Chapter 2

Literature review

Define literature review

A literature review is an evaluative report of information found in the literature related to

your selected area of study. The review should describe, summarise, evaluate and clarify
this literature. It should give a theoretical base for the research and help you (the author)
determine the nature of your research.

2.1: carbon recycling international

2.2: process assessment and process description
2.2.1: stages in the lifetime of a process
2.2.2: assessment procedure
2.3: technique for evaluating chemical reaction hazard
2.3.2: HAZID (PROCESSES BLOCK DIAGRAM AND CHANGES)
2.3.3: HAZID 2(TOP DOWN)
2.3.4: HAZID 3(THE IMPLICATION OF CHANGES)
2.3.5: HAZID 4(IDENTIFICATION BARRIER)
2.4: Risks
2.5: Design and simulation
2.6: Aspen Plus

2.1: Carbon Recycling International

The CCS technique is a part of the new technology that been made by human today. The
purpose of this technique is to reduce the emission of the carbon dioxide to the surrounding.
As we know, it will affect the greenhouse. The CCS been chosen as the technology to
reduce the emission because the lowest cost of the process that the other that been made.
The CCS also will help the plant industry and other by creating a new alternative fuels that
can be used again. The product of the process is methanol. The methanol that we can get
can be used as the alternative of fuels(Anicic, Trop, & Goricanec, 2014). The first example is
as a fuel to move a vehicle or equipment and many more. The product of the CCS
(methanol) can make a lot of benefit to the company that implied this technique from aspect
cost. Today one of the company that been imply this technique is the Carbon Recycling
International (CRI) is a company that based on the Rejakvik, Iceland. The company imply
this CCS technique of their company. The objective of the company is to reduce the
emission of the carbon dioxide to the surrounding, besides it also has ability to store the
stranded energy.(International & Storage, n.d.)

Figure 1.1: carbon recycling international iceland

The CCS will need the Carbon Dioxide that been capture to be process as their feedstock.
The reduction of the carbon dioxide will increase the efficiency and increase the share of the
renewable energy. As we know the cost of fossil fuel is increase year by year. From the fact,
we can utilize the carbon dioxide as the alternative fuels. It is more save and same quality
with the original of fuels. If the carbon dioxide is release to the surrounding without been
process it will affect the greenhouse gas emission by increase the world temperature around
0.6 celsuis and also increase the carbon dioxide to surrounding around
180ppm(International & Storage, n.d.)

In Iceland, the only difference of the alternative fuels that produced using renewable
technology with other fuels is the alternative fuels will support immediate in the development
fuel. The carbon recycling company do not take along to become the competitive in the
market.
The CCS that been imply by the CRI is made in 5 technologies of building block. First, the
co2 in the waste gases is been transfer by the pipe from the point of the where the gas emit
which is at the stack then to the purification system. Then, it will undergo a process of the
removal of the impurities that contain in the gas. 2. The hydrogen gas is produced from the
electrolysis of the water using an art electrolyzers technology. 3, the conversion of the
carbon dioxide with the hydrogen gas are pressurized in the reactor to the certain pressure
and mixed in the ratio of 3:1. 4, methanol system is modified to have flexible capacity to
adapt to the possible addition of modules later. 5, the distillation column is made to purify the
renewable crude to the fuel grade renewable methanol to blend with gasoline.(International
& Storage, n.d.)

A Clean Fuel

Less Fossil Energy In, Less CO2 Out, Same Distance Out
164 g
95 octane gasoline CO2

2.14
1 km
MJ

Vehicles

148 g
CO2
95 octane RM10

1.9 MJ 1 km

Vehicles

Sources:
Well to Wheel Analysis of future automotive fuels and power trains in the European Context, EC JRC, EUCAR, CONCAWE (2007)
CRI Well to Wheels report (2009)

Carbon RecyclingInternational

The combination of the gasoline with the renewable methanol will result a clean fossil fuel,
less co2 out with the same distance. The less fossil energy in, 1.9MJ in the combination of
the methanol with the gasoline but for in the industry that will produce 2.14MJ per km output.
The less CO2 out means around 148 g produce by the industry with the 164g, per km output
from the combination. From this, test, we can see the alternative fuels that release from the
CCS is more cleaner than the CO2 that directly released from the plant(International &
Storage, n.d.)

