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TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT

The tools and techniques for quality management are grouped into three
categories.

1. Tools for Data Collection and Interpretation


i. Customer records
ii. Data on Complaints
iii. Survey data
iv. Benchmarking
v. Transaction data
2. Tools for Planning
i. Quality Function Deployment
ii. Simultaneous (Concurrent ) Engineering
iii. Seven New Management Tools
a) Affinity Diagram
b) Interrelationship diagram
c) Tree diagram
d) Prioritization matrix
e) Matrix diagram
f) Process decision program chart
g) Activity network diagram
3. Tools for Continuous Improvement
i. Checklist
ii. Histogram
iii. Pareto Chart
iv. Cause and Effect diagram
v. Scatter diagram
vi. Control Chart
vii. Flow Chart
TOOLS FOR DATA COLLECTION & INTERPRETATION
1. Customer Records

Customer record of purchase history, warranty claim and credit information


are a valuable source of intelligence. It is important that the organizations has
systems in place to collect information relating to quality of product or service,
and to ensure that it reaches decision makers.

2. Data on Complaints

Complaints are often rich source of ideas for continuous improvement in


products or services. Some organization have found very innovative ways to
capture complaints from customers while they are fresh and current. For
example, British Airways has installed video kiosks in several airports to
receive and record customer comments. Customers with complaints are
encouraged to record them with the assurance that they will be received by
management of the company. This approach has a benefit of capturing the
urgency and emotion attached to complaints, something which is difficult to
capture on surveys or customer response cards filled in later.

3. Survey Data

Survey are used by many companies, especially when exploring new


products and services, or new features for existing products and services.
Quality improvement is the key aspect of any survey system, and question
about quality of products and services should be part of any survey of
customers and potential customers.

Various types of survey are commonly used: mail surveys, telephone surveys,
interviews and focus groups. Each type has its advantages and disadvantages
with respect o reliability and validity of data, with respect to cost and with
respect to the kinds of opinions and attitudes which can be probed.

4. Benchmarking
“Benchmarking is the continuous process of comparing products, services
and practices against the best in that particular activity”

“Benchmarking is the process of continuously searching for new ideas and


innovations in methods, practices, procedures and implementing them to
achieve improvement”

The term “Benchmarking” emerged when the idea took ground in US during
1980’s when Xerox, Ford and Motorola became the pioneers of benchmarking
in USA. Robert Camp, the Logistics engineers who initiated Xerox’s
benchmarking program and who is generally regarded as the guru of
benchmarking movement defines it “ benchmarking is the search for industry’s
best practices that lead to superior performance”.

Benchmarking is not the examination of entire process, it is the process of


examining very narrow activities and determining how other organizations
both within the industry and outside of it, are performing the task.
Benchmarking can be done by looking for the companies who are doing their
businesses extremely well regardless of their size. This can be done by
examining the 1). Internal operations, 2). Competitor’s procedures, 3) methods
used by other companies for example lot of companies benchmark General
Electric as they are the pioneer of Six Sigma.

The Process of Benchmarking


i). Identifying the portion of the process that is to be examined (what to
benchmark)

ii). Determining how the process is measured and what difficulties are being
experienced.

iii). Planning the benchmarking project and resource allocation.

iv). Finding the organization that do the function extremely well i.e. defining
benchmarking partners.

v). Collect data from benchmarking partner and Comparing one’s own
procedures with those whose data is collected.

vi). Making recommendation and implementing the ideas.

Levels of Benchmarking

There are three levels of benchmarking

i. Internal benchmarking (within the company)


ii. Competitive or strategic benchmarking (industry and competitors)
iii. Benchmarking outside the industry.

5. Transaction Data

Organizations have much data regarding transactions with their customers,


and they need to be conscious of the improvement opportunities presented by
these data. Information about frequency and volume of purchases by a
customer over time will possibly signal changes in the customer’s satisfaction
with products. Such patterns must be tracked and monitored.
TOOLS FOR PLANNING
1. Quality Function Deployment (QFD)

Quality Function Deployment was developed by Yoji Akao in Japan in 1966.


