Lighting and the Perception of Safety

Natalie Bell

This article is an abridged version of Natalie Bells Masters thesis in architectural lighting design
from the Kungliga Tekniska Hogskolan in Stockholm. Natalie won the Worshipful Company of
Lightmongers award for the best presented paper at the Young Lighters Award 2009 with this
work. The article, published in the Lighting Journal (June 2009), won the Best Published Article
Award 2008-09 from the ILE.
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Summary

This paper concentrates on the human aspects of lighting and safety, initially covering issues such as
lighting, perception and the ageing eye and recent findings on the psychology of public perception of
safety. Informed by this work, the next section of the paper analyses the issue of lighting and safety. This is
done in two main ways firstly, through a detailed Light & Humans questionnaire on the perception of
lighting, crime and the local night-time environment, which was completed by 85 male and female
subjects in different age groups.

Secondly, the study undertook field studies of the lighting, usage and night-time perception of two urban
park areas in Edinburgh with a negative reputation in terms of lighting and crime. These were
supplemented by analysis of two current urban redevelopment projects, with site interviews of key
participants.

The purpose of this study is to conclude whether a concise lighting design can impact on peoples safety
and whether a specific formula of urban development and lighting can be defined which could create
safer environments.

Research Background

The issue of age-related changes that affect the eye is particularly important in terms of night-time
perception and feelings of security. During the human life span, the eye ages and the quality of vision
deteriorates. The most obvious change is the reduction in pupil size and loss of focusing capacity, known
as presbyopia, the diminishing ability to focus on close objects typically its onset is encountered
between the ages of 40 and 50.

Presbyopia is also associated with a reduction in the amount of light reaching the retina, which in turn
means they need much more light than younger people to access the same visual information. This fact
could cause apprehension and reduction in reaction times, allowing for the ageing generation to be
targets of crime. The reduction of sight will therefore lead to changed patterns of behavior - in particular
these are related to the diminished speed of adaption from light to darkness, which can cause
uncertainty about the surrounding environment. This is one main reason why the issue of safety and
security is so important to the elderly.

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1. Light & Humans Questionnaire

The questionnaire included 14 questions, which concentrated on such things as the age and visual acuity
of the respondents, time spent outside at night, differences in night-time behavior from summer to
winter, feelings of threat and security, plus general questions on the nature of the local area. A total of 85
respondents were interviewed on the streets of Edinburgh and Aberdeen (plus some email responses);
these included 51 females and 27 males, while seven preferred not to offer their gender (fig. 1). There
was a greater willingness to be interviewed amongst the younger age groups of 24-35 and 35-50.

Figure 1: Questionnaire respondents, by age and gender

Summary of the Main Results

58% of adults questioned in the age group 35-50 wear prescription glasses.
Out of 13 people between 50 and 70, 77% wore prescription glasses.
However, when it came to the assessment of their local area and its lighting, the 35-50 group
was most unhappy about the area they lived in.
Surprisingly, perhaps, the 18-24 age group - particularly women - is the most likely to lock their
doors when they are at home.
One missing question that might have been useful would have been whether they live on their
own. It is quite likely that people are more likely to lock the door of their home if they live alone.
The same group - again with a bias towards women - also felt most at threat in their area and
had the biggest problem with artificial lighting levels, which they felt were inadequate. This could
be due to the fact that this age group is the most active outdoors on winter evenings - and
therefore also witnesses the most crime.
This finding contradicts the stereotype that the older population feels most threatened by the
outdoor night-time environment.
However, as the 50-70 age group are out and about at night much less, both in summer and
winter, they have much greater feelings of inclusion and safety.
The overall results pointed to the fact that lighting, including daylight, has a powerful impact on
peoples perception of safety. The shift to dark evenings seemed to affect the behavior of the
younger age groups the most, as their night-time outdoor activities are curtailed, whereas older
generations are not so hindered by dark evenings, as they are not likely to be outdoors at night
in any case.

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2.
Field Studies

This section of the paper looked at real life situations relating to lighting and crime, through the
observation and analysis of two park areas in Edinburgh, Scotland - Leith Links and the Meadows. The
studies examined the type and age of night-time users of these areas, the light levels, the routes that
people took through the parks and the overall safety of the environment. One park is in a relatively high-
income area, the other in a poorer community, but both parks are located beside housing estates and are
illuminated using conventional column-mounted lanterns.

2.1
Leith Links

Figure 2 below details an aerial view of Leith Links park, which covers some 29.2 hectares (outlined in
red and cyan). The study area concentrated on a 15.1 hectare sub-section of the park (outlined in cyan),
with a number of cross-routes, mainly used by local people as a network to the local amenities (fig. 3).