2.2: Production of the methanol

The methanol been produced in 2 type of technique. The first technique is the 2- steps
synthesis of methanol and the second technique is the direct synthesis method. According to
the (Anicic et al., 2014) both of the technique has advantage and the disadvantage from
many aspect. In the 2-steps synthesis of methanol method, it will involve of 2 steps process.
In the 1st steps the process known as the RGWS (reverse water gas shift) reaction which will
convert the carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide. The 2nd steps namely as the WGS (water
gas shift). This step will depend on the conversion of the carbon dioxide in the 1st process.

Figure 2.2.1: 2-steps methanol synthesis

The 2nd technique is the direct methanol synthesis is not more different from the 1st
technique. Only the composition of the carbon dioxide and the hydrogen in form ratio of 3:1
is directly channel to the reactor for the synthesis for the synthesis of methanol. In this
method it would be 2 type of product that will produce which are the methanol and
DME(Anicic et al., 2014). Below the process flow diagram of the direct synthesis method
 Figure 2.2.2: direct synthesis of methanol

Both of the technique is been imply in the industries but only the best one will make benefit
to human and also surrounding. Both of the technique will be compared from many
parameters such as econimical efficiency and energy efficiency. Both of this methods is
using as the same component to produce the methanol and been said this technologies will
be guaranteed the reduction of the greenhouse effect. As a result that shown, in the term of
the energy efficiency, both of the methods will show the higher difference results. Besides
these method s in the early of development and would be expected to be overcome the
disadvantage in the future. The 2-steps methanol synthesis is been chosen as the reliable
method that can be imply today based on certain criteria which is the location of the plant.
2.3: Hazard

The company that involve in the manufacture of chemical in all industry will not run from any
accident. The history will tell, how many accident that happen involve from the early of
beginning development of the chemical manufacture. This industry that involve the making
of reactive chemical and toxic flammable liquid, gas, vapour and powder.( book )The
accident happen will cause many fatalities that involve life, casualitie that happen to many
people who live near the company and many more. Hazard is been define as a risky or
dangerous. Identification of hazard can make the accident is being repeated. The
identification includes the source of hazard in the early of steps. The sources of hazard can
be group into 4 types (book)

1. General hazard at the workplace

2. Health and environmental hazard, toxicity and eco-toxicity
3. Hazard that associate with the operation
4. Hazard related with chemical activity
5. Hazard related with the flammable material and the operation of the plant

The identification of the hazard known as the structured hazard identification (HAZID)
(Wilday, Wardman, Johnson, & Haines, 2011). There will be 4 type of the HAZID
identification can make from the CCS processes as it been draft in the form of block
diagram.

2.3.1 HAZID (PROCESSES BLOCK DIAGRAM AND CHANGES)

Firstly in the CCS process, the capture of the carbon dioxide molecule that been release to
surrounding need to use back in the pre-combustion method. It is because the IGCC
(Integrated gasification combined cycle) will produce the synthesis gas and the carbon
dioxide will be separated from it before the combustion. Then the flue gas will be transport
by the pipeline before it been injected into geological storage

2.3.2: HAZID 2(TOP DOWN)

This part the structured of top down HAZID been approach by using the event that relevant
to the CCS processes. The keyword that is using in this HAZID 2 comes from the
brainstorming to represent the possible top event or the consequences. The fire, explosion,
toxic, and many were the keyword that were used and it also were been agreed by the team.
It is the similar meeting to HAZID study at the feed

2.3.4: HAZID 3(THE IMPLICATION OF CHANGES)

The carbon dioxide was assumed to be produce from the power station. The lines in the
CCS chain was been consider systematic the changes by the CCS process needed to think
again by brainstorming. For each of the changes that was made, it been need to think again
for the hazard and safety implication before to been finalised. The hazard and safety needed
to include the preventive, control, and the mitigation of the hazardous event

2.3.5: (Identification of Barrier)

In this part, the final analyse and the brainstormed will repeated to the structure of the draft
bow-ties in the early of the part and the further barrier to the realisation of the top event.

