosttomin
(LN,LM+CNM),whereLNisthetotalpathcostfromnodeNtothesink,LMisthecostofnodeM
tothesink,CNMisthecostfromNtoM.
IfLNupdated,thenewcostisbroadcastthoughanotherADV.
ThebackofftimemakeanodedeferitsADVinsteadofimmediatelybroadcastit.Theback
offtimeisrxCMN,whererisaparameterofalgorithm.
8.GeographicHashTable(GHT)
GHThasheskeysintogeographiccoordinatesandstoresa(key,value)pairatthesensor
nodenearesttothehashvalue.
Storeddataisreplicatedtoensureredundancyincaseofnodefailures.
Thedataisdistributedamongnodessuchthatitisscalableandthestorageloadisbalanced.
Theroutingprotocolusedisgreedyperimeterstatelessrouting(GPSR),whichagainuses
geographicinformationtoroutethedataandqueries.
CompiledByVivekParganihaAssociateProfessor(CSE),BITD 9
DataGathering
Theobjectiveofthedatagatheringproblemistotransmitthesenseddatafromeachsensor
nodetoaBS.
Thegoalofalgorithmwhichimplementdatagatheringis
maximizethelifetimeofnetwork
Minimumenergyshouldbeconsumed
Thetransmissionoccurwithminimumdelay
Theenergyxdelaymetricisusedtocomparealgorithm
1.DirectTransmission
AllsensornodestransmittheirdatadirectlytotheBS.
ItcostexpensivewhenthesensornodesareveryfarfromtheBS.
NodesmusttaketurnswhiletransmittingtotheBStoavoidcollision,sothemediaaccess
delayisalsolarge.Hence,thisschemeperformspoorlywithrespecttotheenergyxdelay
metric.
2.PowerEfficientGatheringforSensorInformationSystems
PEGASISbasedontheassumptionthatallsensornodesknowthelocationofeveryother
node.
AnynodehastherequiredtransmissionrangetoreachtheBSinonehop,whenitisselected
asaleader.
ThegoalofPEGASISareasfollowing
Minimizethedistanceoverwhicheachnodetransmit
Minimizethebroadcastingoverhead
CompiledByVivekParganihaAssociateProfessor(CSE),BITD 10
MinimizethenumberofmessagesthatneedtobesenttotheBS
Distributetheenergyconsumptionequallyacrossallnodes
Toconstructachainofsensornodes,startingfromthenodefarthestfromtheBS.Ateach
step,thenearestneighborwhichhasnotbeenvisitedisaddedtothechain.
Itisreconstructedwhennodesdieout.
Ateverynode,datafusionoraggregationiscarriedout.
AnodewhichisdesignatedastheleaderfinallytransmitsonemessagetotheBS.
Leadershipistransferredinsequentialorder.
ThedelayinvolvedinmessagesreachingtheBSisO(N)
3.BinaryScheme
ThisisachainbasedschemelikePEGASIS,whichclassifiesnodesintodifferentlevels.
ThisschemeispossiblewhennodescommunicateusingCDMA,sothattransmissionsof
eachlevelcantakeplacesimultaneously.
ThedelayisO(logN)
CompiledByVivekParganihaAssociateProfessor(CSE),BITD 11
4.ChainBasedThreeLevelScheme
FornonCDMAsensornodes
Thechainisdividedintoanumberofgroupstospaceoutsimultaneoustransmissionsin
ordertominimizeinterference.
Withinagroup,nodestransmitdatatothegroupleader,andtheleaderfusionthedata,and
becomethemembertothenextlevel.
Inthesecondlevel,allnodesaredividedintotwogroups.
Inthethirdlevel,consistsofamessageexchangebetweenonenodefromeachgroupofthe
secondlevel.
Finally,theleadertransmitasinglemessagetotheBS.
MACProtocolsforSensorNetworks
ThechallengesposedbysensornetworkMACprotocol
Nosinglecontrollingauthority,soglobalsynchronizationisdifficult
Powerefficiencyissue
Frequenttopologychangesduetomobilityandfailure
TherearethreekindsofMACprotocolsusedinsensornetwork:
Fixedallocation
Demandbased
Contentionbased
FixedallocationMACprotocol
Sharethecommonmediumthroughapredeterminedassignment.
CompiledByVivekParganihaAssociateProfessor(CSE),BITD 12
Itissuitableforsensornetworkthatcontinuouslymonitorandgenerate
deterministicdatatraffic
Provideaboundeddelayforeachnode
However,inthecaseofburstytraffic,wherethechannelrequirementsof
eachnodemayvaryovertime,itmayleadtoinefficientusageofthechannel.
DemandbasedMACprotocol
Usedinsuchcases,wherethechannelisallocatedaccordingtothedemand
ofthenode
Variableratetrafficcanbeefficientlytransmitted
Requiretheadditionaloverheadofareservationprocess
ContentionbasedMACprotocol
Randomaccessbasedcontentionforthechannelwhenpacketsneedtobe
transmitted
Suitableforburstytraffic
Collisionsandnodelayguarantees,arenotsuitablefordelaysensitiveor
realtimetraffic
1.SelfOrganizingMACforSensorNetworksandEavesdropandRegister
SelfOrganizingMACforsensor(SMACS)networksandeavesdropandregister(EAR)
aretwoprotocolswhichhandlenetworkinitializationandmobilitysupport,
respectively.
InSMACS
neighbordiscoveryandchannelassignmenttakeplacesimultaneouslyina
completelydistributedmanner.
Acommunicationlinkbetweentwonodesconsistsofapairoftimeslots,at
fixedfrequency.
Thisschemerequiressynchronizationonlybetweencommunicating
neighbors,inordertodefinetheslotstobeusedfortheircommunication.
Powerisconservedbyturningoffthetransceiverduringidleslots.
InEARprotocol
CompiledByVivekParganihaAssociateProfessor(CSE),BITD 13
Enableseamlessconnectionofnodesundermobileandstationary
conditions.
Thisprotocolmakeuseofcertainmobilenodes,besidestheexisting
stationarysensornodes,toofferservicetomaintainconnections.
Mobilenodeseavesdroponthecontrolsignalsandmaintainneighbor
information
2.HybridTDMA/FDMA
ApureTDMAschememinimizethetimeforwhichanodehastobekepton,butthe
associatedtimesynchronizationcostareveryhigh.
ApureFDMAschemeallotstheminimumrequiredbandwidthforeachconnection
Ifthetransmitterconsumesmorepower,aTDMAschemeisfavored,sinceitcanbe
switchoffinidleslotstosavepower.
Ifthereceiverconsumesgreaterpower,aFDMAschemeisfavored,becausethe
receiverneednotexpendpowerfortimesynchronization.
3.CSMABaseMACProtocols
CSMAbasedschemesaresuitableforpointtopointrandomlydistributedtraffic
flows.
ThesensingperiodsofCSMAareconstantforenergyefficiency,whilethebackoffis
randomtoavoidrepeatedcollisions.
Binaryexponentialbackoffisusedtomaintainfairnessinthenetwork.
Useanadaptivetransmissionratecontrol(ARC)tobalanceoriginatingtrafficand
routethroughtrafficinnodes.ThisensuresthatnodesclosertotheBSarenot
favoredoverfarthernodes.
CSMAbasedMACprotocolsarecontentionbasedandaredesignedmainlyto
increaseenergyefficiencyandmaintainfairness.
CompiledByVivekParganihaAssociateProfessor(CSE),BITD 14