Figure 2: aerial view of Leith Links

The surrounding area comprises semi-derelict industrial areas to the north-east, traditional terraced flats
to the north-west and guest hotels and residential properties to the south-east and west. Leith was
historically a busy industrial and port town, but decades of economic decline gave Leith a reputation as
Edinburghs slum area. It was not until the early years of this decade that Leiths redevelopment of the
docks and shore area got under way. Today Leith is seen as one of Edinburghs up and coming areas, with
the addition of a recent shopping mall and cinema complex and the promise of a new supermarket.
Leith housing is generally sought after, but there is still a high level of crime and poverty in the area which
undermines this positive image. This clash of cultures - bars and restaurants along the shoreline and
deprived housing estates inland - creates an uncertain feeling of safety in the area. The park itself is still
renowned as a meeting place for prostitutes and alcoholics in the evening, which reflects badly on the
overall perception of the area.

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Figure 3: Leith Links survey area

The park was surveyed at five different times - 17.30, 18.30, 19.00, 20.00 and 22.00 - in the late
afternoon and evening on four different days in August, September and November 2008, in order to
cater for a realistic cross section of the age groups and types of pedestrian using the park. The survey
concentrated on numbers, ages and gender of users, plus the light levels, both natural and artificial, and
the general atmosphere they created.

All the light columns in the Links have high pressure sodium lamps, offering fairly poor colour rendering
and average light levels on the main paths at five lux. A summary of the age cross-section of users, the
numbers of users and the light levels at different times of the evening, can be seen in figure 4 and table 1.

Figure 4: Leith Links respondents

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Table 1: Leith Links analysis

2.2
The Meadows

The Meadows park has a total area of 43.6 hectares; the designated study area within it measures 31.2
hectares. In figure 5, the cyan outline represents the area of discussion, whereas the area with the red
outline added to the cyan totals the overall park area. The Meadows was originally a small loch, supplying
Edinburgh with water, which was later drained and used for exhibitions. After World War 2, it became a
public park, which can be easily accessed from two of the citys most popular streets, lined with bars,
restaurants and shops. The park is also close to many Edinburgh University sites and its surrounding
housing consists of historic town houses and large tenement flats. The community is a mix of young
professionals, students, professionals and elderly who have lived in the area for most of their lives. Local
perception is that the area surrounding the Meadows, called Marchmont, is one of the most affluent
areas of Edinburgh.

Figure 5: aerial view of the Meadows

The park is used as a local pedestrian thoroughfare from Marchmont to the city centre. The main times
for this traffic are from 09.00-10.00, then in the evening from 17.30-22.00. This varies at the weekend,

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with some early morning students returning from the local night life. The study concentrated on peak
pedestrian traffic times, from 17.30-22.00 Monday to Friday. The analysis also included comparisons
between summer and winter evenings.

Figure 6: The Meadows survey area

The lighting in the Meadows is more varied - white metal halide is used on the main pathways, offering
an adequate level of light and high level of colour rendition. On the secondary pathways, high pressure
sodium is used. Although the secondary paths appear poorly lit in comparison to the main path they are
actually lit to a higher lux level, but colour rendition here is poor. All pedestrians tended to use the
central walkway after dark and the secondary paths were only used by joggers. On average, lighting
columns are located at either side of the paths at 25.5 metre spacings. A summary of the age cross-
section of users, the numbers of users and the light levels at different times of the evening, can be seen in
figure 7 and table 2.

Figure 7: the Meadows respondents

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Table 2: the Meadows analysis

2.3
Comparative Perceptions of Crime

The survey below (fig. 8) details perceptions of the rise of crime in Edinburgh from 2005-2006. Leith is
perceived to have a net increase of 14 percent. The perceived crime is important to analyse as this
represents the overall contentment of the locals. It has been proven that if the locals feel proud and safe
in their area, they are more likely to take care of it and the people it contains.

Figure 8: Public perception of Edinburgh and district crime rates, 2005-2006

[www.saferedinburgh.org.uk/Publications/2006%20Community%20Safety%20Final%20Report.pdf]

Figure 9 details the types and seriousness of crime in specific areas of Edinburgh. The results include core
crime percentages which relate to crime genre specific to the area. In Leith core crime would include
petty crime, theft and prostitution.

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Figure 9: Edinburgh and district policing time analysis, 2005-2006

[www.saferedinburgh.org.uk/Publications/2006%20Community%20Safety%20Final%20Report.pdf]

Although the area surrounding the Meadows park is a highly sought-after area to live, residents feel that
crime levels are rising. The Edinburgh Community Safety Survey includes statistics from the south of the
city, including the area of Marchmont and the Meadows.