Yoji Akao’s definition of QFD is

“QFD is a method for developing a design quality aimed at satisfying the


consumer and then translating the consumer’s demands into design targets
and major QA points to be used throughout the production phase”.

Quality Function Deployment (QFD) also known as The House of Quality” is


one of the best devices created to tie product and services design decisions
directly to customer wants and needs. QFD is designed to deploy customers
input throughout the design, production, marketing and delievery stages of a
given product or service. In a typical QFD application, a cross functional team
creates and analyses a matrix linking customer wants and needs to a set of
product or service design metrics that the company can then measure and
control. This matrix is sometimes called The House of Quality, leading to the
close identification of the two similarly named tools.

The 3 main goals in implementing QFD are:


1. Prioritize spoken and unspoken customer wants and needs.
2. Translate these needs into technical characteristics and specifications.
3. Build and deliver a quality product or service by focusing everybody
toward customer
satisfaction.

Phases of QFD

Comprehensive QFD may involve four phases:

1. Phase 1 -Product Planning: Building the House of Quality, led by the


marketing department, translate customer requirement into product
technical requirements to meet them.
2. Phase 2 – Product Design: This phase 2 is led by the engineering
department, translate technical requirements to key part characteristics
or systems
3. Phase 3 – Process Planning: Process planning comes next and is led by
manufacturing engineering, identify key process operations necessary to
achieve key part characteristics.
4. Phase 4 – Production Planning (Process Control): establish process
control plans, maintenance plans, training plans to control operations.

Linking these phases provides a mechanism to deploy the customer voice


through to control of process operations.

The House of Quality

The first phase in the implementation of the Quality Function Deployment


process involves putting together a "House of Quality" also known as
production planning matrix or matrix diagram. Its an excellent quality planning
tool. It consist of six major building blocks.

 Customer requirements (WHAT’S)


 Technical requirements (HOW’S)
 Interrelationship matrix
 Technical correlation (roof) matrix
 Planning matrix
 Prioritized technical requirements
VOICE OF THE CUSTOMER- CUSTOMER REQUIREMENTS- WHAT’S

The steps involved in identifying customer requirements are as follows:


Identify customers
Determine customer requirements/constraints
Prioritize requirements
Put them in house of quality

VOICE OF THE ORGANIZATION- TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS- HOW’S

Once the WHAT’S have been finalized, the QFD team has to identify how
these requirements will be met.
HOW’S are the list of what the organization can measure and control in
order to ensure that it is able to satisfy the customers requirements.
They have to identify one or more technical requirements which satisfy the
customers.
Here again these can be organized as primary secondary or tertiary.
A tree diagram will help in this case.
INTER-RELATIONSHIP MATRIX BETWEEN WHAT’S AND HOW’S

The voice of the customer is arranged in rows and the voice of the
organization is arranged in columns.
Process or product characteristics are to be entered in the inter relationship
matrix.
There may be different level of relationship between each WHAT and HOW.

TECHNICAL CORRELATION MATRIX- inter relationships between HOW’S


Each technical requirement should be compared with every other
requirement.
Improving one may lead to
 Improvement in another
 Deterioration of another
The relationships between the HOW’S can be further classified as:
 Strong positive(++)
 Positive(+)
 Strong negative(--)
 Negative(-)

PLANNING MATRIX –CUSTOMER COMPETITIVE ASSESSMENT

Measurement of the current performance of one’s own products against


each requirements.
Also known as competitive bench marking.
It involves the following steps:
 Identify competitors
 Carry out reverse engineering of the competitors products
 Finalize common set of customer requirements through bench
marking
 Measure performance of competitors products or services against
the same customer requirements.
 Rate competitors products against the same.

PRIORITIZED TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS

This is below the inter relationship matrix.


Here the performance of ones own product is measured and that of the
same competitors and a trend is plotted.
Again 5 denotes the best performance and one worst.