In the 4 type of HAZID which is the block diagram, the result show in the CCS process, we
can identify the hazard which involve in the process. An example of hazard which can
identify come from the aspect of disease such the asphyxiation from the released of carbon
to surrounding, effect of the respiratory, cardiovascular and the central nervous system when
the concentration of the carbon dioxide increase. Apart from that, the identification of hazard
will involve of other materials such as the flue gas. As we know. The duct or pipeline that
transfer the gas need to be consider also in the terms of the size and it will be difficult to
isolate them in when an accident like leak was occur and hard to tight it using valve or
damper. The topography of the pipe can cause a hazard too from the aspect of leak because
it will make pollution occur in the form of air or water pollution if the pipe is builds near to
human living. The catastrophic failure of the longitudinal ripping of pipeline is cause by the
pressure energy that been release by the gas. The steps can be takes to prevent the failure
are by:

1. Prevent free water or hydrate being happen

2. Put an extra wall thickness around 19mm. concrete slab coverage
3. Add an additional washout protection

All the point above is important to make a choice of an appropriate pipeline important
because it can prevent the initial failure become a running fracture thus to the relevant to all
the mechanism include in the process. According to the (Wilday et al., 2011). , modelling
show the carbon dioxide pipeline to be more susceptible than hydrocarbon pipeline to
running fracture.

2.4: Risks
One of the objectives of the CCS method is to prevent damages to surrounding or
environment especially to human. The technology will ensure the reduction of greenhouse
gas emission from the fossil fuels that produce by the plant industry. As the technology show
an improvement, the people or the public started to accept this method and the risk that
related to carbon capture need to be full understanding as we so the regulation framework
required for this imply can be formulated.

In this section, we will evaluate the predicted risk to the human. The risks will be predicted
the potential instead of actual risks human health. Risk is define as the potential of unwanted
negative consequences and for the risks assessment is a step an approach used to collect
and structure the information that gather to identify what the existing hazardous situation
and the associated related to hazard can be risk to human as environment(Koiwanit,
Manuilova, Chan, Wilson, & Tontiwachwuthikul, 2016)

In this test, we use the America Meteorological Society Environmental Protection Agency
Regulatory Model (AERMOD) and the Health Canada`s Air Quality Benefit Assessment
Tools(AQBAT). The Agency regulatory Model (AERMOD) and CALPUFF is a method that
can test the pollution of the air. AERMOD is a steady state gauss plume model (GPM) which
the dispersion is based on the assumption that is describe by normal distribution. To
calculate the pollutant impact on the both simplex and complex within the same framework
we used the GPM model that been develop by (Turner, 1997).CALPUFF is a method of non-
steady state meteorological and air quality modelling system for complex terrain effect,
coastal interaction effect, building downwash and many more(Koiwanit et al., 2016)

For human health risks analysis, the method between AQBAT known as the health Canada`s
air quality benefit assessment tool and (BENMAP), Environmental Benefit Mapping and
Analysis Program. The model of AQBAT is developed by the health Canada organization to
estimate the results of the human health when changes of an ambient air quality happen.
One of the benefit using the AQBAT method, it can be assessment the human health when
any changes happen related to ambient air quality. It will calculate the human health
outcome that effect from the air concentration from the baseline(Koiwanit et al., 2016)

Table 2.4.1
The result from the AERMOD method is in the effect of air dispersion modelling happen
around human tells below in the table