Figure 8 above details the perceptions of crime in Edinburgh from 2005 to 2006. Local residents of the
Meadows feel that crime has risen by 25% during that period. Only 7% of locals feel that crime levels
have decreased. In general, residents of 35+ believe that the crime levels have risen significantly;
under-35s feel that crime has decreased or remained the same.

2.4
Conclusions from Park Studies

The findings from the park studies are important and show that public perception of an area is not
necessarily based on fact. In Edinburgh perceptions of crime levels, such as anti-social behaviour, in Leith
are much higher than those of the Meadows. However only 52% of the Leith residents believe anti-social
behaviour to be a problem, whereas 60% of the Meadows residents see anti-social behaviour as an
issue. Similarly, only 21% of Leiths population believe that the crime rate is rising, whereas 25% of the
Meadows residents think crime levels have risen. This could be due to the community involvement in
Leith being much higher than the Meadows. Leith locals are aware of the changes taking place in the
community, and that, although it can still be a dangerous place to live, it is improving.

In terms of lighting in the Links, the lighting could certainly be updated to ceramic metal halide lamps on
the main pathways, which could help the visual perception of the area and allow residents to distinguish
the details of vandals and therefore increase informal surveillance. Interestingly, due to the difference in
scale of the two parks, the Meadows feels much darker, due to the large open spaces which are left

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unlit. However, its lighting seems to help feelings of safety, by focusing high quality CMH lighting down the
main walkway. The high colour rendition encourages people to walk in this area which in turn helps to
create feelings of safety.

3. Urban Regeneration and Lighting

The next section of the study looked at two significant urban projects and the role played by lighting in
their success. [The original paper also included a study of the regeneration of The Green in Castleford,
Yorkshire].

3.1
Liverpool One

A recent example of a positive redevelopment scheme is the Liverpool One Development. For the first
time in the UKs design history, there was a close correlation between the lighting of buildings; an
improved perception of public safety and benefit to night time economy-encouraging people to use the
city more in the hours of darkness [http://www.liverpsda.co.uk (26.08.2008)]. This project was deemed
a success due to a well established design team, including four very reputable lighting design offices and
Liverpool Citys own lighting engineers.

The project aimed to integrate urban renewal and public realm design. The design highlights key
architectural gems throughout the centre of Liverpool, allowing locals to feel proud of their city, thus
restoring hope for less vandalism. The Liverpool One Project started in 2000 with the aim of creating a
significant drop in crime figures by 2008. The initiative along with Merseyside Police Department, which
involved the communities in regeneration and crime prevention initiatives, has had an impact on the
overall reported crime figures, as can be seen from fig. 10.

Figure 10: Total crime rates, 2005-06 and 2006-07, Merseyside Police Department

[http://www.merseysidepolice.info/webfigures/Index.htm]

The Liverpool One Development concentrated on a relatively unused area of the city, which links the
historical Albert Dock to the city centre. The new development comprises hotels, retail outlets, leisure
facilities and the conservation of many of the areas historic buildings. The overall aim of the project was
to change the image of the city through careful planning and regeneration.

The masterplan for the area was completed in September 2000 by developer Grosvenor in conjunction
with Liverpool City Council. The masterplan provided a link between the city centre and the waterfront,
allowing for a mix of cultures and uses to meet harmoniously, creating a celebration of Liverpools past
connection with the water. The plan has allowed access from Liverpools town centre down to the

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waterfront, once again providing this area with a purpose. The water front itself has now been developed
to include pavilions, cafes and restaurants all with a view of the water. The lighting masterplan was closely
co-ordinated with the design teams aspirations for the area. The lighting brief was to spread over 30 sites
in the five quarters shown in fig. 11.

Figure 11: Liverpool lighting masterplan quarters

The main hurdle for the lighting designers was to link the newly developed area with the existing lighting
schemes. The lighting design aimed to highlight key locations and key routes. However the design had to
evaluate the area as a whole. The lighting concept aimed to encourage human reaction and movement -
encouraging the flow of pedestrian traffic towards areas of special interest. Using varying colour
temperatures to differentiate and locate users, the lighting design was established using two types of
lighting: feature lighting which was used for adding aesthetic qualities to urban spaces; and operational
lighting, which provides general lighting to the area. The map below provides a visual reference to the
main theme of the lighting design concentrating on colour temperature.