BENEFITS OF QFD

 Reduces product development time up to 50%


 Design cycle time shortened by30% to 50%
 Startup and engineering costs reduce by 20% to 60%
 Reduce time to market.
 Focuses the organization on customer needs.
 Design quality improves.
 Reduction of quality costs.
 Enables concurrent engineering.
 Reduces rework.

2. Concurrent Engineering

A systematic approach to the integrated, concurrent design of products


and related processes, including manufacturing and support. This approach is
intended to cause the developers to consider all elements of the product life
cycle, from concept through delivery, including quality, cost, schedule and user
requirements.

Concurrent Engineering, also called parallel or simultaneous engineering,


is a new philosophy, viewed by most corporations as a means to competitive,
world class manufacturing. It strives to do the right job the first time. It results
from the synthesizing the two fundamental observations which are given
below:

1. The changes become more costly , and these changes are


incorporated in the project later.
2. Performing different steps of a project in parallel, would complete the
project more quickly than executing the steps sequentially, one after the
another.

Importance of Concurrent Engineering


The goal of Concurrent Engineering is the interactive work of different
disciplines that affect a product to make it better.

1. Minimize the product life cycle - eliminate the redesign


procedure.
2. Decrease production cost - results from the minimization of the
product life cycle.
3. Maximize product quality - By spending more time and money
initially in the design cycle and ensuring that the concept selection
is optimized, the company can increase the prospect of delivering
a quality product to the customer.
4. Team Work - Human Resources are working together for a
common product.

3. Seven New Management Tools

Affinity Diagram

This tool takes large amounts of disorganized data and information and enables
one to organize it into groupings based on natural relationships. It was created in
the 1960s by Japanese anthropologist Jiro Kawakita.
Interrelationship Diagraph

This tool displays all the interrelated cause-and-effect relationships and factors
involved in a complex problem and describes desired outcomes. The process of
creating an interrelationship diagraph helps a group analyze the natural links
between different aspects of a complex situation.

Tree Diagram

This tool is used to break down broad categories into finer and finer levels of
detail. It can map levels of details of tasks that are required to accomplish a goal
or task. It can be used to break down broad general subjects into finer and finer
levels of detail. Developing the tree diagram helps one move their thinking from
generalities to specifics.

Prioritization Matrix

This tool is used to prioritize items and describe them in terms of weighted
criteria. It uses a combination of tree and matrix diagramming techniques to do a
pair-wise evaluation of items and to narrow down options to the most desired or
most effective.
Matrix Diagram

This tool shows the relationship between items. At each intersection a


relationship is either absent or present. It then gives information about the
relationship, such as its strength, the roles played by various individuals or
measurements. Six differently shaped matrices are possible: L, T, Y, X, C, R and
roof-shaped, depending on how many groups must be compared.

Process Decision Program Chart (PDPC)

A useful way of planning is to break down tasks into a hierarchy, using a Tree
Diagram. The PDPC extends the tree diagram a couple of levels to identify risks
and countermeasures for the bottom level tasks. Different shaped boxes are used
to highlight risks and identify possible countermeasures (often shown as 'clouds'
to indicate their uncertain nature). The PDPC is similar to the Failure Modes and
Effects Analysis (FMEA) in that both identify risks, consequences of failure, and
contingency actions; the FMEA also rates relative risk levels for each potential
failure point.

Activity Network Diagram


This tool is used to plan the appropriate sequence or schedule for a set of tasks
and related subtasks. It is used when subtasks must occur in parallel. The diagram
enables one to determine the critical path (longest sequence of tasks).

TOOLS FOR CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT


1. Check Sheet

A check sheet is a table or a form used to systematically register data as it


is collected. Check sheets help organize data by category. They show how many
times each particular value occurs, and their information is increasingly helpful as
more data are collected. Main applications of a check sheet include registering
how often different problems occur and registering the frequency of incidents
that are believed to cause problems.
REASON WEEK I WEEK II WEEK III Total
Illness III II I 6
Vacation IIII IIII III 11
Family Reasons I II II 5
Total 8 8 6 22

2. Histogram

A histogram is a vertical bar chart representing a tabulation of data


arranged according to size. It is also known as frequency distribution. This
frequency distribution can take a number of shapes. A normal or bell
shaped curve indicates that most of the data collected are centered on an
average value. A skewed or off-center shape indicates that most data are not
centered on an average value.
3. Pareto Chart

It is also known as the 80/20 rule, which states that 80% of all problem
occurrences are due to only 20% of the types of problems encountered.
Another variant of this rule states that for any problem, 80% of its
occurrences are due to only 20% of all the causes.