Year Scenario NO2 ReceptoSO2 Recepto PM2.5

2003 No 0.33456 (492.40, 0.19344 (492.40, 0.19261
Post-combustion capture (250.00,
0.3182 86.82) (250.00,
0.00123 86.82)
0.12213 (250.00,
2004 Oxy-fuel 0.10213 (383.02 0 0.00954
Post-combustion 0.25537 (321.39, 0.00098 (321.39, 0.09801 (321.39,
2005 Oxy-fuel 0.06626 (492.40 0 0.00619
Post-combustion 0.26623 (383.02, 0.00103 (383.02, 0.10218 (383.02,
2006 Oxy-fuel 0.09586 (383.02 0 0.00896
Post-combustion 0.24065 (0.00, 500.00) 0.00093 (0.00, 500.00)0.09236 (0.00,

Maximum predicted 24-h average concentrations of the three pollutants from AERMOD
model of each years scenario (g/m3).

The objective of the AQBAT method, is to conduct the risks assessment by the modelling of
the post-combustion and oxy-combustion carbon dioxide capture technologies by using the
AQBAT software that been develop. In this test we took the 4years scenario starting from the
2004-2007 to be examined. The result from the annual reduction in health outcome due to
the 4years been shown below:

Table2.4.2

Health outcome CO2 capture technologies 2004 2005 2006 2007 Total
Post-combustion 657.57 881.87 842.22 946.99 3328.65
1. Acute Respiratory Symptom Days Oxy-fuel 1764.81 1737.71 1710.47 1762.23
Post-combustion 0.23 0.30 0.29 0.33 1.15
2. Adult Chronic Bronchitis Cases Oxy-fuel 0.61 0.60 0.59 0.62
Post-combustion 11.86 15.91 15.20 17.09 60.06
3. Asthma Symptom Days Oxy-fuel 31.85 31.36 30.87 31.79
Post-combustion 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.18
4. Cardiac Emergency Room Visits Oxy-fuel 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.10
Post-combustion 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.14
5. Cardiac Hospital Admissions Oxy-fuel 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.08
Post-combustion 2.05 2.70 2.53 2.81 10.09
6. Child Acute Bronchitis Episodes Oxy-fuel 5.56 5.36 5.18 5.28
Post-combustion 0.09 0.14 0.13 0.15 0.51
7. Respiratory Emergency Room Visits Oxy-fuel 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27
Post-combustion 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.10
8. Respiratory Hospital Admissions Oxy-fuel 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06
Post-combustion 252.30 340.97 328.02 370.45 1291.74
9. Restricted Activity Days Oxy-fuel 678.22 672.74 667.05 690.22
Post-combustion 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.10
10. Chronic Exposure Respiratory Mortality Oxy-fuel 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06
Post-combustion 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.17
11. Chronic Exposure Cerebrovascular Mortality Oxy-fuel 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.09
12. Chronic Exposure Ischemic Heart Disease Post- 0.16 0.22 0.21 0.24
Mortality Oxy-fuel 0.42 0.43 0.43 0.45
Post-combustion 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.16
13. Chronic Exposure Lung Cancer Mortality Oxy-fuel 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.09

An annual reduction in health outcomes from changes in PM2.5 pollutant concentrations

from 2004 to 2007.

Based on the above result, we can see that the better process that can cause less effect to
human health is the oxy-combustion method. It is because the air emit by the method has
been cleaned, dried and compressed. Thus, it will benefit to human health.

2.5: Design and simulation

 In this topic, we can know the step to produce divide into 2 different ways. One of the steps
is the conversion of directly hydrogenation of carbon dioxide. In 2nd steps known as the
(RGWS) Reverse Gas Water Shift, which the carbon dioxide will convert directly into the
carbon monoxide then will undergo hydrogenated process to methanol. All the reaction that
involve are exothermic reaction and it will produce the methanol product(Van-Dal &
Bouallou, 2013)

CO+2H2 CH3OH
CO2+3H2 CH3OH+H2O

The 3rd reaction which is the RGWS reaction will occur also as the site reaction in the
production of methanol

CO2+H2 CO+H2O

Based on the above reaction, these are the reaction that will involve in the process
production of methanol. According to(Park, Joo, Jung, Kim, & Han, 2001), in the 2 steps that
involve in this reaction it has been concluded that higher yield of methanol will be produce in
the one step process only.