Figure 12: Liverpool Lighting Masterplan colour temperatures

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Factors in Success
The main features of the design process which led to its success are:

the involvement of the local police department, to determine crime patterns and vulnerable
areas;
the involvement of the local council, to ensure that designs can be sustained and maintained;
the involvement of local people and their opinions and concerns about the designs;
the inclusion of specific cultural and historical elements related to the locations involved.

The overall success of the project has been described by BDP lighting principal Martin Lupton, as
designing to scale, describing that the only scale that we should be interested in is human scale. BDPs
overall concept was to design for the user, including the local community and the tourist. The lighting
adds interest to the area, highlighting key areas and routes of pedestrian traffic.

The overall success of Liverpool One as a safe combination of lighting and development was primarily
achieved through involving users in the design process from the beginning. Ensuring that the lighting was
integrated into the design at the early stages of the masterplan has helped the overall effectiveness of
the scheme. The main theme for safety has been to encourage people into specific spaces, on the
assumption that there is safety in numbers. It cannot be overlooked that the development also
encompasses high levels of security, including CCTV, security guards and street security surveillance
through people monitors and police - all of which will add to feelings of safety.

It is interesting to note that the lamp choice in Liverpool One is a combination of metal halide and high
pressure sodium which is identical to that of the Meadows in Edinburgh, where metal halide was used
on the main paths and high pressure sodium utilised on the smaller less used areas. This is a simple but
effective method of leading members of the public to more desirable areas with high colour rendition
lamps. The conclusion is that in urban design the lamp choice seems more important than the fitting
choice.

Figure 13: Metal halide street lighting at a

Figure 14: Feature lighting at a retail area
pedestrianised zone

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4. Conclusions

The research has helped to clarify findings in relation to lighting and the perception of safety. The topic is
complex and this study included research into human perception, behavioural patterns and
redevelopment case studies. This section will summarise the results and discuss the overall findings.

1. Firstly, human age and visual capabilities proved to be an important topic in relation to safety.
2. The questionnaire results related directly to the usage of the park areas in the specific park case
studies. The main age groups seen in the park areas are the same age groups that feel most at risk in
their community and perceive existing lighting levels to be the least sufficient. Questionnaires
showed that 18-24 year old age group seem to spend most time outdoors during all seasons.
3. These findings underline the observational park studies. For example, the 50+ age group are rarely
seen in the park studies and in the questionnaire, they felt safe and stated that the lighting in their
area is sufficient.
4. The park case studies proved that the 50+ population does not make significant use of the areas
after 17.30. Because this age group does not go out much during the dark evenings, they are
therefore not the most vulnerable - something which contradicts the stereotype.
5. People who did go out at night complained of poor lighting levels. In actual fact, the study areas were
lit to adequate lighting levels, but the poor quality of light led people to experience the spaces as
dark and unwelcoming.
6. The Meadows in Edinburgh offered an interesting example of lighting, as the main walkway is lit with
high quality ceramic metal halide, providing good colour rendition. However, the small paths are lit
using high pressure sodium and it became apparent that people do not use these during the hours
of darkness. The fact that sodium lighting deters pedestrians from walking on the smaller more
secluded, dangerous areas could be an advantage in actually reducing crime.
7. The questionnaire showed that people, and especially the elderly, have a strong perception of crime
in their area. This was confirmed by the park studies, where people perceived Leith to be more
dangerous than the crime statistics proved.
8. The Liverpool One case study has led to some interesting findings, encouraging the use of ceramic
metal halide lamps to create good colour rendition in the area. Lighting was designed to act as a map
for new visitors and the existing community, to encourage activities and pedestrians into the safer
routes. Whilst in the space this concept seemed successful due to the large number of pedestrians in
the same area, however the more secluded streets which were not redeveloped with new lighting
and retail had a very different secluded atmosphere. The only issue with the redevelopment of the
Liverpool One project, is that it highly depends on the visiting population rather than the locals. This
in turn could cause problems in the future with community care and maintenance.

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5. Design Process Guidelines

Design for safety in any regeneration project needs to be centred on the residents who live there.
Involvement of local communities has been proven to reduce levels of vandalism and crime. It is
imperative for the community and lighting designer to have personal involvement in the design process
and the people in the area need to have a personal attachment to the design.

The key features of the design process can be summarised as follows:

1. Design for the community and not for designs sake.

2. Research the area, in relation to its crime statistics and local perceptions.
3. Discuss the design with the community, find out what they need and want for their area.
4. Monitor the design after completion to ensure effectiveness.
5. Do not only rely on design alone to provide a safer environment. If needed, suggest security measures
which can aid the design.

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