The Pareto Chart is basically a descending bar graph that shows the
frequencies of occurrences or relative sizes of either: 1) the various
categories of all problems encountered, in order to determine which of the
existing problems occur most frequently; or 2) the various causes of a
particular problem, in order to determine which of the causes of a
particular problem arise most frequently. The problem categories or causes are
shown on the x-axis of the bar graph.

4. Cause and Effect Diagram (Fishbone or Ishikawa diagram)

The cause and effect diagram consist of a long horizontal arrow with a
description of problem. Causes of the problem are depicted as radial lines
from this arrow. Causes for the “causes” are then depicted as horizontal lines
from the radial lines. Additional “causes for the causes” are depicted as
additional radial lines and so forth. The completed diagram looks like a
skeleton and so is also referred to as fishbone diagram.
5. Scatter Diagram

The Scatter Diagram is a tool for determining the potential correlation


between two different sets of variables, i.e., how one variable changes with the
other variable. This diagram simply plots pairs of corresponding data from two
variables, which are usually two variables in a process being studied. The
scatter diagram does not determine the exact relationship between the two
variables, but it does indicate whether they are correlated or not. It, by itself,
also does not predict cause and effect relationships between these variables.
The scatter diagram is used to: 1) quickly confirm a hypothesis that two
variables are correlated; 2) provide a graphical representation of the
strength of the relationship between two variables; and 3) serve as a follow-up
step to a cause-effect analysis to establish whether a change in an identified
cause can indeed produce a change in its identified effect.

Figure. A Scatter Diagram showing no correlation

6. Control Chart

A control chart shows the variability of a process by plotting sample


measurements of a key characteristic of the product (such as diameter of a
shaft) over time. A control chart includes a central line representing the
average value, and lines representing upper and lower limits. A
manufacturing process is considered under control if the recorded readings
are within the upper and lower control limits on the chart.

7. Flow Chart

A flow chart is a picture or map of a process, showing the steps in


sequence for completion of a operation. Drawing a flow chart is often a useful
tool to assist team members in understanding their role in operation. Using
well developed symbols and tools, a flow chart can depict key relationship,
decision points, resources and responsibilities of members and can play a
powerful role in understanding, communication and diagnosis of problems.
The P.D.C.A Cycle
A fundamental element of total quality management is continuous improvement,
particularly as applied to people, product, processes, services and all related
learning. A quality tool that embodies this concept is the Shewart Cycle Learning
and improvement commonly known as P.D.C.A cycle. Shewart was a prominent
statistician who is considered by many as the “father” of quality control.

The original Shewart Cycle consists of a simple circle or wheel divided into four
quadrants: one for each of Plan, Do, Check and Act. This a way to achieve the
outcomes you desire through a increased quality awareness. The complete cycle
can be used to determine the detail of each quadrant. It is a virtual, never ending
process and is key to achieving transformation.

PLAN: Design or revise business process components to improve results.


what we are going to do. In this step we assess where we are, where we
need to be, why this is important, and plan how to close the gap. Identify
some potential solutions.
DO: Implement the plan and measure its performance on a small scale i.e.
test the solutions.
CHECK/STUDY: Assess the results and report to decision makers.
ACT: Decide on changes needed to improve the process.
Use of the P.D.C/S.A cycle by quality people will simulate learning and continuous
improvement of techniques, processes, services and systems. The decisions and
judgments we make must be supported by facts.

BENEFITS OF P.D.C.A Cycle:

daily routine management-for the individual and/or the team,


problem-solving process,
project management,
continuous development,
vendor development,
human resources development,
new product development, and
process trials

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