Based on the study by the (Mignard & Pritchard, 2006), we will used the Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 as
our catalyst in the production of methanol although it is less efficient with the supply of
carbon dioxide that carbon monoxide. The function of the catalyst to allow the production of
methanol under the condition 210-270 Celcius and pressure around 50-100 bar with the
selectivity around 99%. Alongside the methanol production, the alcohol, methane, methyl
formate and also DME will also produce as the by-product of the reaction

In this section the method had been proposed by the (Sayah, Hosseinabadi, & Farazar,
2010) that will provide the greater calculation and also in this analysis. The process started
with the capture of carbon dioxide from the coal power plant and the production of hydrogen
from the electrolysis that fed into the methanol plant.

The electrolysis of hydrogen came from the water that will produce hydrogen element by
using the carbon free-electricity source. Apart from that, the capture of carbon dioxide and
methanol unit were supplied using the electricity from the coal plant. Thus, it will no problem
that would occur from the imported of hydrogen from the free-electricity source( renewable
energy). Since the renewable energy can be provide from the climatic factor as a factor like
wind and the sunlight from the sun.

The aspen plus v8.4 was used for process design and simulation and also as the platform
the test the method or analysis it. The process started fed up with the 88.0t/h of carbon
dioxide and 12.2t/h of hydrogen. To calculate the thermodynamic properties of the stream at
high pressure we will used the Redlich-Kwong Soave Equation add with some modified
Huron-Vidal rules.
In the electrolysis of water to produce the hydrogen, the energy consumption by this process
was equal to 4.8kWhe/m3. The hydrogen molecule will undergo the condition of 30bar
pressure and temperature at 25 celcius to be fed into the methanol plant.

H2O H2+1/2O2

The oxygen also would produce in the electrolyser as the by-product of the electrolysis
process. To increase the concentration of carbon dioxide flue gas and also the reduce the
energy consumption of it capture, the by-product of the oxygen would be be sent to the
power plant to do the oxygen-combustion.

Another part in the production of methanol is the carbon capture process. This is the process
where the free carbon dioxide been capture by chemical absorption(Van-Dal & Bouallou,
2013). To compensate the pressure drop in the absorption column, the flue gas of carbon
dioxide would be treated by compress it before the capture process can occur. The
compress of gas take place at the bottom of absorption column and the carbon dioxide that
poor in the solvent was introduce at the top of the absorption column as the MEA react with
carbon dioxide. The top of the column will be contained a low level of carbon dioxide that
was been recovered in the process whereas the bottom of the column will contained high
rich CO2 with solvent that leave the column. High rich carbon dioxide will undergo heated
process with the regeneration solvent before sent to the regenerate column.(Van-Dal &
Bouallou, 2013). In the regenerated column, it have the reboiler and condensation
equipment that imply in the process where, the reboiler will recover the energy from the
condensation of low pressure steam from the reverse process reaction of between the
carbon dioxide and amine. The extraction of the water vapour from the gas flow from the
regeneration process will condense at re-injected into the column. For the regeneration
solvent, it is fed into back to the absorption column. At the top of the regeneration column,
the example gas that was recovered mainly carbon dioxide and water vapour. The detail
above was the complete gases flow reaction

The net electrical power when the process not involve of carbon dioxide capture, it would be
around 556MW with the ratio of 857g/kWh of carbon dioxide emission. Besides that, the
efficiency of power plant was 38.5%.

According to the (Van-Dal & Bouallou, 2013), the reduction of the compressor and also the
heat exchanger will make the capital cost was decrease without an increase of the energy
cost. Apart from that, the simulation of the distillation column would be more realistic without
the perfect separation between the gas and liquid because a faction of gases was also has
been considered in the feed of the column. In the production of methanol, the catalysts that
were use were Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 and it is good in the precision of the methanol production and
also the RGWS reaction.in the heat exchanger that was used in this process, the most
important criteria is the pinch analysis because the analysis of pinch would reduce the
energy cost. The Aspen Heat Exchanger was the software that been develop to calculate the
pressure drops that happen in the heat exchanger. For the steam and electricity generation,
it contained mainly of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and methanol and 85% of
efficiency was consider happen in the boiler.
 H2+1/2O2 H2O
CO+1/2O2 CO2
2CH3OH+3 O2 2CO2+4H2O

In the mass and energy balance of the production of the methanol shown in the table below:

Table2.51: Mass balance (not including CO2 emissions from energy consumption).

Compound In (t/h) Out (t/h)

CO2 88.0 5.82a
CO 0 0.51a
H2 0 0.87a
H2O 108.1 33.7
Methanol 0 59.3
O2 0 96.0b
MEA 0.09 0.09

Contained in stream 24, 30 and/or 38 before their combustion.

Oxygen generated by water electrolysis

Table 2.5.2: Energy balance

Unit Operation Amount Amount/tMetOH

Water electrolysis Power to electrolysis 645.1 MWel 39.3 GJel/tMetOH
CO2 capture Flue gases compression 3.9 MWel 0.236 GJel/tMetOH
Steam column 77.7 MWth 4.74 GJth/tMetOH
Methanol synthesis
and purification Fresh feed compression 16.9 MWel 1.03 GJel/tMetOH
Compressors CP6 CP7 2.9 MWel 0.175 GJel/tMetOH
Steam to methanol
Distillation 0 MWth 0 GJth/tMetOH
Steam generation 28.3 MWth 1.72 GJth/tMetOH
Electricity generation 2.2 MWel 0.131 GJel/tMetOH
Total net electricity consumption 666.6 MWel 40.6 GJel/tMetOH
Total net thermal energy consumption 49.4 MWth 3.0 GJth/tMetOH

In table 1, the yield of the methanol was 0.67t per tonne and for the production of oxygen
show around 1,1t per tonne from the carbon dioxide supplied. The total production of
methanol was equal to 470,500 t when we consider the operation of the plant operate at
8000h/y. in table 6, 97% of electricity was used by water electricity whereas the input of
synthesis methanol not used external heat.3 different steps for the emission of carbon
dioxide could happen. First by carbon dioxide rejected that came from the methanol
synthesis unit. Secondly, came from the thermal energy consumption and lastly, the
electricity consumption. The total net of electricity consumption in the methanol production
was 17.6MW. In the terms of carbon dioxide emission from the power plant, the rate after
installing the capture unit equal to 723g/kWh. Thus after the installing of capture unit, the
electricity consumption was reduce to 12.8 t of carbon dioxide per hour
2.6: Aspen Plus

Aspen simulation workbook was a simulation software that allow Aspen HYSYS and Aspen
Plus to expert in created a clean user interface in Microsoft Excel based on their model. The
purpose of these things to manipulate complex Aspen HYSYS and Aspen Plus simulation
without disturbed the model itself. With the using of Aspen Simulation Workbook it could
allow the communication effectively within different member of the design team (Tremblay,
Management, Technology, & Mantrala, 2014)

The Aspen Software was the most technology that been implemented in all field of
engineering such as mechanical, civil and chemical. The function of the software as a basis
for designing a new process flow diagram of the process that was used in certain production
of chemical manufacture. This software was the most leading chemical process optimization
that were used by the bulk, fine, specialty and many more. Addition to the information, this
software also was used in the constructing model apart making business from the result of
simulation(Vanhove & Matos, 2015). With the combination off all engineering innovation and
advance in information technology, and yield reliable result that been tested in real plant, all
the model of aspen software were based on the knowledge of technological processes

In this production of methanol from the reaction of the carbon dioxide and hydrogen as the
feedstock was shown below. The equipment that involved were reactor, gas compressor,
heat exchanger, separator, distillation tower, valve and mixer. In each of the model all the
specific input was given(Vanhove & Matos, 2015)

Figure 2.6.1: the carbon dioxide and hydrogen to methanol simulation